AS PHYSICS (9702)

Topic 1
Physical quantities and units
Starting points:
• Accurate measurement is very important in the development of physics

• Physicists begin by observing ,measuring and collecting data

• The data items are analyst to discover whether they fit into a pattern

• If there is a pattern and this pattern can be used to explain other events , it
becomes a theory the process is known as the scientific method.
Scientific method
Physical quantities:
• A physical quantity is a measurable quantity. e.g. length, mass ,time etc…

• Every physical quantity has a numerical value and a unit e.g. mass of an apple is 450g
,time to run a 100 m meter race is 12 s

• It is vital to give unit of measurement whenever a quantity is measured or written

down

• Large and small quantities are usually expressed in scientific notation i.e. as a simple
no. multiplied by a power of 10 e.g. 0.00034 would be written as 3.4x10^-4
• Speed and velocity are examples of physical quantities; both can be measured
• All physical quantities consist of a numerical magnitude and a unit
• In physics, every letter of the alphabet (and most of the Greek alphabet) is used to
represent these physical quantities
• These letters, without any context, are meaningless
• To represent a physical quantity, it must contain both a numerical value and the
unit in which it was measured
• The letter v be used to represent the physical quantities of velocity, volume or
voltage
• The units provide the context as to what v refers to
1) If v represents velocity, the unit would be m s -1
2)If v represents volume, the unit would be m3
3)If v represents voltage, the unit would be V
 SI quantities and base unit:
• Same like different languages around the world we have many different systems of
measurements

• Just as languages can be translated from one to another ,units of measurements can be
converted b/w systems

• It is much better to have just one system of units. for this reason scientist around the
world used the SI which is based on metric system of measurements

• If a quantity is to be measured accurately the unit in which it is measured must be defined

as precisely as possible.

• SI is founded upon seven fundamental or base units. the base unit each have a unique
definition agreed at world conventions.
• There is a seemingly endless number of units in Physics
• These can all be reduced to six base units from which every other unit can be derived
• These seven units are referred to as the SI Base Units; this is the only system of
measurement that is officially used in almost every country around the world
Base quantities and units:

Some values of length given to one significant figure

Derived units:
• All quantities, apart from the base quantities, can be expressed in terms of derived units.

• Derived units consist of some combination of the base units. The base units may be
multiplied together or divided by one another, but never added or subtracted.
• Derived units are derived from the seven SI Base units
• The base units of physical quantities such as:
Newtons, N
Joules, J
Pascals, Pa, can be deduced
• To deduce the base units, it is necessary to use the definition of the quantity

The Newton (N), the unit of force, is defined by the equation:

Force = mass × acceleration
N = kg × m s = kg m s
Therefore, the Newton (N) in SI base units is kg m s-2

The Joule (J), the unit of energy, is defined by the equation:

Energy = ½ × mass × velocity2
J = kg × (m s ) = kg m2 s-2
Therefore, the Joule (J) in SI base units is kg m2 s-2

The Pascal (Pa), the unit of pressure, is defined by the equation:

Pressure = force ÷ area Pa = N ÷ m = (kg m s-2 ) ÷ m2 = kg m-1 s-2
Therefore, the Pascal (Pa) in SI base units is kg m-1 s-2
 What are the base units of speed?
Solution:
Speed is defined as distance/time and so the
unit is m/s.
The base units of speed are ms−1.
• Physical quantities can span a huge range of values
• For example, the diameter of an atom is about 10 m (0.0000000001 m),
whereas the width of a galaxy may be about 10 m
(1000000000000000000000 m)
• This is a difference of 31 powers of ten
• Powers of ten are numbers that can be achieved by multiplying 10 times
itself
• It is useful to know the prefixes for certain powers of ten
• Each quantity has just one unit and this unit can have multiples and sub-multiples to
cater for larger or smaller values.
• The unit is given a prefix to denote the multiple or sub-multiple (see Table 1.5). For
example, one thousandth of a metre is known as a
millimetre (mm) and 1.0 millimetre equals 1.0 × 10−3 metres (m).
•Unit Conversions:
Beware when converting units for lengths, areas and volumes!
1mm = 10−3m
Squaring both sides
1mm2 = (10−3)2m2 = 10–6m2
and
1mm3 = (10−3)3m3 = 10−9m3
Note also that
1cm = 10−2m 1cm2 = (10−2)2m2 = 10−4m2
and
1cm3 = (10–2)3m3 = 10−6m3
(A distance of 30 metres should be written as 30m and not 30ms or 30ms. The letter s is
never included in a unit for the plural).
 Calculate the number of micrograms in 1.0 milligram.
Solution:
1.0g = 1.0 × 103mg
and 1.0g = 1.0 × 106 micrograms (μg)
so, 1.0 × 103mg = 1.0 × 106μg
and 1.0mg = (1.0 × 106)/(1.0 × 103) = 1.0 × 103μg

1. Calculate the area, in cm2, of the top of a table with sides of 1.2m and 0.9m.
2. Determine the number of cubic metres in one cubic kilometre.
3. Calculate the volume in m3 of a wire of length 75cm and diameter 0.38mm.
• There are important physical quantities to learn in physics
• It is useful to know these physical quantities, they are particularly useful when
making estimates
• A few examples of useful quantities to memorise are given in the table below.
Order of magnitude of quantities:
• It is often useful to be able to estimate the size, or order of magnitude, of a quantity.

• The ability to estimate orders of magnitude is valuable when planning and carrying out
experiments or when suggesting theories.

• Having an idea of the expected result provides a useful check that an error has not been
made.

• This is also true when using a calculator. For example, the acceleration of free fall at the
Earth’s surface is about 10ms-2. If a value of 9800ms−2 is calculated, then this is obviously
wrong and a simple error in the power of ten is likely to be the cause.
The approximate values of common objects or physical quantities should be known.
For example, a carton of orange juice has a volume of 1000cm3 (1 litre), the mass of
a large car is about 2 × 103 kg and an adult about 1 × 102 kg

Estimate to 1 significant figure:

(a) the mass of jar of peanut butter in g
(b) the volume of an orange in cm3.
Solution:
(a) 5 × 102 g
(b) 3 × 102 cm3

Estimate to 1 significant figure the following quantities:

a the mass of an orange in g

b the mass of an adult human in kg
c the height of a room in a house in m
d the diameter of a pencil in cm
e the thickness of this page in mm
f the volume of a grain of rice in m3 g the volume of a human head in m3
h the maximum speed of a human in ms
 :

• An important skill is to be able to check the homogeneity of physical equations using the SI base
units
• The units on either side of the equation should be the same
• To check the homogeneity of physical equations:

a) Check the units on both sides of an equation

b)Determine if they are equal
c)If they do not match, the equation will need to be adjusted
Checking equations:
In an equation each term involved in the equation must have the same base
units.
In any equation where each term has the same base units, the
equation is said to be homogeneous or ‘balanced’.
For example, in the equation
v = u + at
the terms are v, u and at

In the example above, each term has the base units ms−1.

If the equation is not homogeneous, then it is incorrect and is not valid.

When an equation is known to be homogeneous, then the balancing of

base units provides a means of finding the units of an unknown quantity
The drag force F acting on a sky diver is given by the equation
F = 1/2CρAv2
where C is a constant, ρ is the density of air, A is the cross-sectional area of the diver
and v is the speed of fall. Show that C has no base units.
Answer:
The base units of force are kgms−2.
The base units of ρAv2 are kgm−3 × m2 × (ms−1)2 = kgms−2.

Conclusion: C does not have any base units

Use base units to check whether the following equations

are balanced:
a power = potential difference × electric current,
b electrical energy = (electric current)2 × resistance × time
At Cambridge International AS & A Level and beyond, there is a
special convention for labelling columns of data in tables and
graph axes. The symbol is printed first (in italic),
separated by a forward slash
(the printing term is a solidus)
from the unit (in roman).
For example
velocity v is italic
but its unit ms−1 is roman.
• A scalar is a quantity which only has a magnitude (size)
• A vector is a quantity which has both a magnitude and a direction
• For example, if a person goes on a hike in the woods to a location which is a
couple of miles from their starting point
As the crow flies, their displacement will only be a few miles but the distance
they walked will be much longer
 is a scalar quantity because it describes how an object has travelled
overall, but not the direction it has travelled in
is a vector quantity because it describes how far an object is
from where it started and in what direction There are a number of common scalar
and vector quantities
 Errors and uncertainties:

• Measurements of quantities are made with the aim of finding the true value of that
quantity
• In reality, it is impossible to obtain the true value of any quantity, there will always be
a degree of uncertainty
• The uncertainty is an estimate of the difference between a measurement reading and
the true value
• Random and systematic errors are two types of measurement errors which lead to
uncertainty
• Random errors cause unpredictable fluctuations in an instrumentʼs readings as a
result of uncontrollable factors, such as environmental conditions
• This affects the precision of the measurements taken, causing a wider spread of
results about the mean value
• To reduce random error: repeat measurements several times and calculate an
average from them

• Systematic errors arise from the use of faulty instruments used or from flaws in
the experimental method
• This type of error is repeated every time the instrument is used or the method is
followed, which affects the accuracy of all readings obtained
• To reduce systematic errors: instruments should be recalibrated or the
technique being used should be corrected or adjusted
• This is a type of systematic error which occurs when an instrument gives a
reading when the true reading is zero
• This introduces a fixed error into readings which must be accounted for
when the results are recorded
 this is how close the measured values are to
each ; if a measurement is repeated several times, then they can be described
as precise when the values are very similar to, or the same as, each other
• The precision of a measurement is reflected in the values recorded -
measurements to a greater number of decimal places are said to be more precise
than those to a whole number

this is how close a measured value is to the true value; the accuracy
can be increased by repeating measurements and finding a mean average
• There is always a degree of uncertainty when measurements are taken; the
uncertainty can be thought of as the difference between the actual reading taken
(caused by the equipment or techniques used) and the true value

• Uncertainties are not the same as errors

1)Errors can be thought of as issues with equipment or methodology that cause a

reading to be different from the true value
2)The uncertainty is a range of values around a measurement within which the true
value is expected to lie, and is an estimate
 • For example, if the true value of the mass of a box is 950 g, but a systematic error with a
balance gives an actual reading of 952 g, the uncertainty is ±2 g
• These uncertainties can be represented in a number of ways:

1)Absolute Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a fixed quantity

2)Fractional Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a fraction of the
measurement
3)Percentage Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a percentage of the
measurement

To find uncertainties in different situations:

The uncertainty in a reading: ± half the smallest division
The uncertainty in a measurement: at least ±1 smallest division
The uncertainty in repeated data: half the range i.e. ± ½ (largest - smallest value)
The uncertainty in digital readings: ± the last significant digit unless otherwise quoted
• Common instruments used in Physics are:

1)Metre rules - to measure distance and length

2)Balances - to measure mass
3)Protractors - to measure angles
4)Stopwatches - to measure time
5)Ammeters - to measure current
6)Voltmeters - to measure potential difference

• More complicated instruments such as the micrometer screw gauge and Vernier
calipers can be used to more accurately measure length
• When using measuring instruments like these you need to ensure that you are fully
aware of what each division on a scale represents This is known as the resolution
•
• The resolution is the smallest change in the physical quantity being measured that
results in a change in the reading given by the measuring instrument

• The smaller the change that can be measured by the instrument, the greater the degree
of resolution

• For example, a standard mercury thermometer has a resolution of 1°C whereas a typical
digital thermometer will have a resolution of 0.1°C

• The digital thermometer has a higher resolution than the mercury thermometer
• A micrometer, or a micrometer screw gauge, is a tool used for measuring small widths,
thicknesses or diameters
For example, the diameter of a copper wire It has a resolution of 0.01 mm

• The micrometer is made up of two scales:

The main scale - this is on the sleeve (sometimes called the barrel)
The thimble scale - this is a rotating scale on the thimble

• The spindle and anvil are closed around the object being measured by rotating the ratchet This
should be tight enough so the object does not fall out but not so tight that is deformed Never
tighten the spindle using the barrel, only using the ratchet. This will reduce the chances of
overtightening and zero errors

• The value measured from the micrometer is read where the thimble scale aligns with the main
scale This should always be recorded to 2 decimal places (eg. 1.40 mm not just 1.4 mm)
• Vernier calipers are another distance measuring tool that uses a sliding vernier scale
They can also be used to measure diameters and thicknesses, just like the micrometer
However, they can also measure the length of small objects such as a screw or the depth of a hole

• Vernier calipers generally have a resolution of 0.1 mm, however, some are as small as 0.02 mm - 0.05
mm
• The calipers are made up of two scales:
The main scale
The vernier scale
• The two upper or lower jaws are clamped around the object
The sliding vernier scale will follow this and can be held in place using the locking screw

• The value measured from the caliper is read when the vernier scale aligns with the main scale

• This should always be recorded to at least 1 decimal place (eg. 12.1 mm not just 12 mm)