Campbell Biology

Cell Structure
& Function

Jiaoying Yu
The Cell Theory

All organisms are made of cells.

The cell is the simplest collection of matter that can be alive.
Cell structure is correlated to cellular function.
All cells are related by their descent from earlier cells.
Light Microscope
In a light microscope (LM),
visible light is passed
through a specimen and
then through glass lenses.
Lenses refract (bend) the
light, so that the image is
magnified.
3 important Parameters of Microscopy

Magnification, the ratio of an object’s image size to its real

size (LM max 1000X vs. EM 100,000X )
Contrast, visible differences in parts of the sample
Resolution, the minimum distance of two distinguishable
points (LM 200nm vs. EM 2nm )
*Resolution is limited by the shortest wavelength of the radiation
used for imaging
Cell Size
Typical prokaryotic cells range from 0.1 to 5.0 micrometers (μm) in
diameter.
Eukaryotic cells usually have diameters ranging from 10 to 100 μm.
Electron Microscopes (EMs)
Two basic types of EMs are used to study
subcellular structures.
Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) focus
a beam of electrons onto the surface of a
specimen.
Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs)
are used mainly to study the internal
structure of cells.
Fluorescence
Label the molecules with
fluorescent dyes, which
absorb ultraviolet radiation
and emit visible light.
GFP (Green Fluorescent Protein)
Makes for an excellent tool in
biology due to its ability to form
internal chromophore without
requiring any cofactors or
enzymes/substrates.
Can be used in living cells or
organisms.
Two types of cells: Prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic cells.
Only the single-celled organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea
are classified as prokaryotic cells.
Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of eukaryotic cells.
Classification of living organisms
Common features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Plasma membrane: an outer covering that separates the cell’s interior from
its surrounding environment
Cytoplasm: the jelly-like cytosol inside the cell, plus the cellular structures
suspended in it
Chromosomes: genetic material carrying DNA
Ribosomes: molecular machines that synthesize proteins
Prokaryotic cells are characterized by having
No nucleus
DNA in an unbound region called the
nucleoid
No membrane-bund organelles
Cytoplasm bound by the plasma
membrane
Most have the cell wall
Some have capsule
Some have flagellum
Eukaryotic cells are characterized by having

DNA in a nucleus that is bounded

by a membranous nuclear
envelope
Membrane-bund organelles
Cytoplasm in the region between
the plasma membrane and
nucleus
Plasma Membrane
Plasma Membrane
Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have a plasma membrane, a double
layer of lipids that separates the cell interior from the outside environment.
This double layer consists largely of specialized lipids called phospholipids.
A membrane is a fluid structure with a "mosaic" of various proteins
embedded in it.
The surface area of the plasma membrane limits the exchange of materials
between a cell and its environment.
Surface area to volume ratio (SA/V)

Metabolic requirements set upper limits on the size of cells.

The surface area to volume ratio of a cell is critical (sufficient
material exchange).
As a cell increases in size, its volume increases much faster
than its surface area.
Small cells have a greater surface area relative to volume.
Increasing SA/V Ratio
A eukaryotic cell has internal membranes that partition the cell into
organelles.
Plant and animal cells have most of the same organelles.
what are the differences?
The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed
in the nucleus and carried out by the ribosomes

The nucleus contains most of the DNA in a eukaryotic cell

Ribosomes use the information from the DNA to make proteins
The nuclear envelop encloses the nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm
The nuclear envelop is a double membrane; each membrane consists of a
lipid bilayer
Pores regulate the entry and exit of molecules from the nucleus
The shape of the nucleus is maintained by the nuclear lamina, a network of
protein filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus
Nucleus and its envelope
In the nucleus, DNA is organized into discrete units called
chromosomes
Each chromosome is composed of a single DNA molecule associated
with proteins
The DNA and proteins of chromosomes are together called chromatin
Chromatin condenses to form discrete chromosomes as a cell
prepares to divide
The nucleolus is a densely stained region located within the nucleus
and is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis and ribosome
assembly
Ribosomes: Protein Factories

Ribosomes are particles made of

ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein
Ribosomes carry out protein
synthesis in two locations
– In the cytosol (free ribosomes)
– On the outside of the endoplasmic
reticulum or the nuclear envelope
(bound ribosomes)
The Endomembrane System
Components of the endomembrane
system
– Nuclear envelope
– Endoplasmic reticulum
– Golgi apparatus
– Lysosomes
– Vacuoles
– Plasma membrane
• These components are either
continuous or connected via transfer
by vesicles
Endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for more than half of the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells
The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope
There are two distinct regions of ER
– Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes
– Rough ER, surface is studded with ribosomes
Functions of Smooth ER Functions of Rough ER

– Synthesizes lipids – Has bound ribosomes, the new

polypeptide chains enter the ER
– Metabolizes lumen and are modified, like
carbohydrates covalently attached to carbohydrates.
– Detoxifies drugs and These proteins are usually
secretory or membrane proteins.
poisons – Distributes transport vesicles,
– Stores calcium ions proteins surrounded by membranes
– Is a membrane factory for the cell
The Golgi apparatus
The Golgi apparatus consists
of flattened membranous sacs
called cisternae
Functions of the Golgi
apparatus
– Modifies products of the ER
– Manufactures certain
macromolecules
– Sorts and packages materials
into transport vesicles
 Various Golgi enzymes modify the carbohydrate portions of glycoproteins.
-- Carbohydrates are first added to proteins in rough ER.
-- The carbohydrate on the resulting glycoprotein is modified as it passes through
the rest of the ER and the Golgi.
-- The Golgi removes some sugar monomers and substitutes others, producing a
large variety of carbohydrates.
ABO blood type system
Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments

A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that can digest

macromolecules
Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids
Lysosomal enzymes work best in the acidic environment inside the lysosome
Some types of cell can engulf another cell by phagocytosis; this forms a food
vacuole
A lysosome fuses with the food vacuole and digests the molecules
Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the cell’s own organelles and
macromolecules, a process called autophagy
Vacuoles
A plant cell or fungal cell may have one or
several vacuoles, derived from endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi apparatus
Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis
Contractile vacuoles, found in many
freshwater protists, pump excess water out of
cells
Central vacuoles, found in many mature
plant cells, hold organic compounds and
water
Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from
one form to another
Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, a metabolic process
that uses oxygen to generate ATP
Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis
The Evolutionary Origins of Mitochondria and
Chloroplasts
Mitochondria and chloroplasts have similarities with bacteria
– Enveloped by a double membrane
– Contain free ribosomes and circular DNA molecules
– Grow and reproduce somewhat independently in cells
Endosymbiont Theory
– An early ancestor of eukaryotic
cells engulfed a nonphotosynthetic
prokaryotic cell, which formed an
endosymbiont relationship with its
host
– The host cell and endosymbiont
merged into a single organism, a
eukaryotic cell with a mitochondrion
– At least one of these cells may have
taken up a photosynthetic
prokaryote, becoming the ancestor of
cells that contain chloroplasts
Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion
Mitochondria have a smooth outer
membrane and an inner membrane
folded into cristae
The inner membrane creates two
compartments: intermembrane space
and mitochondrial matrix
Some metabolic steps of cellular
respiration are catalyzed in the matrix
Cristae present a large surface area for
enzymes that synthesize ATP
Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy
Chloroplasts contain the green
pigment chlorophyll, as well as
enzymes and other molecules
that function in photosynthesis
Chloroplasts are found in leaves
and other green organs of plants
and in algae
Chloroplast structure includes
– Thylakoids, membranous sacs,
stacked to form a granum
– Stroma, the internal fluid
Peroxisomes: Oxidation

Peroxisomes are specialized metabolic compartments bounded by a

single membrane
Peroxisomes contain enzymes that transfer hydrogen from various
substrates to oxygen
Peroxisomes produce hydrogen peroxide (toxic) and convert it to water
Peroxisomes perform reactions with many different functions
How peroxisomes are related to other organelles is still unknown
Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers
extending throughout the cytoplasm
It organizes the cell’s structures and
activities, anchoring many organelles
Three main types of fibers make up the
cytoskeleton
– Microfilaments, also called actin
filaments, are the thinnest
components
– Intermediate filaments are fibers
with diameters in a middle range
– Microtubules are the thickest of the
three components
Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)
Structure: Two intertwined strands of actin,
each a polymer of actin subunits
Diameter:
Protein subunits: Actin
Main Function:
Intermediate Filaments
Structure: Fibrous proteins supercoiled into
thicker cables
Diameter:
Protein subunits: One of several different
proteins such as keratins, depending on the
cell type
Main Function:
Microtubules (Tubulin Polymers)
Structure: Hollow tubes; wall consists of 13 columns of tubulin molecules
Diameter:
Protein subunits: Tubulin, a dimer consisting of alpha tubulin and beta tubulin
Main Function:
Microtubules
Microtubules are hollow rods about 25 nm in diameter and about 200
nm to 25 microns long
Functions of microtubules
– Shaping the cell
– Guiding movement of organelles
– Separating chromosomes during cell division
– Locomotion of the cell (cilia and flagella)
Microtubule
interacts with
motor proteins
to produce
motility
Centrosomes and Centrioles

In many cells, microtubules

grow out from a centrosome
near the nucleus
The centrosome is a
“microtubuleorganizing center”
In animal cells, the centrosome
has a pair of centrioles, each
with nine triplets of
microtubules arranged in a ring
Microtubules separate chromosomes during cell division.
Cilia and Flagella

Microtubules control the beating of cilia and flagella, locomotor appendages

of some cells
Cilia and flagella share a common structure
– A core of microtubules sheathed by the plasma membrane
– A basal body that anchors the cilium or flagellum
– A motor protein called dynein, which drives the bending movements of a
cilium or flagellum
Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)

Microfilaments are solid rods about 7nm in diameter, built as a twisted

double chain of actin subunits
The structural role of microfilaments is to bear tension, resisting pulling
forces within the cell
They form a 3-D network called the cortex just inside the plasma membrane
to help support the cell’s shape
Bundles of microfilaments make up the core of microvilli of intestinal cells
Actin functions in
muscle contraction
together with the
protein myosin
In muscle cells,
thousands of actin
filaments are
arranged parallel to
one another
Thicker filaments
composed of myosin
interdigitate with the
thinner actin fibers
Localized contraction
brought about by
actin and myosin also
drives amoeboid
movement
Pseudopodia
(cellular extensions)
extend and contract
through the reversible
assembly and
contraction of actin
subunits into
microfilaments
Extracellular Component

Extracellular components and connections between cells help coordinate

cellular activities
Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that are external to the
plasma membrane
These extracellular structures include
– Cell walls of plants
– The extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells
– Intercellular junctions
Cell Walls of Plants
The cell wall is an extracellular structure that distinguishes plant cells from
animal cells
Prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists also have cell walls
The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, and prevents
excessive uptake of water
Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers embedded in other polysaccharides
and protein
Cell Wall
Plant cell walls may have multiple
layers
– Primary cell wall: relatively thin
and flexible
– Secondary cell wall (in some cells):
added between the plasma membrane
and the primary cell wall
Plasmodesmata are channels
between adjacent plant cells
Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells
Animal cells lack cell walls but
are covered by an elaborate
extracellular matrix (ECM)
The ECM is made up of
glycoproteins such as
collagen, proteoglycans, and
fibronectin
ECM proteins bind to receptor
proteins in the plasma
membrane called integrins
Cell Junction
Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ systems often adhere,
interact, and communicate through direct physical contact
Intercellular junctions facilitate this contact
There are several types of intercellular junctions
– Plasmodesmata
– Tight junctions
– Desmosomes
– Gap junctions
Plasmodesmata in Plant Cells
Plasmodesmata are channels that perforate plant cell walls
Through plasmodesmata, water and small solutes (and sometimes proteins
and RNA) can pass from cell to cell
Tight Junctions, Desmosomes, and Gap Junctions in Animal Cells
At tight junctions, membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing
leakage of extracellular fluid
Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) fasten cells together into
strong sheets.
Gap junctions (communicating junctions) provide cytoplasmic
channels between adjacent cells.