CHUKWUEMEKA ODUMEGWU OJUKWU

UNIVERSITY ULI

e
AN

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING TECHNICAL REPORT ON STUDENT

INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)

CHE 40

UNDERTAKEN AT

JUHEL NIGERIA LIMITED AWKA, ANAMBRA STATE,

NIGERIA

PRESENTED BY

OKPALIKE IGNATIUS CHIBUIKE

2019 095 035

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B.ENG)

OCTOBER 2023
 DEDICATION
I sincerely dedicate this report to god almighty and my family especially my
parents (Mr&Mrs Anthony okpalike), for their massive support.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My profound gratitude goes to God almighty for his infinite mercy, blessings,
wisdom, knowledge and understanding as well as his loving kindness which he
bestowed upon me. I greatly express my gratitude to my lecturers in the
department of chemical engineering, chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu
university uli, and my head of department (ENGR DR ezeugo) for his advice to
me.

A special thanks to my parents and siblings. I am super proud of them for their
unrelented effort, guidance and counseling.

My special gratitude to the Director Sir/ Dr. Ifeanyi Okoye, and his Special
Adviser Mr ikenna mbonu, for their advice during the course of my training.

I will not forget to acknowledge the Quality control manager Mr. Ezugwu
Afamefuna John, the Quality Assurance officer Anunike Uchenna, the Lab
analyst Oguagha Ifeoma for taking their time to ensure that my industrial
training in Juhel nigeria limited was smooth and fruitful. I also want to express
my profound gratitude to my collegues that I worked with, who provided a
conducive environment for the exercise.

Finally, huge thanks to those who contributed in one way or the other to make
my industrial training a success, that god in his infinite goodness and mercies
guide and grant them their heart desire.
 ABSTRACT
This report summarizes my experience in Juhel Nigeria Limited during my
industrial training program. This report is divided into chapters, it contains the
company’s profile, Organogram, safety rules, duties of various departments I
worked with, especially the quality control department which was my primary
duty station.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHUKWUEMEKA ODUMEGWU OJUKWU UNIVERSITY ULI....................................................i
e..............................................................................................................................................................i
CERTIFICATION......................................................................................................................................ii
DEDICATION..........................................................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...........................................................................................................................iv
ABSTRACT..............................................................................................................................................v
TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................................................vi
INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................................1
BRIEF HISTORY OF SIWES...................................................................................................................1
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES......................................................................................................1
BRIEF HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FUND (ITF).......................................................................2
CHAPTER ONE........................................................................................................................................3
BRIEF HISTORY OF THE COMPANY.........................................................................................................3
PHARMACEUTICALS...........................................................................................................................3
Types of Pharmaceuticals......................................................................................................................3
PARENTERALS....................................................................................................................................4
LIST OF PRODUCTS MANUFACTURED BY JUHEL PARENTERAL FACTORY, AWKA...................................5
VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS WITHIN THE COMPANY.................................................................................6
COMPANY ORGANOGRAM................................................................................................................7
PROCESSES CARRIED OUT AT JUHEL PARENTERALS..........................................................................8
MANUFACTURING PROCESS..................................................................................................................8
MANUFACTURING PROCESS FLOW CHART..........................................................................................11
QUALITY MANAGEMENT.....................................................................................................................12
Steps for Finished Product Release.....................................................................................................13
CHAPTER TWO.................................................................................................................................14
WATER TREATMENT........................................................................................................................14
MULTI GRADE SAND FILTRATION…………………………………………………………………………………………………….16

WATER SOFTENING………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...18

PRINCIPLE ION EXCHANGE UNIT COMPONENT………………………………………………………………………………18

ION EXCHANGE UNIT COMPONENT…………………………………………………………………………………………………18

REGENERATION OF WATER SOFTENING ION EXCHANGE RESIN……………………………………………………….19

EFFECTS OF HARD WATER ON PIPES AND MACHINES………………………………………………………………………21

CHAPTER THREE

REVERSE OSMOSIS………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…23

MECHANISM OF REVERSE OSMOSIS………………………………………………………………………………………………..24

BASIC COMPONENTS OF REVERSE OSMOSIS……………………………………………………………………………………25

ION EXCHANGE MECHANISM…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..26

REGENERATION OF ION EXCHANGE RESIN……………………………………………………………………………………….27

ACID APPLICATION TO CATION RESIN………………………………………………………………………………………………28

PURE STEAM GENERATOR………………………………………………………………………………………………………………29

ULTRAVIOLET DISINFECTION OF WATER………………………………………………………………………………………….30

PRINCIPLE OF ULTRAVIOLET LAMP………………………………………………………………………………………………….30

ULTRAFILTRATION OF WATER………………………………………………………………………………………………………….32

CARBON FILTRATION OF WATER………………………………………………………………………………………………………32

SAFETY RULES OPERATION PROCEDURE IN THE CHEMISTRY SESSION................................................34

CONCLUSION.......................................................................................................................................35
RECOMMENDATION………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..36
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….37
 INTRODUCTION
In partial fulfillment of the Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES), this
report is written as part of the approved minimum academic standard in
various degree programs for all Nigeria Universities. It is an effort to bridge the
existing gap between theoretical learning and practice of sciences in the
Nigeria tertiary institutions. This is aimed at exposing and familiarizing students
with practices and use of technical equipments related to their various course
of study. Prior to this, high level of mortality and disease outbreak is as a result
of ignorance to this experience.

BRIEF HISTORY OF SIWES

The Student Industrial Training Work experience scheme (SIWES) is a skill

acquisition program designed by the Nigerian Government for tertiary
institutions, a complementary program to the theoretical education,
laboratory and workshop practices engaged in by students in tertiary
institution which bears not adequate to serve the practical needs of the
industries in the labour market.

SIWES began as a result of complaint from the industries about practice

deficiencies of the nations higher institutions of technical man power
undertook to for the deficiencies by structuring and establishing students
industrial training as it was called 1973/74.

The Management of the scheme was passed into the National Universities
Commission (NUC) regulatory body for the universities and its counterpart for
the polytechnics, the National Board of Technical Education (NBTE) by 1979.
Due to the rapid growth of higher institution both in size and number that
resulted to a problem for ITF which initially single handedly founded the
program. It was later returned to ITF in 1984, 5 years later which continued to
manage it to date but with burden on the Federal and Government.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES

 To prepare students on anticipating working situations after graduation.

 To ensure the transition from school to the world of work and enable
student contact for job placement.

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  To provide students an opportunity to apply their theoretical knowledge
in the real work situation, there by bridging the gap between universities
work and actual work practice.
 To expose students to work method and technique in handling
equipment and machines that is not available in the institution.
 To provide avenue for students in tertiary institution to acquire
industrial skills and experience in their field of study.

BRIEF HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FUND (ITF)

Industrial training fund was established by act number 47 on 6 th October, 1971
with the aim of promoting and encouraging the acquisition of skills in
commerce and industry to generate a pool of indigenous trained man power
resources which are sufficient enough to meet the need of the economy of this
country and has been sufficiently done for the past 44years.

2
 CHAPTER ONE

BRIEF HISTORY OF THE COMPANY

Juhel Nigeria Limited was established in 1987 by Dr. Ifeanyi Okoye along with a
team of committed professionals to start manufacturing, sales, marketing and
distribution of high quality pharmaceutical products. The high level of
substandard products being imported into the country by several groups,
prompted the manufacturing of the essential medicines by Juhel Nigeria
Limited, this is in addition to founder’s desperate idea of making quality
medicines available to the needing populace at affordable cost and promoting
healthy nation.

This facility which is the subject of this site master file is a New Parental Drugs
factory constructed between 2009 and 2010, officially commissioned by the
former President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Goodluck Ebele Jonathan
on 15th of October 2010. The facility is located at Awka, the equipment and
staffed by fully trained professionals.

Juhel is committed to manufacturing of pharmaceutical products of the highest

quality. The design criteria for this facility encompasses the latest concept and
technology in terms of layouts, flow of materials, production and personnel,
water treatment system and other utilities. The manufacturing facility has been
APPROVED by National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control
(NAFDAC), Pharmaceutical Council of Nigeria (PCN) and Standard Organization
of Nigeria (SON) for production of parenteral drugs and ophthalmic solutions.

PHARMACEUTICALS
Pharmaceuticals are substances or combinations of substances which may be
administered to human beings either with a view to restoring, correcting or
modifying physiological functions by exerting pharmacological, immunological
or metabolic actions to restore the body functions to normalcy.
Also pharmaceuticals are drugs, medicines or poisons that are prepared or
dispensed in pharmaceutical companies and are used in medical treatment or
alleviates the symptoms of diseases.

Types of Pharmaceuticals
There are two (2) types of pharmaceuticals:
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 1. Solid Dosages:
- Oral drugs (capsules, lozenges, Tablets)
- Insertions
2. Liquid Dosages:
- Liquid Parenteral drugs (Injectables, Infusions, Ophthalmic)
- Syrups
- Suspensions

PARENTERALS
Parenteral are products that are not administered enterically -- i.e. not via the
Intestine. They are generally given by injection or infusion. Parenteral drug
administration means any non-oral means of administration but is generally
interpreted as relating to injecting directly into the body by passing the skin
and mucous membranes. The common parenteral routes are intramuscular,
Intravenous and Intrathecal. Parenteral routes are used when the
gastrointestinal tract would absorb a drug ineffectively either by the action of
the Gastro-intestinal (G.I) tract, digestive enzymes or pH.

Parenteral manufactured in Juhel parenteral drugs limited are of two types:

1. Injections: are infusion method of administering fluid into the body

usually with a syringe and a hollow needle which is pierced through the
skin to a sufficient depth for the material to be administered into the
body. Some of such Juhel products include: Furosemide Injection, Juhel
Hyosine butyl bromide (Busco-J) Injection, etc.

2. Infusions.
Infusion is a slow administration of drug into a vein or tissue. Example:
Pefloxacin Injection, Fluconazole (Juconazole) Infusions etc

Other products manufactured in Juhel Parenteral Factory include:

3. Ear/Eye drops
Are liquid medicines administered in smallest quality into the eye or ear?
Example: Ciprofloxacin (Cipro-J) Eye and Ear Drops, Bethamethasone-
Neomycin (Bet-N) and Gentamicin.

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LIST OF PRODUCTS MANUFACTURED BY JUHEL PARENTERAL FACTORY, AWKA

S/N PRODUCT NAME PRODUCT PACK SIZE

CODE
1 Darrow’s Half Strength 01 500ml
2 Darrow’s Full Strength 02 500ml
3 Dextrose 8% / 0.18% Saline 03 500ml
4 Mannitol 10% w/v 06 500ml
5 Dextrose 4.3%/0.18% saline 07 500ml
6 Dextrose 5% w/v 08 500ml
7 Dextrose 10% w/v 10 500ml
8 Peflo – J Infusion 12 100ml
9 Levflo – J Infusion 13 100ml
10 Dextrose 50% w/v 14 100ml
11 Dextrose 5% & Saline 0.9% w/v 16 1000ml
12 Dextrose 5% & Saline 0.9% w/v 17 500ml
13 Ringers (Compound Sodium Lactate) 18 500ml
14 Normal Saline 0.9% w/v 20 1000ml
15 Normal Saline 0.9% w/v 21 500ml
16 Mannitol 20% w/v 22 500ml
17 Dextrose 5% w/v 24 1000ml
18 Juhel Sterile Irrigation Solution 28 1000ml
19 Juhel IsoPlasma Solution 29 500ml
20 Peritoneal Dialysis Solution Infusion 30 1000ml
21 Cipro-J (Ciprofloxacin) Infusion 0.2% w/v 51 100ml
22 Juconazole Infusion 2mg/ml 52 100ml
23 Jugyl (Metronidazole) Infusion 5mg/ml 53 100ml
24 Water for Injection 55 10ml
25 Cipro-J Eye & Ear Drops 0.3% 56 10ml
26 Chloramphenicol Ear Drop 5.0% w/v 57 10ml
27 BET-N Eye/Ear Drops 60 10ml
28 Juhel Chloramphenicol Eye Drop 0.5% 61 10ml
29 Juhel Gentamycin Eye/Ear Drop 62 10ml
30 Juhel Chloroquine Injection 63 5ml
31 Juhel Gentamicin Sulphate 80mg Injection 64 2ml
32 Juhel Busco-J Injection 68 2ml
33 Juhel Tramadol HCl Injection 69 2ml
34 Juhel Pentazocine Injection 70 2ml
35 Juhel Furosemide Injection 71 2ml
36 Juhel Metoclopramide Injection 73 2ml
37 Juhel Diazepam Injection 74 2ml
38 Juhel Oxytocin Injection 75 2ml
39 Juhel Magnesium Sulphate Injection 77 10ml

5
VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS WITHIN THE COMPANY

1. Human Resource/Administration
The function of this department is recruitment and administration.

2. Account/Finance
This department ensures that all the projects in the company are well financed
and the incomes accrued from the sales of products are well managed.

3. Quality Control
This department deals with Analysis, Approvals and Rejections.

4. Engineering
Is a department that ensures the equipments and facilities are functioning
optimally.

5. Sales And Marketing

They are responsible for selling of products manufactured in the factory.

6. Production
Is a department that deals with dispensary, mixing, filling, sterilization, and
packaging.

7. Audit
To ensure that the available resources are well utilized and taken care of and
to track mismanagement.

8. Stores
They handle receiving, storage and issuing of materials (Raw materials, finished
products and engineering materials).

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 COMPANY ORGANOGRAM

Chairman/CEO

Managing Director

Store Manager Sales Officer Operations Manager

Quality Manager Plant Accountant Internal Auditor Procurement Officer S.A to CEO/Admin Mgr
HND Mass Com

Q.A. Officer Q.C. Officer Doc. Officer MCB/Evm. Officer CSO

Engr. Exec Prod. Pharmacist Nurse Diploma

In-Process Assts Doc. Asst MCB Analyst

Shift in Charge Shift in Charge Shift in Charge

Security Personnel
Admin Asst.
RM/FP Analyst F.Product Analyst

Production Coordinators
Water Treatment Officers Engr. Officers Sanitation In-Charge
Lab. Attendant Lab. Attendant

Engr Assistants Assts.

Manufacturing Officers Dispensary Officer

Line/Cage Leaders
Laundry Operators/Cleaners

Pk Mt.Store Officer F Goods Store Officer Packaging Staff/Cage Operators Mixing/Filling Principals Dispensary Assistants

Store Assist

7
Raw Mat. Store Asst. Tech Store Assist
PROCESSES CARRIED OUT AT JUHEL PARENTERALS
There are various processes/activities that take place at Juhel Parenteral Nig. Ltd.
such as Manufacturing process, Water treatment process, Quality management,
etc.

MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Manufacturing is the process of transforming raw materials into finished
products, usually on a large scale. During manufacturing process, products
undergo many stages before they finally become finished goods. The stages in
manufacturing process include:

1. Dispensing: There is a place or room designed for the dispensing of raw

materials used in producing a drug. Dispensing is the first step in
manufacturing process where there is requisition of materials that will be used
for production. For dispensing to take place daily, there will be cleaning for
example: cleaning of floors, laminar air flow, weighing balance, dispensing
tools and other areas like pass box (a passage for flow of materials). Daily
checks of weighing balance are done to ensure that the calibration status is
valid.

2. Mixing: Mixing is the second step in manufacturing process to ensure

production of drugs take place. There are some steps that are involved before
mixing takes place, they include:
 CIP and SIP. CIP means cleaning-in-place where the mixing tank which is a
closed system washes itself by the use of spray bulb. SIP means sterilization-
in-place. It is the final cleaning of the tanks use in mixing, CIP valve is closed
and SIP valve is opened and pure (sterile) steam enters the tank for
sanitizing/sterilization of the Mixing Vessels (Mixing tanks, Material transfer
vessel, Holding Tank, Product lines, Dome filters, etc).
 After the CIP and SIP; the next stage is the W.F.I (water for injection)
collection into the Mixing tanks for dissolution of materials for production of
drugs. The temperature of WFI should not be less than 800C.
 Material Counter checks follows after W.F.I collection. Material counter
checks, is verifying of the raw materials weighed to ascertain that what is
needed for batch production is actually dispensed. After the material counter
check is the transfer/dissolution of material into the BMT (Batch mixing tank)
and primary mixing takes place.
 Primary mixing/volume make-up is mixing the raw materials with small
quantity of water to mix well. Primary mixing takes about 30min, followed by
8
 volume make-up which is adding water to the desired volume needed for
production and final mixing starts which takes 1 hour for proper mixing.
 Sampling/Analysis follows immediately after final mixing; sampling and
Analysis is important to check for proper mixing and to verify whether the
parameters being tested are within specification.
 Filtration/Circulation/Cooling comes up after sampling and analysis. If the
analysis is satisfactory filtration/circulation/cooling takes place to achieve,
desired temperature for filling, homogenous mixture, clear solution and
subsequently transferred to BHT (Batch holding tank).

3. Filling: Filling is where the solution is filled into the bottles from BHT by BFS
machine (Blow, fill, seal). In filling, there are parameters that are usually
checked to ensure Bottle integrity, i.e. fill volume, Bottle weight and head
weight, thickness, etc

4. Sterilization: There are two types of sterilization:

a) Sterilization by filtration: This is the type of sterilization using micron
filters of smaller sizes than the size of bacteria.
b) Terminal Sterilization: This Sterilization is the next step after filling.
Sterilization is important to ensure sterility of the product. It involves
filling the products into trays/trolleys, and transferring them to the
autoclave for sterilization. Sterilization of the products takes
approximately 3 hours to ensure sufficient kill.

After sterilization the product is then transferred to packaging.

5. Packaging: Packaging is the last step taken in manufacturing. The stages

involved in packaging are:
a) Leak-Checking: To check if any of product bottle is leaking using vacuum
leak check machine or pressure leak check machine.
b) Visual Inspection: This is done in white and black background to check if
there are particles in the product produced.
c) Capping: Sealing the product with a protective bottle cap to cover and
avoid damage.
d) Coding/Labeling: Coding gives the Batch Number, date of manufacturing
and date of Expiration, while the product is labeled. Simply a method of
communicating important medical information.

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 e) Flow-Wrapping: Is mainly used to wrap finished products mainly 500ml
and 1000ml finished products.
f) Cartoning/Sealing: Packaging of finished products in cartons and sealing
them with adhesive tape.

6. Finished Goods: This is the end process of manufacturing. Here products are
stored, ready for distribution and sale.

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 MANUFACTURING PROCESS FLOW CHART
Dispensary
 Requisition of Materials
 Cleaning; Dispensing tools, floor, Laminar Flow
Booth, Weighing Balance
 Daily Check of Weighing Balance.

Mixing  CIP/SIP
 Water for Injection collection (not less than 80 0c)
 Material counter check
 Transfer/Dissolution of Material
 Primary Mixing (30minutes)
 Transfer to BHT
 Volume make-up
 Final mixing (1hour)
 Sampling/Analysis
 Filtration/Circulation/Cooling
 Transfer to Batch holding Tank
Filling
 Transfer from BHT to BFS machine
 Bottle integrity; Fitting Volume, Bottle Weight, Head
Weight

Sterilization
 Fitting of products into Trays/Trolleys
 Transfer to Autoclave
 Offload/Transfer to Packaging

Packing  Leak Checking

 Visual Inspection
 Capping
 Coding/Labeling
 Flow Wrapping
 Cartoning/Sealing
Finished Good

* BHT – Batch Holding Tank

BFS – Blow Fill Seal

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 QUALITY MANAGEMENT
To achieve excellence in parenteral factory, quality management is involved in all
levels of activities and is of importance in attaining good quality finished products.
In Juhel Parenteral Factory, the Quality unit is fully independent, there is
absolutely no interference from other departments on quality approvals or reject.
The quality assurance unit is responsible for monitoring each process to assure
management that the facilities, equipment, personnel, methods, practices
records and controls are in conformance with the regulations.
For any given process, the quality assurance unit is entirely separate from and
independent of the personnel engaged in the direction and conduct of that
process. Quality operations are independent of production activities and directly
report to the top management.
The Quality department is headed by the Quality manager. Responsibilities are
divided between: Quality Control (QC) (chemistry and microbiology) and Quality
assurance (QA) functions.
The Quality manager determines the acceptability of each batch for release,
review and approval/rejects of incoming materials, packaging materials, drug
products, analytical procedures and investigation reports.

The Quality Control assesses suitability of components and products, evaluates

the performance of the manufacturing process with respect to specifications and
limit.

The Quality Assurance reviews incoming materials, in-process materials

packaging materials, drug manufacturing procedures, investigation and trend
analysis, performance audits, and also reviews records.

Quality assurance handles documents like Batch Manufacturing Record (BMR),

used to document manufacturing activities. Q.A duties include:

1. Managing lab. Records; preparation, review, issuance and archiving

2. Control of Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs); issuance and review.
3. They manage safety manual, company manual, quality manual.

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 4. Stability Study: To ensure that manufactured products retain their quality
over time. This is done by storing samples of products in room temperature
and controlled Temperature and Relative humidity for years, till the
products expire. Lab analysis is done intermittently on the stored products,
to determine its continuous efficacy.
5. Incident deviation investigation: Investigation is a team work.
6. Training (GMP training and on-the-job training).
7. Finished product release: Q.A releases finished product that is after
packaging, Q.A release to store.

Steps for Finished Product Release

i. Review the Batch Manufacturing Process (BMP).
ii. Review the Laboratory report (Lab analysis).
iii. Develop COA (Certificate of Analysis).
iv. Issue batch (finished product) Release order to store for sale.

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 CHAPTER TWO

WATER TREATMENT
Water contain different ions depending on the nature of the area in which
it is found. It also contains small amounts of organic matter, micro organisms such
as eschericha coli, coliform, pseudomonas aerugenosa and salmonella species.
Hence water purification is necessary for pharmaceutical and other industrial use.
Several water purification and treatment process are used in the
production of water for parenteral solution and water used in industrial machines
like boiler, cooling tower, air compressor, chiller and air handling unit.
These methods include;
1. chemical dosing or chlorination
2. sand filteration
3. water softening
4. reverse osmosis
5. ion-exchange mechanism
6. distillation
7. pure steam generation
8. ultraviolent disinfection/oxidation
9. Microporous filtration/microfiltration
10. Activated carbon filtration

Two bore-holes of 328ft each are used in JUHEL parenteral factory for the
generation of water sufficient for it’s industrial need. When the water from these
bore-holes are taken to the laboratory for analysis by microbiologist , bacterial/
microorganism are usually detected. Some of the bacteria detected are;

I. Escherichia coli – This is a rod-shaped bacterium. Most E.coli strains are

harmless, but some serotypes can cause serious food poisoning in humans. It
causes bloody diarrhea, stomach cramps, vomiting and fever, pneumonia, urinary
tract infections and respiratory illness.
ii. coliform: are a broad class of bacteria found in water and other warm-
blooded animals. The presence of coliform bacteria in water indicate possible
presence of harmful disease causing organisms(pathogens).

Salmonella species are facultative intracellular pathogens that enter cells

through macropionsomes. Some of the species are salmonella enterica,
salmonella panama, paratyphoid salmonella and salmonella typhi. Salmonella is a

14
genus of rod-shaped, gram-negative, non-spore forming predominately motile
enterobacteria with diameter around 0.7 to 1.5um length from 2 to 5um and
flagella that grade in all direction. They are chemoorganotrophs, obtaining their
energy from oxidation reaction and reduction reactions using organic sources and
are facultative anaerobes..

iii. pseudomonas aeruginosa: is a common bacterium that can cause disease in

animals, including humans. In animals, the versatility enables the organisms to
infect damaged tissues or those with reduced immunity. The symptoms of such
infections are generalized inflammation and sepsis is a gram negative, aerobic
coccobacillus bacterium with unipolar motility. It is an opportunistic human
pathogens . to get rid of these bacteria from water, chlorination is carried out
using calcium hypochloride. As a halogen, chlorine is a highly efficient disinfectant
added to kill disease causing pathogens such as bacteria, viruses and protozoans
that commonly grow in water supply resource and in storage tanks when
dissolved in water, chlorine converts to an equilibrium mixture of chlorine
(hypochlorous acid) and hydrochloric acid; C12 + H2O HoCL + Hcl.

As a strong oxidizing agent, chlorine kills through the oxidation of organic

molecules. Chlorine and its hydrolysis product hypochlorous acid are neutrally
charged and therefore easily penetrate the negatively charged surface of
pathogens. It is able to disintegrate the lipids that compose the cell wall and react
with intracellular, enzymes and protean, making them nonfuctional. The
microorganisms either die or are no longer able to multiply.

Calcium hypochlorite/calcium oxychloride(CaClo)2 is used instead of sodium

hypochlorite (Naclo) because calcium being divalent releases two atoms of
chlorine but sodium being univalent releases one atom of chlorine. Calcium
hypochlorite ia a yellow white solid which has a strong smell of chlorine. It is a
bleaching agent and is considered to be relatively stable and has greater available
chlorine than sodium hypochlorite. A Caclo2 solution is basic. 2ppm of CL is dosed
at the rate of 0.03m/s per minute.

However, chlorine is a very active substance and it reacts with naturally occurring
substances to form compounds known as disinfections byproducts. The most
common disinfection byproduct formed when chlorine is used are ;

15
i. Trihalomethanes e.g bromodichloromethane, chloroform and
dibromochloromethane.

ii. Haloacetic acids e.g dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid. These
disinfectant byproduct are removed using activated carbon placed on top of
multigrade sand filter.

MULTI GRADE SAND FILTERATION

The rapid gravity sand filters use relatively coarse sand grains to remove
particles and impurities that have been trapped in the water through the use of
water treatment chemicals. During the filteration process, suspended solids and
turbidity is removed. These filters have multiple layers of sand having different
size and specific gravity. The multi grade sand filter has six(6) different layers. The
bigger size of sand grain is at the bottom of the bed. Turbidity is the cloudiness or
haziness of a liquid caused by individual particles (suspended solids) that are
generally invisible to the eye. The sand filter is cleaned frequently often daily by
backwashing which involves reversing the direction of the water and adding
compressed air. During backwashing, the bed is fluidized and care is taken not to
wash away the media sand bed filters work by providing the particulate solids
with many opportunities to be captured on the surface of a sand grain. As fluid
flows through the porous sand along a tortuous route, the particulates come
close to sand grains. They can be captured by one of several mechanisms.

i. Direct collision.

ii. van der waals or London force attraction.

iii. surface charge attraction.

iv. diffusion.

In addition, particulate solids can be prevented from being captured by surface

charge repulsion if the surface charge of the sand is of the same sign (positive or
negative) as that of the particulate solid.

Furthermore, it is possible to dislodge captured particulates although they may

be re-captured at a greater depth within the bed. A sand grain that is already

16
contaminated with particulate solids may become more attractive or repel
addition particulate solids. This can occur if by adhering to sand grain the
particulate causes the surface charge and becomes attractive to additional
particulate or the opposite and surface charge is retained repelling further
particulate from the sand grain. The water flows in a downward direction. It flows
under pressure or by gravity. Smaller sand grains provide more surface area and
therefore a higher decontamination of the inlet water, but it also requires more
pumping energy to drive the fluid through the bed. The sand filter uses sand grain
in the range of 0.6 to 1.2mm. larger feed particles (>100 micrometer) will tend to
block the pores of the bed and turn it into a surface filter that blind rapidly. The
depth of the sand bed is 6ft passing water through a rapid gravity sand filter
strains out the floc and the particles trapped within it reducing numbers of
bacteria and removing most of the solids.

Activated carbon is placed on top of the sand bed to remove taste and odour.
Activated carbon is a black solid substance resembling a granular or powdered
charcoal. It is extremely porous with a very large surface area. Certain
contaminants accumulate on the surface of the activated carbon in a process
called adsorption. Many organic compounds such as chlorinated and non-
chlorinated solvents like trihalomethanes can be adsorbed by the activated
carbon. The activated carbon is effective in removing some heavy metals. It will
also remove metals that are bound to organic molecules. It is important to note
that carbon is not the same as activated carbon. Carbon removes vastly more
contaminants from water than does ordinary carbon. The granular carbon filters
are mostly effective at removing chlorine, sediment volatile organic compounds,
taste and odour from water. They are not effective at removing minerals, salts
and dissolved inorganic compounds. Typical particle size that can be removed by
carbon filters ranges from 0.5 to 50 micrometers.

Each particle/granule or carbon provides a large surface area/pore structure

allowing contaminants the maximum possible exposure to the active site within
the filter media.

17
 WATER SOFTENING

Hard water forms scales on pipelines and machines, hence the need to make the
water soft. In Juhel parenteral factory, water softening process is carried out using
ion-exchange mechanism. The water flows through ion-exchange resins. Ion-
exchange resins are inert. They are beads of polymer which have ionic group
attached to the surface. For water softening, the resins have negative surface
ions to which anions can cling. Initially sodium ions are held to the negative
groups, but when water containing calcium ion is poured over the beads, the
sodium ions are displaced. The water that comes out contains sodium ions , but it
is no longer hard. Eventually all the available site are full and no more calcium
ions can be taken up. When this happens the column is flooded with salt water.
The deluge of sodium ions displaces the calcium ions and then the column is
ready to be used again.

PRINCIPLE OF ION EXCHANGE WATER SOFTENING

Calcium and magnesium ions are atoms having a positive electrical charge, as do
sodium and potassium ions. Ions of the same charge can be exchanged. In the ion
exchange process, a granular substance (usually a resin) that is coated with
sodium or potassium ions come into contact with water containing calcium and
magnesium ions. Two positively charged sodium ions are exchanged (released
into the water) for every calcium or magnesium ion that is held by the resin. This
exchange or trade happens because sodium or potassium are loosely held by the
resin. In this way calcium and magnesium ions responsible for hardness are
removed from the water, held by the resin and replaced by sodium or potassium
ions in the water. This process makes water softer, eventually a point is reached
when very few sodium or potassium ions remain on the resin, thus no more
calcium or magnesium ions can be removed from the incoming water. The resin
at this point is said to be exhausted or spent and must be recharged or
regenerated.

ION EXCHANGE UNIT COMPONENTS

A water softner is a simple tank that hold the exchange resin, together with
appropriate piping for raw (inlet) and treated (outlet) water. Switchers for

18
automatic operation are attached to the panel connected to the water softener
pipes that supply soft water to the overhead tank of fifty thousand litres (50,000
litres) capacity is also attached to the softener. An electric motor pump that
pressurize the water flow for water softening and regeneration is also attached to
the softner. Also, non-return valves that prevents back flow of water is also
attached along the softener pipes. Pressures gauges are also fixed at the water
inlet and outlet valves to determine the flow rate of water.

REGENERATION OF WATER SOFTENING ION EXCHANGE RESIN.

The basic purpose of resin regeneration is to restore the exhausted resin back to
its proper ionic form for service. The end of a softener service cycle is determined
either by a timed service run, total gallon throughout, or a high measure of
hardness in the softener effluent. A four step regeneration sequence is then
performed;

i. BACKWASH CYCLE: the backwash cycle expands the resin bed from its settled
and packed condition, and cleans the resins by flushing out any suspended solids
that may have been filtered during the service run. Resin particles can act as
effective filter media because they have ionic charges, which can coagulate fine
particles. During the backwash, the resin beads rubs against each other and this
scrubbing action helps clean accumulated dirt or ion from the surface of the
beads. The backward flow also removes any broken resin particles particles or
resin fines. In addition, the backwash cycle classifies the bed with the larger resin
beads on the bottom and the finer resin on top. This provides the best conditions
for a good uniform flow of brine, rinse and service it is desirable to expand the
softener resin bed about 50% and to have the duration of the backwash cycle long
enough to effectively remove all of the resins fines and other suspended solids. At
ambient temperatures using standard softening cation resin and a flow rate of
6gpm per square foot of surface area for a duration of 10 to 15 minutes is
sufficient. It is very important to consult manufacturers operation manual for the
specific resin being regenerated to find the correct backwash flow rate. The
backwash flow rate is dependent on temperature cooler water expands the bed
more than warmer water.

19
ii. Brine introduction: sodium chloride is used as the regenerate chemical for
converting exhausted softener resin back to the sodium form. The resin
exchanges the collected hardness on the beads with the sodium ion present in the
sodium chloride. It is applied to the bed at a concentration of 8 to 12%; usually
10% is the norm. a contact time of 30 minutes is desirable. The total contract time
is calculated from the time the brine is introduced to the bed during the slow
rinse.

iii. slow rinse: the slow rinse or displacement step removes from the bed the
volume of brine regenerate that is still in the vessel. This is the most pure brine
that the resin will come into contact with, so it is important not to flush it out
quickly. During the slow rinse cycle, the valve from the concentrated brine is shut
and only the dilusion water is introduced to the bed at the dilution water flow
rate. It helps of the dilution water and the slow rinse water are from a softened
water supply.

iv. Fast rinse: the final step is a fast rinse and it is performed at the service flow
rate. The fast rinse step removes any residual brine from the resin beads and
helps flush out any brine that may be present in dead areas of the tank. In
summary, ion exchange softening exchanges calcium and magnesium ions in
water for sodium ions as the hard water passes through a softener. The softener
is similar in design to a pressure filter with resins in place of the filter media.

During treatment, water enters the softener and is directed by a baffle (electrical
panel). The water passes through a bed of resin underlain by a bed of gravel, then
is collected by an underdrain and piped out of the softener. Despite the
superficial resemblance between softness and filers, the two operate in very
different manners.

In a softener, the bed is made up of resins which are insoluble solids with
attached cation or anions capable of reversible exchange with mobile ions of the
opposite sign in the solution in which they are brought in contact. In the case of
the ion exchange resins used in softening, sodium ions are attached to the in
soluble solids of the resins. When water passes through the softener, the sodium
ions are exchanged for calcium and magnesium ions in the water. The calcium and
magnesium ions are retained on the resin grains. The water leaving the softener

20
has sodium ions in the place of calcium and magnesium ions in its compound.
Since sodium ions do not cause hardness, the treatment water is no longer hard.

There are many types of resin which can be used in ion exchange units. The one
used in JUHEL parenteral factory is zeolite resin, and ion exchange softening is
often called zeolite softening.

EFFECTS OF HARD WATER ON PIPES AND MACHINES

When water is hard, it can clog pipes by causing lime scale deposits in water
pipes. Due to this lime scale builds, pipes are blocked and the flow of water is
reduced. In Juhel parenteral factory, the soft water is stored in a 50,000 litres
overhead tank which distributes soft water to many machines like the chiller for
air handling units, production chiller for the cooking of production missing and
filling machines, autoclave for sterilization of intravenous drugs, cooling tower for
cooling of the autoclave and air compressor, boiler for the generation of steam.

In steam generating boiler, hard water causes formation of scales on the boiler
tubes and reducing heat transfer to the boiler water thereby causing excessive
heating of the boiler tubes and reducing the efficiency of the boiler. Prolonged
heating of the boiler tubes can lead to the bursting of the tubes and cause heavy
breakdown of the boiler which will lead to long downtime for the company. The
excessive heating also causes too much consumption of boiler fuel otherwise
known as black oil. Also these scale can clog on boiler water filters And reduce the
flow of water to the boiler parts.

Another machine hard water affects heavily is the cooling towers. The cooling
tower sends cool water to the autoclave and air compressor. The cooled water
enter the machine and cool the heated parts of the machine. The water becomes
hot and the hot water returns to the cooling tower and the water is cooled again.
This process is repeated continuously so when the water that contains hardness
flow through the cooling towers, it also leaves deposits of scales on the body of
the cooling tower and subsequently deposit scales on the machines concerned
autoclave and air compressor. Hence care is taken to ensure that the water
supplied to the cooling tower is soft. The cooling tower gets the soft water from
the 50,000 litres overhead tank which release the water with the help of gravity.

21
In air handling units and the production chiller, hard water wrecks havoc on them
as the pores on the radiator are so small that scales can block them to reduce the
efficiency of these machines. Water from the production chiller enter the mixing
and filling machines and when scales form on these machines it also reduces the
efficiency of the machine and its cooling process, hence the need to make the
water soft.

22
 CHAPTER THREE

REVERSE OSMOSIS
Reverse osmosis is a water purification technology that uses a semi-permeable
membrane. This membrane technology is not properly a filteration method. In
reverse osmosis, an applied pressure using a high capacity pump is used to
overcome osmotic pressure, a colligative property, that is driven by chemical
potential, a thermodynamic parameter. Reverse osmosis can remove many types
of molecules and ions from water and it is used to generate water from pure
steam generation and distillation. The result is the solute is retained on the
pressurized side of the membrane and the pure solvent is allowed to pass to the
other side. To be selective, this membrane should not allow large molecules or
ions through the pores(holes), but should allow smaller component of the
water(such as the solvent) to pass freely.
In the normal osmosis process, the solvent naturally moves from an area of
low solute concentration(high water potential), through a membrane, to an area
of high solute concentration (low water potential). The movement of a pure water
is driven to reduce the free energy of the system by equalizing solute
concentration on each side of a membrane, generating osmotic pressure.
Applying an external pressure to reverse the natural flow of pure water, thus, is
reverse osmosis. The process is similar to other membrane technology
application. However, key difference are found between reverse osmosis and
filtration. The predominate removal mechanism in membrane is straining, or size
exclusion so the process can theoretically achieve perfect exclusion of particles
regardless of operational parameters such as influent pressures and
concentration.
Moreover, reverse osmosis involves a diffusive mechanism, so that separation
efficiency is dependent on solute concentration, pressure and water flux rate.
Reverse osmosis is most commonly, known for its use industrially for removing
solutes and ions from water.

MECHANISM OF REVERSE OSMOSIS

23
 Osmosis is a natural process. When two liquids with different concentration of
a solute are separated by a semi permeable membrane, the fluid has a tendency
to move from low to high solute concentration for chemical potential equilibrium.
Formally, reverse osmosis is the process of forcing a solvent from a region of low
solute concentration by applying a pressure in excess of the osmosis pressure.
The membranes used for reverse osmosis have a dense layer in the polymer
matrix either the skin of an asymmetric membrane or an interracially polymerized
layer within a thin-film composite membrane where the separation occurs. In
most cases, the membrane is designed to allow only water to pass through this
dense layer, while preventing the passage of solutes (such as salt ions). This
process requires that a high pressure be exerted on the high concentration side of
the membrane usually 2 to 17 bar.
The factors that affect the performance of a reverse osmosis systems are

1.Incoming water pressure: the pressure of the incoming water is very

paramount in reverse osmosis system since the water is required to flow with a
higher rate. Hence a high capacity pump is used to achieve the desired pressure.

2.Types and number of total dissolved solids (TDS) in the incoming water: ions
and mineral contribute to the increase in the total dissolve solids of the water.
When there are many minerals and ions in the water, it will definitely give more
work to the reverse osmosis, hence the amount of total dissolved solids is put into
consideration during the reverse osmosis.

3.Water temperature: water that is at ambient temperature is usually used in

reverse osmosis as hot water is capable of causing damage to the reverse osmosis
membrane.

4.The quality of the filters and membrane use in the RO system: the quality of
the filters is important because when the incoming water is well filtered, the
efficiency of the reverse osmosis assembly will be actualized. Also the quality of
the reverse osmosis membrane will determine the quality of the reverse osmosis
water.

24
BASIC COMPONENTS OF REVERSE OSMOSIS
i.Cold water line valve: valve that fits into the cold water supply line. The valve
has a tube that attaches to the inlet side of the reverse osmosis pre filter. This is
the water source for the R.O system.

ii. Prefilter: water from the cold water supply line enters the reverse osmosis pre
filter first. There may b more than one pre filter used in a reverse osmosis system.
The most commonly used pre-filters are sediment filters. These are used to
reverse sand slit, dirt and other sediment.

iii. Reverse osmosis membrane: the reverse osmosis membrane is the heart of
the system. The most commonly used is a special wound of which there are two
options: the CTA (cellulose tri-acetate) which is chlorine tolerant, and the
TFC/TFM (thin film composite/material) which is not chlorine tolerant.

iv. Post-filters: after the water leaves the reverse osmosis storage tank, but
before giving to the R.O faucet, the product water goes through the post filters.

v. Automatic shut off valve: to conserve water, the R.O system has an automatic
shut off valve. When the storage tank is full ( this may vary based upon the
incoming water pressure) this valve stops any further water from entering the
membrane, thereby stopping water production. By shutting off the flow, this valve
also stops water from flowing to the drain. Once water is drawn from the RO
water faucet, the pressure in the tank drops and the shut off valves opens,
allowing water to flow to the membrane and waste water (water containing
contaminants) to flow down the drain.

vi. Check valve: a check valve is located in the outlet end of the RO membrane
housing. The check valve prevents the backward flow or product water from the
RO storage tank. A backward flow could rupture the R.O membrane.

vii. Flow restrictor: water flow through the RO membrane is regulated by a flow
control. There are many different styles of flow controls. The device maintains the

25
flow rate required to obtain the highest quality drinking water (based on the
gallon capacity). It also helps maintain pressure on the inlet side of the
membrane. Without the flow control, very little drinking water would be
produced because all the incoming tap water would take the path of least
resistance and simply flow down the drain line.

Viii. Storage tank: 10,000 litres capacity storage tanks is used to store the reverse
osmosis water.
ix. drain line: this line runs from the outlet end of the reverse osmosis membrane
housing to the drain. This line is used to dispose of the impurities and
contaminant found in the incoming water source. The flow control is also installed
in this line.

ION EXCHANGE MECHANISM

Mineral ions such as cations of sodium, calcium, iron, copper, etc and anions such
as chloride, sulphate nitrate, etc are common ions present in water. These ions
and minerals need to be removed from the water for parenteral production in
order to meet WHO water standard. If these ions are not removed from the
water, it will react with the active and diluents ingredients in the drugs and the
product will fail during drug analysis.
Deionization is a physical process which uses especially manufactured ion
exchange resins which provide ion exchange site for the replacement of the
mineral salt in water with water forming H+ and OH- ions. Because the majority of
water impurities are dissolved salts, deionization produces a high purity water
that is generally similar to distilled water, and this process is quick and without
scale build up.
Inorganic removal is accomplished through the adsorption of contaminant ions
onto a resin exchange medium. One ion is substituted for another on the charged
surface of the medium that is usually a plastic resin. This type of surface is
designed as either cationic or anionic-negatively charged. The medium is
saturated with exchangeable ions before the treatment operations. The
contaminant ions during ion exchange, replace the regenerate ions because they
are preferred by the exchange medium. When no ions are left to take the place of

26
the contaminant ions, the medium is regenerated with a suitable solution that
saturates the medium with the appropriate ions. Since there is a required down
time, the regenerated cycle are done only once per day.

REGENERATION OF ION EXCHANGE RESIN

The basic purpose of resin regeneration is to restore the exhausted resin back to
its proper ionic form for service. The regeneration of cation and anion exchange
resins used in deionizers is a more complicated process than simple softening. The
process include the use of strong acid, usually hydrochloric acid and caustic soda
(sodium hydroxide). It is important to observe the appropriate safety
considerations for handling these chemicals and the consultant waste products. A
strong acid cation unit exchanges calcium, magnesium and sodium, with its active
ions, hydrogen. The strong base anion unit in a two-bed deionizer exchanges
sulfate, chloride, alkalinity and silica ions with hydroxide. This slowly reduces the
concentration of available active ions. The resin is considered exhausted when the
active ion concentration reaches a low level, and effluent has a pre-selected high
leakage of un-exchanged ions, known as endpoint leakage. This leakage is usually
indicated by a conductivity set point.
i. Backwash: during the service cycle, the resin bed collects suspended impurities
from water. Some of the media particles beads can break up into fines, and the
bed becomes somewhat compacted. Introducing water at calculated flow rates in
the opposite direction to the service flow lifts the bed, which loosens up and
expands into the free board. This forces the suspended particles and media fines
out of the unit. At the same time, the bed loses it compaction, reducing the
likelihood of channeling which could cause water or regenerate chemicals to
bypass some of the effective media bed. Compaction and fines also cause
excessive pressure drops.
Water of the same quality as the influent is introduced from the bottom of the
vessel, collected at the top and then directed to the drain. Proper backwash rate
is of great importance since rates higher than suggested may not be sufficient to
complete the backwash properly. Any sudden shock in the backwash cycle should
be avoided, as this may cause media loss. Consult the resin specifications sheets
for the proper backwash flow rate because cation and an ion resin densities are

27
different. Generally, cation backwash flow rates are in the range of 6gpm per
square foot of surface area and the anion backwash flow rate is about half of that.
ii. Regenerate introduction: regenerates of proper concentration are introduced
into the tanks to reactivate the resin. The strength of dilute regenerate and its
flow rates are of utmost importance. Any change in these values compared to the
ones specifically suggested may cause resin fouling, capacity loss and quality
deterioration. In some cases the regenerate has to be heated to a specific
temperature to complete a proper elution (elusion is the stripping off of
exchanged ions).
ACID APPLICATION TO CATION RESIN
The strong acid cation exchanger resin is regenerated with hydrochloric acid,
which effectively strips off the calcium, magnesium, and sodium from the resin,
substituting hydrogen. 60 litres of hydrochloric acid is added to 160 litres of water
and 25kg of caustic soda. sodium hydroxide is dissolved in 210 litres of water. A
contact time of 45 minutes minimum is required. The anion resin exchanges of
the collected anions for the hydroxide (OH) ion in the caustic. Any collected silica
need to be re-dissolved to elevate the temperature of the dilute caustic.
iii. Displacement (slow) rinse: the process of displacement of regenerate and the
elute ions from the resins is started at a slow pace, normally at the same flow rate
at which the dilute regenerate was introduced.
iv. Fast rinse: after the slow rinse, the resin is rinsed further at a higher flow rate.
Rinsing removes the excess regenerate from the resin. At the same time, all of the
elute ions are displaced from the resin bed bringing the resin back to active
condition, ready to be put into service.
MULTIPLE-EFFECT DISTILLATION.
This is a process used for the generation of distilled water. The distilled water is
used as water for injection and for the mixing of intravenous drugs. It consists of
multiple stages or “effects”. In each stage the feed water is heated by steam in
tubes. Some of the water evaporates and this steam flows into the tubes of the
next stages, heating and evaporating more water. Each stage essentially reuses
the energy from the previous stage. The tubes can be submerged in the feed
water, but more typically the feed water is sprayed on the top of a bank of
horizontal tubes, and the drips from tube to tube until it is collected at the
bottom of the stage.

28
Operating principle: the plant is a sequence of closed spaces separated by tube
walls, with a heat source in one end and a heat sink in the other end. Each space
consists of two communicating subspaces, the exteriors of the tubes of one stage
and the interior of the tubes in another stage. Each space has a lower
temperature and presence than the previous space, and the tube wall have
intermediate temperature between the temperature of the fluids on each side.
The presence in a space cannot be in equilibrium with the temperature of the
walls of both subspaces. It has an intermediate pressure. The pressure is too low
or the temperature too high in the first subspace, the pressure is too high or the
temperature too low and the vapour condenses. This carries evaporation energy
from the warmer first subspace to the colder second subspace. At the second
subspace the energy flows by conduction through the tubes walls to the colder
next space.
Beside using the distilled water as water for injection and for the mixing of
intravenous drugs, it is also used for the cleaning of the mixing tanks and
pharmaceutical equipments. Some of the qualities of the distilled water or water
for injection are listed below

PURE STEAM GENERATOR

Pure steam generators are designed for the production of sterile, pyrogen-free
purer steam. The produced pure steam can be used for the sterilization of
equipment components like tanks, preparation vessels, piping systems, filling
machines, filter, clothes etc as well as for humidification of air in clean rooms.

Pure steam generators are constructed following the principle of the natural
circulation evaporator. Integrated modules or separated located degassing units
are used for reduction of non condensable gases. Pure steam generator consists
of 2 main component, an evaporator and a vapor-liquid disengaging section,
combined as one cylindrical column. Heating steam flows through the shell side of
the evaporator section, while the feed purified water flows through the internal
tubes, from the bottom to the top, the pure steam generated within the
evaporator section flows upward to the vapour disengaging section. The vapour

29
liquid disengaging section is positioned at the top portion of the vertical
cylindrical column. The high velocity of steam, coupled with enhanced centrifugal
separation provide by the vapour liquid disengaging components, ensures the
extremely high quality steam is produced.

ULTRAVIOLET DISINFECTION OF WATER

Ultraviolent light is a naturally occurring component of solar radiation. It falls in

the region between visible light and x-rays in the electromagnetic spectrum.
Generally, UV light is considered as falling between the wavelengths 100nm-
40nm, however UV can be categorized even further into separate regions.
Although scientists hold varying opinion as to the exact boundaries of these
regions, they are generally considered to have significant germicidal properties.
UV lights is almost entirely filtered out by the earth’s atmosphere, so to utilize its
germicide properties we have to artificially generate it here on earth using
commercially produced UV lamps.

Strong sunlight is known to kill bacterial, viruses, moulds and spores. Almost a
century ago scientists identified the part of the spectrum responsible for this well-
known effect wavelengths of 240-280nm, primarily in the UV-C spectrum. UV
light damages the DNA in bacteria, viruses, moulds and some protozoa, leaving
them unable to perform cellular functions and multiply. UV is particularly highly
effective against cryptosporidium and giardia-organisms resistant to chlorine that
are a major risk to human health. Another advantage of the UV is the absence of
taste and odour.

PRINCIPLE OF ULTRAVIOLET LAMP

UV lamps contain a small amount of mercury, either in a free state within the
lamp tube or embedded within the tube surface. When electricity is applied to
the lamp electrode, electrons flow between them, vaporizing the mercury which
when bombarded with electrons, emits UV light. The exact wavelength emitted
depend on the vacuum pressure within the lamp tube itself. Low pressure and so
called “amalgam” lamps are twice as efficient at converting electrical energy into
UV –C light compared to medium pressure lamps. However, medium pressure

30
lamps emits far more UV-C energy per unit length over a wider wavelength than
low pressure or amalgam lamps.

31
ULTRAFILTRATION/MICROPOROUS FILTRATION OF WATER.

There are three types of microporous filtration. Depth, screen and surface. Depth
filters are matted fibers or materials compressed to form a matrix that retains
particles by random adsorption or entrapment. Screen filters are inherently
uniform structures which like a sieve, retains all particles larger than the precisely
controlled pore size on their surface. Surface filters are made from multiple layers
of media. When fluid passes through the filter, particles larger than the spaces
within the filter matrix are retained, accumulating primarily on the surface of the
filter. The distinction between filters is important because the three serve very
different functions. Depth filters are usually used as pre-filters because they are
an economical way to remove 98% of suspended solids and protect elements
downstream from fouling or clogging.

Surface filters remove 99.9% of suspended solids and may be used as either pre-
filters or clarifying filters. Microporous membrane(screen) filters are placed at the
last possible point in a system to remove the last remaining traces of resin
fragments, carbon fines, colloidial particles and microorganisms. A microporous
membrane filter removes particles according to pore sizes. By contrast, an
ultrafiltration membrane functions as a molecular sieve. It separates dissolved
molecules on the basis of size by passing a solution through an infinitesimally fine
filter. The ultrafilter is a tough thin, selectively permeable membrane that retains
most macromolecules above . certain size including colloids, microorganisms and
pyrogens. Small molecules such as solvents and conised contaminant are allowed
to pass into the filtrate. Thus ultrafiltration provides a retained fraction(retentate)
that is rich in large molecules and a filter that contains few, if any, of these
molecules.

CARBON FILTRATION OF WATER

This is a method of filtering that uses a bed of activated carbon to remove

contaminants and impurities, using chemical adsorption. Each particle/granule of
carbon provides a large surface area/pore structure, allowing contaminants the
maximum possible exposure to the active sites within the filter media. One pound
(450g) of activated carbon contains a surface area of approximately 100 acres (40
hectares).

32
Activated carbon works through a process called adsorption, whereby pollutant
molecules in the fluid to be treated are trapped inside the pore structure of the
carbon substrate. Carbon filters are most effective at removing chlorine,
sediments, volatile organic compounds, taste and odour from water. They are not
effective at removing mineral, salts and dissolved inorganic compounds.

Typical particle sizes that can be removed by carbon filters range from 0.5 to 50
micrometers. The particle size will be used as part of the filter description. The
efficacy of a carbon filter is also based upon the flow rate regulation. When water
is allowed to flow through the filter at a slower rate, the contaminants are
expected to stay in the filter media for a longer amount of time.

Activated carbon is charcoal that has been treated with oxygen to open up
millions of tiny pores between the carbon atoms. The use of special
manufacturing techniques results in highly porous charcoals that have surface
areas of 300-2000 square meters per gram. These so-called active or activated
charcoals are widely used to adsorb odorous or coloured substances from the
water. When a material adsorbs something , it attaches to it by chemical
attraction. The huge surface area of activated charcoal gives it countless bonding
sites. When certain chemicals pass next to the carbon surface, they attach to the
surface and are trapped. Activated charcoal is good at trapping other carbon-
based impurities (organic chemicals), as well as things like chlorine. Many other
chemicals are not attracted to carbon , sodium, nitrate, etc. so they pass right
through. This means that an activated carbon filter will remove certain impurities
while ignoring others. It also means that once all of the boning sites are filled , an
activated charcoal filter stops working. At the point the filter is required to be
replaced.

SAFETY RULES OPERATION PROCEDURE IN THE CHEMISTRY SESSION

 The chemistry laboratory should be approached with caution to avoid
disrupting the delicate and precision equipment.
33
 All glass wares used for analysis should scrupulously wash with water and
detergent followed by rinsing with distilled or de-ionized water.
 All chemicals that produce fumes on opening or during reaction with other
chemicals should be placed in the fume-chamber to avoid contaminating
the laboratory and occupant with dangerous fumes.
 Running around in the laboratory is not permitted.
 Eating in the laboratory is a tabor.
 On no account should the volumetric glassware be dried in the oven.
 At the close of work, all dirty glass wares and apparatus are washed and
hung to drain and dry.
 On no should there be smoking in the laboratory.

34
 CONCLUSION
The idea of sending students for an industrial training programme by SIWES is a
welcomed development. This has given students the opportunity to specialize
some of the theoretical aspects of their various fields of study and has equally
exposed them to knowledge of some industrial processes.

In my six (6) months of experience in the drug manufacturing industry, I observed

that our nation Nigeria has all it takes to produce drugs of high quality considering
the fact that the country can boast of qualified scientists.

This experience is not only angled to my own field of study but also has enabled
me acquire some skills such as managerial skills.

I also use this medium to call upon the government of country at the various
levels to set up a basic raw material manufacturing plant in Nigeria.

35
 RECOMMENDATION
Some students are not opportune to do their industrial training due to lack of
industries and manufacturing firms and some of the available ones reject I.T.
students which has posed a great problem not only to the students concerned but
to the nation at large.

Therefore, I recommend that the federal government should make it mandatory

to all ministries of companies to offer places for the attachment of students and
also to provide adequate funds to the industrial training fund through the federal
ministry of industrial for the scheme.

The SIWES can as well help in securing places of attachment for students so that
all students will benefits equally from this helpful innovation.

36
 REFERENCES
1. The Standard Operational Procedure (S.O.P) of Juhel Nigeria Limited.
2. The British Pharmacopoeia (B.P).
3. The U.S.P (United State Pharmacopoeia).
4. The Juhel Raw material Analytical Report Book.
5. The Juhel Finished Product Analytical Report Book.
6. Analytical log Book (Chemistry & Microbiology).

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