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Drinking water quality of Chattogram city in Bangladesh: An analytical and

residents' perception study

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DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e12247

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Research article

Drinking water quality of Chattogram city in Bangladesh: An analytical and

residents' perception study
Prety Debnath a, M.M. Abdullah Al Mamun a, *, Shyamal Karmakar a, Mohammed Salim Uddin b,
Tapan Kumar Nath c
a
Institute of Forestry and Environmental Sciences, University of Chittagong, Chattogram 4331, Bangladesh
b
Department of Environmental Technology, Chittagong Polytechnic Institute, Nasirabad, Chattogram 4209, Bangladesh
c
School of Environmental and Geographical Sciences, University of Nottingham Malaysia, JalanBroga, Semenyih, Selangor 43500, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Residents of Chattogram city areas in Bangladesh use drinking water from three sources, namely CWASA
Drinking water (Chattogram Water supply and Sewerage Authority), groundwater (tube-well), and commercial jar. In this study,
Supply water we examined the quality of drinking water from these sources following an analytical and residents' perception.
Tube-well water
Water samples (both untreated and treated) from above three sources were collected from six locations across
Water quality
Chattogram city, and pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), total suspended solids (TSS), bicarbonate, electrical con-
Microbial load
ductivity (EC), salinity, and microbial load were studied following the state-of-art testing methods. A total of 149
respondents were interviewed to understand their perception on the physical properties of water. The pH value of
water from all sources and locations and irrespective of treatments, varied from 6.54 to 7.02. TDS of tube-well
water in two locations exceeded the standard limit (1000 mg/l). In most locations, TSS varied from 40 to
1888 mg/l (treated and untreated) against the standard value of 10 mg/l, while bicarbonate of CWASA and tube-
well water in most locations was also higher than the permissible amount (500 mg/l). Except for jar water, EC of
CWASA and tube-well water (treated and untreated) in most locations were higher than the standard value (500
μS) and a similar situation was observed for salinity content. The microbial load was found beyond the permis-
sible limit (0 CFU/ml) for all sources and locations. These parameters of water quality have also been reflected in
residents' perceptions of drinking water. Respondents reported an unpleasant odour (56%), the presence of
suspended particles (17%), and so CWASA water is not good for drinking (76%). Authorities (CWASA) need to
take action toward a safe drinking water supply for residents.

1. Introduction in this city is CWASA (Chattogram Water Supply and Sewerage Author-
ity) through its pipe network.
Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated countries in the In contrast, a significant part depends on tube-well/groundwater or
world (Farid et al., 1970), with 163 million people (World Bank, 2019). jar water supply. The population is increasing daily in Chattogram city
The scarcity of resources is a common problem for this large population due to industrialization, rapid urbanization, establishment of Export
(Islam, 2016). The surface and groundwater resources are controlled by Processing Zone and migration of people etc. The city's excessive popu-
geological, climatic, and anthropogenic factors. The groundwater aquifer lation growth has put extra pressure on the growing need for water
is contaminated by mixing higher amounts of arsenic and iron, bicar- supply, sewerage and storm water drainage services (Amin, 2015). Hasan
bonate content, saline water (to the coastal districts), and Total Dissolved and Uddin (2016) reported that CWASA could provide service to only
Solids (TDS) (Rahman and Islam, 2018). Chattogram is the 50% of the population. They also reported that only 30% of people drink
second-largest city in Bangladesh. National census 2011 and Bangladesh shallow tube-well water, 23% of people drink deep tube-well water, 20%
Statistics 2019 reported that about 4 million people live in this metro- drink hand pump tube-well water, 13% drink water supplied by railway
politan city (BBS, 2011; BBS, 2019). The leading drinking water supplier authority, and 14% of people drink WASA water. Due to over-extraction,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mamun@cu.ac.bd (M.M.A.A. Mamun).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e12247
Received 10 April 2022; Received in revised form 29 August 2022; Accepted 1 December 2022
2405-8440/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
P. Debnath et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e12247

the groundwater of the city experiences a gradual decline in its resource Ahmed, 2015). Groundwater in Chattogram city contains a high iron
(Karmakar et al., 2006), which also creates additional pressure on the concentration (2–8 mg/l), as Amin (2006) reported. Besides, human
quality of water supply in the city. The city is experiencing a water induced factors also deteriorate the water quality. Direct disposal of in-
shortage and a severe concern quality of water from its suppliers. The dustrial organic pollutants (Nazir et al., 2020b) and sewage into rivers by
water resource in its surrounding regions also reported water quality due municipalities causes water pollution, which deteriorates water quality.
to increasing settlement and land use (Datta et al., 2022). However, a For example, methyl orange, which is widely used in various industries,
systematic study of this city’s water supply is not reported in the litera- can cause several health issues including jaundice, tissue necrosis,
ture to date. vomiting, etc. (Nazir et al., 2021). As CWASA cannot meet the demand
CWASA of Bangladesh supplies water to the Chattogram city residents for water in the city, many households and industries have installed deep
through its distribution network after treatment of water drawn from the tube-wells. As a result, many people become dependent on tube-well
two rivers, Karnafuli, Halda, and groundwater source. However, there is water for drinking purposes. Residents in city areas use some sorts of
a growing concern about contamination in its extended distribution water treatments (boiling and filtration) to confirm quality of the water
network due to a lack of regular monitoring (Nawas et al., 2012). The city before household uses. In this study, we investigated the drinking water
drainage system is not sound and sometimes stagnates due to a signifi- quality from different sources (CWASA, tube-well and commercial jar)
cant amount of solid waste (Chowdhury and Akter, 2020). The existence across six different locations in Chattogran city areas. We also assessed
of drainage congestion and water logging problem in many parts of residents' perceptions on the physical properties of drinking water.
Chattogram city also adds to unhygienic conditions like contamination of
water bodies, the spread of diseases, breading of mosquitoes, etc. The 2. Materials and method
leaching of drain water during water-logging can cause groundwater
pollution, polluting the water of shallow tube-well (Amin, 2015). Jar This study followed standard ethics guidelines and confirmed that it
water is consumed by the majority of the population in Chattogram city. meets the guidelines of “Elsevier’s Publishing Ethics policies”.
Bangladesh Standards and Testing Institute (BSTI) provides guidelines
and approval for producing commercially supplied drinking water (jar
2.1. Residents' survey and water sampling
water) for handling, processing, and distribution from factory to con-
sumer. However, many of the processors may not have been licensed for
This study was conducted in six locations (e. g. Kotwali, Halishahar,
their operations, which could be the reason for more contamination of jar
Bayzid, Chandgaon, Bandar, and Soraipara) of Chattogram City Corpo-
water (Mina et al., 2018).
ration (CCC) area (Figure 1). We conducted a quick questionnaire survey
In Chattogram, about 62.01% (3090.63 km2) area is under the severe
on residents' perception on physical quality of drinking water sources and
saline zone. Hence, salinity is a common problem here (Sarker and
prevalence of water borne diseases. We interviewed 149 residents

Figure 1. (a) Map of Chattogram City Corporation (left) showing the study area and the number of water samples and respondents, the post and (b) map of
Bangladesh. We prepared this map using QGIS 3.24 (www.qgis.org).

2
P. Debnath et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e12247

following a convenience sampling. Water samples were collected from X is the volume of H2SO4 required for phenolphthalein at end point,
interviewees houses. We found that residents drink water from three Therefore, total alkalinity ¼ CO2- -
3 (mg/l) þ HCO3(mg/l).
sources, namely CWASA, tube-well and commercial jar. They usually
treat CWASA and tube-well water before drinking. The treatment process 2.3.3. Salinity
includes boiling (20–30 min) followed by filtration using available Salinity was measured from the value of TDS by using following the
commercial filtration modules. For jar water, they only use filtration formula:
process. We collected two water samples (treated and untreated) from
each source in each study site. However, there was no CWASA water TDSðmg=lÞ
Salinity 
supply in Bayzid during this study time (2019–20) and so could not 0:55
collect CWASA water samples. For each water sample, we collected 200 The conversion factor 0.55 was used for determining the salinity of
ml water in plastic bottle, which was later kept in airtight condition and the water. This value ranges from 0.5 to 0.7 depending on the water
labeled with source and location before chemical analysis. source. For drinking water, 0.55 was used for determining salinity
(Government of South Australia, 2020).
2.2. Analytical method
2.4. Data analysis
pH, TDS, and EC of water samples were measured by a HANNA
multiparameter meter (Model-HI98129). TSS was determined by filtra- Residents' responses were analysed in percentages. A one-way anal-
tion method (Baxter, 2017). while carbonate and bicarbonate were ysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to find the significant differences of
determined by titration method (Thomas and Lynch, 1960) For microbial water quality values between two treatments, among three sources and
load determination, total number of colonies was determined by nutrient six locations.
agar method (Mamun et al., 2016). Salinity was determined from the
value of TDS, as described by the Government of South Australia (2020). 3. Results and discussion
These parameters of water samples indicate pollution or contamination
that will affect drinking water use (Omer, 2020). 3.1. Physical and chemical assessment

3.1.1. pH
2.3. Calculation method
The pH value of water from all sources and locations and irrespective
of treatments were varied from 6.54 to 7.02 (Figure 2). The pH value of
2.3.1. TSS
CWASA water (untreated) was lowest (6.54) in Bandar are highest (6.81)
First, 50 ml of sample water was poured into a beaker from which 10
in Halishahar areas. The pH values of tube-well water (untreated) varied
ml was taken in a measuring cylinder. Took a filter paper and weighted,
from 6.58 (Soraipara) to 6.92 (Bayzid and Halishahae). On the other
and then used it to filter 10 ml sample water. The wetted filter paper was
hand, pH of jar water (untreated) ranged from 6.67 (Soraipara) to 7.02
then dried entirely in the woven at 103
C for 24 h. Finally, the weight of
(Bayzid). In case of treated water samples, the range of pH values were
the dried filter paper was taken. The differences between these two
almost similar to untreated water samples and statistically there was no
weights represent the value of TSS of the water (Rajvaidya and Mar-
significant difference between treated and untreated water samples
kandey, 1998). Following formula was used to calculate TSS:
across all sources. However, significant differences (p < 0.05) were
ðA  BÞ  1000 observed across locations except jar water. The standard level of pH for
TSS ðmg = lÞ ¼ drinking water is 6.5–8.5 (Nur-E-Alam et al., 2016). Similar results were
Volume of the sample water
found in Pakistan where the pH level of bottled water ranges from 7.35 to
where. 7.95 (Nazir et al., 2020a). As such, it can be said that the pH of studied
water samples in different locations of CCC was within the permissible
A ¼ Final weight of filter paper limit.
B¼Initial weight of filter paper
3.1.2. Total dissolved solids
2.3.2. Alkalinity (carbonate, bicarbonate) The minimum and maximum value of TDS for untreated CWASA,
For the measurement of bicarbonate, 50 ml of water (10 ml sample tube-well and jar water was 74–539 mg/l, 191–1314 mg/l, and 150–321
water and 40 ml distilled water) was taken in a 250 ml conical flask mg/l, respectively, across study locations (Figure 2). After treatment,
where 2–3 drops of phenolphthalein were then added. The appearance of there were remarkable changes of TDS value in some locations. For ex-
pink color indicated the presence of carbonate. The content so prepared amples, TDS value of CWASA water at Bandar location increased to 717
was titrated against 0.02 N H2SO4 until the color disappeared because of mg/l from 146 mg/l (untreated). In case of tube-well water, it was
alkali carbonate being converted to bicarbonate. Then, 2–3 drops of reduced to 82 mg/l from 1314 mg/l (untreated) at the same location, and
methyl red indicator solution were added to the colorless solution to give at Halishahar this was lightly increased to 1051 mg/l. Across different
yellow color, which was again titrated against 0.02 N H2SO4 until rosy locations, there was a significant (p < 0.05) difference of TDS values
red color developed. Carbonate (CO2- -
3 ) and bicarbonate (HCO3) were
between treated and untreated water. According to ECR 1997, the
calculated using following equations (Thomas and Lynch, 1960). standard level of TDS is 1000 mg/l (Nur-E-Alam et al., 2016). Hence,
tube-well water at Bandar and Halishahar locations exceeded the
Volume of H2 SO4 ð2xÞ  N  30  1000 permissible drinking water limit.
CO32 ðmg = lÞ ¼
Volume of water sample taken
3.1.3. Total suspended solids (TSS)
Volume of H2 SO4  N  61  1000 TSS are not desirable in drinking water. According to ECR 1997,
HCO3  ðmg = lÞ ¼ the standard value of TSS for drinking water is 10 mg/l (Nur-E-Alam
Volume of water sample taken
et al., 2016). In three locations, CWASA water (treated and untreated)
where, had TSS (40–521 mg/l untreated and 85–854 mg/l treated water)
exceeding the standard limit (Figure 2). Similar findings were found
N is the normality of H2SO4, for tube-well in four locations where the range was 240–768 mg/l

3
P. Debnath et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e12247

Figure 2. pH, TDS (mg/L), TSS (mg/L) and bicarbonate (mg/L) in 2(a) untreated and 2(b) treated water from various sources in different location in CCC, Bangladesh.

(untreated water) and 377–1888 mg/l (treated water). Surprisingly, 3.1.4. Bicarbonate
commercial jar water also had TSS in Soraipara. The quantity of TSS Considering the ECR, 1997 standard (500 mg/l) for alkalinity, un-
was increased after treatment except CWASA water sampled from treated tube-well water in all studied locations of CCC is not suitable for
Kotwali. The TSS values of CWASA water across different locations drinking because bicarbonate values across all locations varied from 549
were significantly (p < 0.05) different, which was probably due to mg/l (Chandgaon) to 732 mg/l (Bandar and Halishahar) (Figure 2). Even
higher TSS in Bandar area. after treatment, these values in some locations were higher than the

4
P. Debnath et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e12247

Table 1. Comparison of EC (μS) between untreated and treated water of different sources and locations in CCC, Bangladesh.

Location CWASA Tube-well Jar

Untreated Treated Untreated Treated Untreated Treated

Kotwali 1076 862 2027 1246 364 433
Halishahar 706 576 1883 2040 650 720
Bayzid 739 640 413 200
Chandgaon 291 153 385 495 322 152
Bandar 304 1432 2630 163 300 150
Soraipara 147 184 701 822 547 570

Table 2. Comparison of salinity (ppt) between untreated and treated water from different sources and locations in CCC, Bangladesh.

Location WASA Tube-well Jar

Untreated Treated Untreated Treated Untreated Treated

Kotwali 0.98 0.76 1.8 1.02 0.35 0.37
Halishahar 0.65 0.49 1.82 1.91 0.58 0.65
Bayzid - - 0.82 0.58 0.38 0.18
Chandgaon 0.26 0.12 0.35 0.5 0.26 0.14
Bandar 0.27 1.3 2.39 0.15 0.27 0.14
Soraipara 0.13 0.15 0.64 0.75 0.5 0.5

standard. In case of CWASA, bicarbonate in untreated water varied from colony-forming units were beyond the standard level, so the water of all
488 mg/l to 549 mg/l. Surprisingly, bicarbonate of CWASA water sources was not safe for drinking. A statistical analysis of ANOVA (related
increased to 610 mg/l from 488 mg/l after treatment. Jar water (both to untreated to treated conditions for all sources) microbial colony counts
treated and untreated) had bicarbonate below the standard except in from all sources showed no significant variation between untreated and
Soraipara location and this was significantly (p < 0.05) different to other treated conditions. This signifies that household treatment units are
locations. ineffective in decontaminating the water for safe drinking. From the
ANOVA test (related to untreated and treated water of different sources
3.1.5. Electrical conductivity (EC) according to areas), a significant difference was observed in microbial
With respect to sources, the EC of tube-well water has higher EC load for jar water than other sources with location (P-value <0.05).
ranging from 385 to 2630 μS (untreated) and 163 to 2040 μS (treated)
across different locations (Table 1). EC measures the concentration of 3.3. Residents' perception on water quality, physical properties, and
ions and dissolved solids in water which help to transmit current. Higher associated diseases
EC means the higher presence of salts as well as dissolved solids (Meride
and Ayenew, 2016). Saline water is not good for drinking because, it Respondents had no complaints about the quality and physical
causes dysentery, diarrhea and abdominal pain etc. (Chakraborty et al., properties of commercial jar water; hence their responses are not pre-
2019). Across different locations, the EC values of jar water were sented in Table 4. Only 5% of the respondents reported that untreated
comparatively lower (300–650 μS, untreated). Except Kotwali and Hal- CWASA water is good for drinking (Table 4). In case of tube-well water,
ishahar locations, the EC of CWASA water was lower than 300 μS. In this response rate was 72%. Regarding physical properties of untreated
Bangladesh, permissible EC for drinking water is 500 μS (Nur-E-Alam CWASA water, the main complaints were unpleasant odour (56%) and
et al., 2016). As such, in many locations, the EC of studied water samples presence of suspended particles (17%). On the other hand, 58% of
from different sources across various locations is higher than the pre-
scribed limit.
Table 3. Microbial load in different water sources and locations in CCC,
3.1.6. Salinity Bangladesh.
The salinity standard for drinking water in Bangladesh is 0.6 ppt Water source Location Microbial load in CFU/ml
(Chakraborty et al., 2019). In untreated tube-well water of Kotwali, WASA water Kotwali Untreated Treated
Halishahar, Bayzid, and Bandar area, and treated tube-well water of 1.0  104 8  103
Kotwali, Halishahar area, salinity levels were higher than 0.6 ppt Halishahar 9.25  103 8  103
(Table 2). Salinity levels of jar water irrespective of treatment and across Chandgaon 1.4  10 4
3.4  103
locations, showed within the standard limit. In case of CWASA water,
Bandar 1.14  104 6.75  103
salinity (for both treated and untreated water) was higher than the
Soraipara 1.15  104 1.03  104
standard at Kotwali location. 3
Tube-well water Kotwali 8.9  10 2.7  103
3
Halishahar 1.55  10 6.8  102
3.2. Microbial load analysis Bayzid 1.05  104 1.0  104
Chandgaon 6.8  102 6.0  103
According to ECR (1997), the standard number of colony-forming 4
Bandar 1.35  10 1.0  104
units is 0 CFU/ml and 50 CFU/ml for drinking water and supply water 3
Soraipara 6.2  10 5.1  103
(CWASA). In jar water, the microbial load was found to be less than the
Jar water Kotwali 1.0  103 6.5  102
microbial load of other sources (Table 3). According to the survey, the
Halishahar 1.5  102 1.0  102
improper management of WASA, the leakage in pipelines, etc., were the 2
Chandgaon 3.0  10 2.0  102
reasons for the contamination of WASA water as all the values of the

5
P. Debnath et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e12247

Mohammed Salim Uddin: Performed the experiments, Contributed

Table 4. Residents' responses on water quality, physical properties, and drinking reagents, materials, analysis tools or data.
water related disease prevalence in the study areas in CCC, Bangladesh.
Tapan Kumar Nath: Analyzed and interpreted the data, Wrote the
Name of disease Consumers of CWASA water Consumers of tube-well water paper.
(%) (%)
Water quality (untreated) Funding statement
Good for drinking 5 72
Not good for 76 14 This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies
drinking
in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
No comment 19 14
Physical properties of untreated water
Data availability statement
Colour - 58
Odour 56 5 Data will be made available on request.
Unusual taste 3 -
Suspended particles 17 - Declaration of interest’s statement
No comment 24 37
Diseases related to drinking water (treated) The authors declare no competing interests.
No disease 82 84
Diarrhea 11 9 Additional information
Jaundice 7 7
Household members having above diseases No additional information is available for this paper.
Adult - 29
Children 70 71 Acknowledgements
Both 30 -
The authors wish to thank Chittagong Polytechnic Institute for sup-
porting the research work.
respondents commented on the presence of brownish colour in tube-well
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