11/07/2024, 06:22 Top 65 SQL Interview Questions You Must Prepare For 2021 | by Kislay Keshari | Edureka | Medium

Questions article, I will introduce you to the most frequently asked questions
on SQL (Structured Query Language). This blog is the perfect guide for you to
learn all the concepts related to SQL, Oracle, MS SQL Server, and MySQL
database.

Our SQL Interview Questions blog is the one-stop resource from where you can
boost your interview preparation. It has a set of top 65 questions which an
interviewer plans to ask during an interview process. It starts with the basic
SQL interview questions and later continues to advanced questions based on
your discussions and answers. These SQL Interview questions will help you
with different expertise levels to reap the maximum benefit from this article.

Let’s get started!

SQL Interview Questions

Q1. What is the difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE statements?

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Q2. What are the different subsets of SQL?

DDL (Data Definition Language) — It allows you to perform various
operations on the database such as CREATE, ALTER and DELETE objects.

DML ( Data Manipulation Language) — It allows you to access and

manipulate data. It helps you to insert, update, delete and retrieve data
from the database.

DCL ( Data Control Language) — It allows you to control access to the

database. Example — Grant, Revoke access permissions.

Q3. What do you mean by DBMS? What are its different types?

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A database is a structured collection of data.

A Database Management System ( DBMS) is a software application that

interacts with the user, applications and the database itself to capture and
analyze data.

A DBMS allows a user to interact with the database. The data stored in the
database can be modified, retrieved and deleted and can be of any type like
strings, numbers, images, etc.

There are two types of DBMS:

Relational Database Management System: The data is stored in relations

(tables). Example — MySQL.

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Non-Relational Database Management System: There is no concept of

relations, tuples, and attributes. Example — MongoDB

Q4. What do you mean by table and field in SQL?

A table refers to a collection of data in an organized manner in the form of
rows and columns. A field refers to the number of columns in a table. For
example:

Table: StudentInformation
Field: Stu Id, Stu Name, Stu Marks

Q5. What are joins in SQL?

A JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a
related column between them. It is used to merge two tables or retrieve data
from there. There are 4 joins in SQL namely:

Inner Join

Right Join

Left Join

Full Join

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Q6. What is the difference between CHAR and VARCHAR2 datatype in

SQL?
Both Char and Varchar2 are used for characters datatype but varchar2 is
used for character strings of variable length whereas Char is used for strings
of fixed length. For example, char(10) can only store 10 characters and will
not be able to store a string of any other length whereas varchar2(10) can
store any length i.e 6,8,2 in this variable.

Q7. What is the Primary key?

A Primary key is a column (or collection of columns) or a set of columns

that uniquely identifies each row in the table.

Uniquely identifies a single row in the table

Null values not allowed

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Example- In the Student table, Stu_ID is the primary key.

Q8. What are Constraints?

Constraints are used to specify the limit on the data type of the table. It can
be specified while creating or altering the table statement. The sample of
constraints are:

NOT NULL

CHECK

DEFAULT

UNIQUE

PRIMARY KEY

FOREIGN KEY

Q9. What is the difference between SQL and MySQL?

SQL is a standard language which stands for Structured Query Language
based on the English language whereas MySQL is a database management
system. SQL is the core of the relational database which is used for accessing
and managing database, MySQL is an RDMS (Relational Database
Management System) such as SQL Server, Informix, etc.
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Q10. What is a Unique key?

Uniquely identifies a single row in the table.

Multiple values allowed per table.

Null values allowed.

Q11. What is a Foreign key?

Foreign key maintains referential integrity by enforcing a link between
the data in two tables.

The foreign key in the child table references the primary key in the
parent table.

The foreign key constraint prevents actions that would destroy links
between the child and parent tables.

Q12. What do you mean by data integrity?

Data Integrity defines accuracy as well as the consistency of the data stored
in a database. It also defines integrity constraints to enforce business rules
on the data when it is entered into an application or a database.

Q13. What is the difference between clustered and non clustered index in
SQL?
The differences between the clustered and non clustered index in SQL are :
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1. The clustered index is used for easy retrieval of data from the database
and its faster whereas reading from a non clustered index is relatively
slower.

2. Clustered index alters the way records are stored in a database as it sorts
out rows by the column which is set to be clustered index whereas in a
non clustered index, it does not alter the way it was stored but it creates a
separate object within a table which points back to the original table rows
after searching.

3. One table can only have one clustered index whereas it can have many
non clustered index.

Q14. Write a SQL query to display the current date?

In SQL, there is a built-in function called GetDate() which helps to return the
current timestamp/date.

Q15. List the different type of joins

There are various types of joins which are used to retrieve data between the
tables. There are four types of joins, namely:

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Inner join: Inner Join in MySQL is the most common type of join. It is
used to return all the rows from multiple tables where the join condition
is satisfied.

Left Join: Left Join in MySQL is used to return all the rows from the left
table but only the matching rows from the right table where the join
condition is fulfilled.

Right Join: Right Join in MySQL is used to return all the rows from the
right table but only the matching rows from the left table where the join
condition is fulfilled.
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Full Join: Full join returns all the records when there is a match in any of
the tables. Therefore, it returns all the rows from the left-hand side table
and all the rows from the right-hand side table.

Q16. What do you mean by Denormalization?

Denormalization refers to a technique which is used to access data from
higher to lower forms of a database. It helps the database managers to
increase the performance of the entire infrastructure as it introduces
redundancy into a table. It adds the redundant data into a table by
incorporating database queries that combine data from various tables into a
single table.

Q17. What are Entities and Relationships?

Entities: A person, place, or thing in the real world about which data can be
stored in a database. Tables store data that represents one type of entity. For
example — A bank database has a customer table to store customer
information. Customer table stores this information as a set of attributes
(columns within the table) for each customer.

Relationships: Relation or links between entities that have something to do

with each other. For example — The customer name is related to the
customer account number and contact information, which might be in the
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same table. There can also be relationships between separate tables (for
example, customer to accounts).

Q18. What is an Index?

An index refers to a performance tuning method of allowing faster retrieval
of records from the table. An index creates an entry for each value and
hence it will be faster to retrieve data.

Q19. Explain different types of index.

There are three types of index namely:

Unique Index:

This index does not allow the field to have duplicate values if the column is
unique indexed. If a primary key is defined, a unique index can be applied
automatically.

Clustered Index:

This index reorders the physical order of the table and searches based on the
basis of key values. Each table can only have one clustered index.

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Non-Clustered Index:

Non-Clustered Index does not alter the physical order of the table and
maintains a logical order of the data. Each table can have many nonclustered
indexes.

Q20. What is Normalization and what are the advantages of it?

Normalization is the process of organizing data to avoid duplication and
redundancy. Some of the advantages are:

Better Database organization

More Tables with smaller rows

Efficient data access

Greater Flexibility for Queries

Quickly find the information

Easier to implement Security

Allows easy modification

Reduction of redundant and duplicate data

More Compact Database

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Ensure Consistent data after modification

Q21. What is the difference between DROP and TRUNCATE commands?

DROP command removes a table and it cannot be rolled back from the
database whereas TRUNCATE command removes all the rows from the table.

Q22. Explain different types of Normalization.

There are many successive levels of normalization. These are called normal
forms. Each consecutive normal form depends on the previous one. The first
three normal forms are usually adequate.

First Normal Form (1NF) — No repeating groups within rows

Second Normal Form (2NF) — Every non-key (supporting) column value is

dependent on the whole primary key.

Third Normal Form (3NF) — Dependent solely on the primary key and no
other non-key (supporting) column value.

Q23. What is ACID property in a database?

ACID stands for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability. It is used to
ensure that the data transactions are processed reliably in a database
system.

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Atomicity: Atomicity refers to the transactions that are completely done

or failed where transaction refers to a single logical operation of a data. It
means if one part of any transaction fails, the entire transaction fails and
the database state is left unchanged.

Consistency: Consistency ensures that the data must meet all the
validation rules. In simple words, you can say that your transaction never
leaves the database without completing its state.

Isolation: The main goal of isolation is concurrency control.

Durability: Durability means that if a transaction has been committed, it

will occur whatever may come in between such as power loss, crash or
any sort of error.

Q24. What do you mean by “Trigger” in SQL?

Trigger in SQL is are a special type of stored procedures that are defined to
execute automatically in place or after data modifications. It allows you to
execute a batch of code when an insert, update or any other query is
executed against a specific table.

Q25. What are the different operators available in SQL?

There are three operators available in SQL, namely:

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1. Arithmetic Operators

2. Logical Operators

3. Comparison Operators

Q26. Are NULL values the same as that of zero or a blank space?
A NULL value is not at all same as that of zero or a blank space. The NULL
value represents a value which is unavailable, unknown, assigned or not
applicable whereas zero is a number and blank space is a character.

Q27. What is the difference between cross join and natural join?
The cross join produces the cross product or Cartesian product of two tables
whereas the natural join is based on all the columns having the same name
and data types in both the tables.

Q28. What is subquery in SQL?

A subquery is a query inside another query where a query is defined to
retrieve data or information back from the database. In a subquery, the outer
query is called as the main query whereas the inner query is called
subquery. Subqueries are always executed first and the result of the
subquery is passed on to the main query. It can be nested inside a SELECT,

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UPDATE or any other query. A subquery can also use any comparison
operators such as >,< or =.

Q29. What are the different types of subquery?

There are two types of subquery namely, Correlated and Non-Correlated.

Correlated subquery: These are queries which select the data from a
table referenced in the outer query. It is not considered as an
independent query as it refers to another table and refers the column in a
table.

Non-Correlated subquery: This query is an independent query where the

output of subquery is substituted in the main query.

Q30. List the ways to get the count of records in a table?

To count the number of records in a table, you can use the below commands:

SELECT * FROM table1

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM table1
SELECT rows FROM sysindexes WHERE id = OBJECT_ID(table1) AND indid <
2

Q31. Write a SQL query to find the names of employees that begin with ‘A’?
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To display the name of the employees that begin with ‘A’, type in the below
command:

SELECT * FROM Table_name WHERE EmpName like 'A%'

Q32. Write a SQL query to get the third-highest salary of an employee from
employee_table?

SELECT TOP 1 salary

FROM(
SELECT TOP 3 salary
FROM employee_table
ORDER BY salary DESC) AS emp
ORDER BY salary ASC;

Q33. What is the need for group functions in SQL?

Group functions work on the set of rows and return one result per group.
Some of the commonly used group functions are AVG, COUNT, MAX, MIN,
SUM, VARIANCE.

Q34. What is a Relationship and what are they?

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Relation or links are between entities that have something to do with each
other. Relationships are defined as the connection between the tables in a
database. There are various relationships, namely:

One to One Relationship.

One to Many Relationship.

Many to One Relationship.

Self-Referencing Relationship.

Q35. How can you insert NULL values in a column while inserting the data?
NULL values can be inserted in the following ways:

Implicitly by omitting column from column list.

Explicitly by specifying NULL keyword in the VALUES clause

Q36. What is the main difference between ‘BETWEEN’ and ‘IN’ condition
operators?
BETWEEN operator is used to display rows based on a range of values in a
row whereas the IN condition operator is used to check for values contained
in a specific set of values.

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Example of BETWEEN:

SELECT * FROM Students where ROLL_NO BETWEEN 10 AND 50;

Example of IN:

SELECT * FROM students where ROLL_NO IN (8,15,25);

Q37. Why are SQL functions used?

SQL functions are used for the following purposes:

To perform some calculations on the data

To modify individual data items

To manipulate the output

To format dates and numbers

To convert the data types

Q38. What is the need of the MERGE statement?

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This statement allows conditional update or insertion of data into a table. It

performs an UPDATE if a row exists, or an INSERT if the row does not exist.

Q39. What do you mean by recursive stored procedure?

Recursive stored procedure refers to a stored procedure which calls by itself
until it reaches some boundary condition. This recursive function or
procedure helps the programmers to use the same set of code n number of
times.

Q40. What is CLAUSE in SQL?

SQL clause helps to limit the result set by providing a condition to the query.
A clause helps to filter the rows from the entire set of records.

For example — WHERE, HAVING clause.

Q41. What is the difference between ‘HAVING’ CLAUSE and a ‘WHERE’

CLAUSE?
HAVING clause can be used only with SELECT statement. It is usually used in
a GROUP BY clause and whenever GROUP BY is not used, HAVING behaves
like a WHERE clause. Having Clause is only used with the GROUP BY
function in a query whereas WHERE Clause is applied to each row before
they are a part of the GROUP BY function in a query.

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Q42. List the ways in which Dynamic SQL can be executed?

Following are the ways in which dynamic SQL can be executed:

Write a query with parameters.

Using EXEC.

Using sp_executesql.

Q43. What are the various levels of constraints?

Constraints are the representation of a column to enforce data entity and
consistency. There are two levels of a constraint, namely:

column-level constraint

table-level constraint

Q44. How can you fetch common records from two tables?
You can fetch common records from two tables using INTERSECT. For
example:

Select studentID from student INTERSECT Select StudentID from ExaM

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Q45. List some case manipulation functions in SQL?

There are three case manipulation functions in SQL, namely:

LOWER: This function returns the string in lowercase. It takes a string as

an argument and returns it by converting it into lower case. Syntax:

LOWER('string')

UPPER: This function returns the string in uppercase. It takes a string as

an argument and returns it by converting it into uppercase. Syntax:

UPPER('string'

INITCAP: This function returns the string with the first letter in
uppercase and the rest of the letters in lowercase. Syntax:

INITCAP(‘string’)

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Q46. What are the different set operators available in SQL?

Some of the available set operators are — Union, Intersect or Minus
operators.

Q47. What is an ALIAS command?

ALIAS name can be given to any table or a column. This alias name can be
referred in WHERE clause to identify a particular table or a column.

For example-

Select emp.empID, dept.Result from employee emp, department as dept

where emp.empID=dept.empID

In the above example, emp refers to alias name for employee table and dept
refers to alias name for department table.

Q48. What are the aggregate and scalar functions?

Aggregate functions are used to evaluate mathematical calculation and
return a single value. These calculations are done from the columns in a
table. For example- max(),count() are calculated with respect to numeric.

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Scalar functions return a single value based on the input value. For example
— UCASE(), NOW() are calculated with respect to the string.

Q49. How can you fetch alternate records from a table?

You can fetch alternate records i.e both odd and even row numbers. For
example- To display even numbers, use the following command:

Select studentId from (Select rowno, studentId from student) where

mod(rowno,2)=0

Now, to display odd numbers:

Select studentId from (Select rowno, studentId from student) where

mod(rowno,2)=1

Q50. Name the operator which is used in the query for pattern matching?
LIKE operator is used for pattern matching, and it can be used as -.

1. % — It matches zero or more characters.

For example- select * from students where studentname like ‘a%’

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_ (Underscore) — it matches exactly one character. For example- select *

from student where studentname like ‘abc_’

Q51. How can you select unique records from a table?

You can select unique records from a table by using the DISTINCT keyword.

Select DISTINCT studentID from Student

Using this command, it will print unique student id from the table Student.

Q52. How can you fetch first 5 characters of the string?

There are a lot of ways to fetch characters from a string. For example:

Select SUBSTRING(StudentName,1,5) as studentname from student

Q53. What is the main difference between SQL and PL/SQL?

SQL is a query language that allows you to issue a single query or execute a
single insert/update/delete whereas PL/SQL is Oracle’s “Procedural
Language” SQL, which allows you to write a full program (loops, variables,

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etc.) to accomplish multiple operations such as

selects/inserts/updates/deletes.

Q54. What is a View?

A view is a virtual table which consists of a subset of data contained in a
table. Since views are not present, it takes less space to store. View can have
data of one or more tables combined and it depends on the relationship.

Q55. What are Views used for?

A view refers to a logical snapshot based on a table or another view. It is used
for the following reasons:

Restricting access to data.

Making complex queries simple.

Ensuring data independence.

Providing different views of the same data.

Q56. What is a Stored Procedure?

A Stored Procedure is a function which consists of many SQL statements to
access the database system. Several SQL statements are consolidated into a

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stored procedure and execute them whenever and wherever required which
saves time and avoid writing code again and again.

Q57. List some advantages and disadvantages of Stored Procedure

Advantages:

A Stored Procedure can be used as modular programming which means

create once, store and call for several times whenever it is required. This
supports faster execution. It also reduces network traffic and provides better
security to the data.

Disadvantages:

The only disadvantage of Stored Procedure is that it can be executed only in

the database and utilizes more memory in the database server.

Q58. List all the types of user-defined functions?

There are three types of user-defined functions, namely:

Scalar Functions

Inline Table-valued functions

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Multi-statement valued functions

Scalar returns the unit, variant defined the return clause. Other two types of
defined functions return table.

Q59. What do you mean by Collation?

Collation is defined as a set of rules that determine how data can be sorted
as well as compared. Character data is sorted using the rules that define the
correct character sequence along with options for specifying case-sensitivity,
character width, etc.

Q60. What are the different types of Collation Sensitivity?

Following are the different types of collation sensitivity:

Case Sensitivity

Kana Sensitivity

Width Sensitivity

Accent Sensitivity

Q61. What are Local and Global variables?

Local variables:
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These variables can be used or exist only inside the function. These variables
are not used or referred by any other function.

Global variables:

These variables are the variables which can be accessed throughout the
program. Global variables cannot be created whenever that function is
called.

Q62. What is Auto Increment in SQL?

Autoincrement keyword allows the user to create a unique number to get
generated whenever a new record is inserted into the table. This keyword is
usually required whenever the PRIMARY KEY is used.

AUTOINCREMENT keyword can be used in Oracle and IDENTITY keyword

can be used in SQL SERVER.

Q63. What is a Datawarehouse?

Datawarehouse refers to a central repository of data where the data is
assembled from multiple sources of information. Those data are
consolidated, transformed and made available for the mining as well as

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online processing. Warehouse data also have a subset of data called Data
Marts.

Q64. What are the different authentication modes in SQL Server? How can
it be changed?
Windows mode and Mixed Mode — SQL and Windows. You can go to the
below steps to change authentication mode in SQL Server:

Click Start> Programs> Microsoft SQL Server and click SQL Enterprise
Manager to run SQL Enterprise Manager from the Microsoft SQL Server
program group.

Then select the server from the Tools menu.

Select SQL Server Configuration Properties, and choose the Security

page.

Q65. What are STUFF and REPLACE function?

STUFF Function: This function is used to overwrite an existing character or
inserts a string into another string. Syntax:

STUFF(string_expression,start, length, replacement_characters)

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