GCE

FURTHER MATHEMATICS
AS UNIT 1: FURTHER PURE MATHEMATICS A

Further Vectors
 Further Mathematics AS Unit 1: Further Pure Mathematics A

Further Vectors ............................................................................................................................ 2

Vectors ................................................................................................................................................ 2
Specification Content .......................................................................................................................... 2
Equations of a Line .............................................................................................................................. 2
Worked Example 1 .............................................................................................................................. 4
Worked Example 2 .............................................................................................................................. 4
Scalar Product ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Worked Example 3 .............................................................................................................................. 5
Worked Example 4 .............................................................................................................................. 7
Worked Example 5 .............................................................................................................................. 7
Worked Example 6 .............................................................................................................................. 9
Worked Example 7 .............................................................................................................................. 9
Worked Example 8 .............................................................................................................................. 9
Worked Example 9 ............................................................................................................................ 10
Worked Example 10 .......................................................................................................................... 10
Worked Example 11 .......................................................................................................................... 11
Worked Example 12 .......................................................................................................................... 12
Worked Example 13 .......................................................................................................................... 13
Worked Example 14 .......................................................................................................................... 13
Worked Example 15 .......................................................................................................................... 14
Worked Example 16 .......................................................................................................................... 14
Worked Example 17 .......................................................................................................................... 14
Worked Example 18 .......................................................................................................................... 15
Summary of Key Points: .................................................................................................................... 15
Questions .................................................................................................................................. 18
Question 1 Worked Solution ............................................................................................................. 18
Question 2 Worked Solution ............................................................................................................. 19

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 Further Mathematics AS Unit 1: Further Pure Mathematics A

Further Vectors
This section introduces the vector and Cartesian forms of lines and planes in 3-dimensional
space. The scalar product shall also be defined and its use in finding the angle between
lines and planes explored.

Vectors
You should already be familiar with vectors in two dimensions. There are several notations
that can be used for two-dimensional vectors. Let 𝒊𝒊 and 𝒋𝒋 denote unit vectors. These have a
length of 1 and act in the direction of the positive 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 axes respectively. A vector that
moves 2 units to the right and three units up can be denoted by 2𝒊𝒊 + 3𝒋𝒋. An alternative
2
notation for this vector is � �.
3

For this section, we extend to three dimensional vectors. Now let 𝒊𝒊, 𝒋𝒋 and 𝒌𝒌 denote unit
vectors having a length of 1 and acting in the direction of the positive 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 and 𝑧𝑧 axes
respectively. A vector that moves 5 units in the 𝑥𝑥 direction, 4 units in the 𝑦𝑦 direction and 2
5
units in the 𝑧𝑧 direction can be denoted as 5𝒊𝒊 + 4𝒋𝒋 + 2𝒌𝒌 or �4�.
2
𝑥𝑥
A general three-dimensional vector has the form 𝒓𝒓 = 𝑥𝑥𝒊𝒊 + 𝑦𝑦𝒋𝒋 + 𝑧𝑧𝒌𝒌, i.e. 𝒓𝒓 = �𝑦𝑦�.
𝑧𝑧
Specification Content
• Understand and use the vector and Cartesian forms of an equation of a straight line
in 3-D.
𝑥𝑥−𝑎𝑎1 𝑦𝑦−𝑎𝑎2 𝑧𝑧−𝑎𝑎3
– 𝒓𝒓 = 𝒂𝒂 + 𝜆𝜆𝒃𝒃 and = =
𝑏𝑏1 𝑏𝑏2 𝑏𝑏3
– Knowledge of 3-D vectors is assumed.
• Understand and use the vector and Cartesian forms of the equation of a plane.
• Calculate the scalar product and use it to express the equation of a plane, and to
calculate the angle between two lines, the angle between two planes and the angle
between a line and a plane.
– 𝒂𝒂. 𝒃𝒃 = |𝒂𝒂||𝒃𝒃| cos 𝜃𝜃
– The form 𝒓𝒓. 𝒏𝒏 = 𝑘𝑘 for a plane
• Use the scalar product to check whether vectors are perpendicular.
• Find the intersection of a line and a plane.
• Calculate the perpendicular distance between two lines, from a point to a line and a
point to a plane.

Equations of a Line
Recall that the equation of a line in two-dimensions is
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑐𝑐. Here, 𝑚𝑚 is the gradient and determines the 𝒃𝒃
𝑅𝑅
direction of the line, whilst 𝑐𝑐 is the 𝑦𝑦-intercept, which is a
point on the line.
𝐴𝐴
We can generalise this to a line in any dimension by
considering a straight line passing through a point 𝐴𝐴 with 𝒓𝒓
a position vector a, which is also parallel to some given 𝒂𝒂
vector b. Let 𝑅𝑅 denote a general point on the line with
position vector 𝒓𝒓. Since �����⃗
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 is parallel to 𝒃𝒃, then �����⃗
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝜆𝜆𝒃𝒃,
where 𝜆𝜆 is some real number. The vector 𝒃𝒃 is often
𝑂𝑂
referred to as the direction vector of the line.

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 Further Mathematics AS Unit 1: Further Pure Mathematics A

The position vector of the point 𝑅𝑅 is therefore 𝒓𝒓 = 𝒂𝒂 + 𝜆𝜆𝒃𝒃. This is the vector equation of a
line.

𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏
In two-dimensions, let 𝒂𝒂 = 𝑎𝑎1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝒋𝒋 = �𝑎𝑎 � and 𝒃𝒃 = 𝑏𝑏1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑏𝑏2 𝒋𝒋 = � 1 �. Then 𝒓𝒓 = 𝒂𝒂 + 𝜆𝜆𝒃𝒃 can
2 𝑏𝑏2
be rewritten as:
𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏
�𝑦𝑦� = �𝑎𝑎 � + 𝜆𝜆 � 1 �.
2 𝑏𝑏2

From the top line, 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝜆𝜆𝑏𝑏1 , whilst 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝜆𝜆𝑏𝑏2 . Since 𝜆𝜆 is the same for both equations,
we have:
𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎1 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑎𝑎2
[𝜆𝜆 =] = .
𝑏𝑏1 𝑏𝑏2

This is the Cartesian form of the equation of a straight line. Making 𝑦𝑦 the subject of the
above equations, we have:
𝑏𝑏2 𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏2
𝑦𝑦 = + �𝑎𝑎2 − �,
𝑏𝑏1 𝑏𝑏1
which is of the familiar form 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑐𝑐.
𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏1
𝑎𝑎
Going to three-dimensions, let 𝒂𝒂 = 𝑎𝑎1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑎𝑎3 𝒌𝒌 = � 2 � and 𝒃𝒃 = 𝑏𝑏1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑏𝑏2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑏𝑏3 𝒌𝒌 = �𝑏𝑏2 �.
𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏3
Then 𝒓𝒓 = 𝒂𝒂 + 𝜆𝜆𝒃𝒃 can be rewritten as:
𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏1
𝑎𝑎
�𝑦𝑦� = � 2 � + 𝜆𝜆 � 2 �.𝑏𝑏
𝑧𝑧 𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏3

From the top line, 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝜆𝜆𝑏𝑏1 , 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝜆𝜆𝑏𝑏2 and 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎3 + 𝜆𝜆𝑏𝑏3 . Since 𝜆𝜆 is the same for the
three equations, we have:
𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎1 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑎𝑎2 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑎𝑎3
[𝜆𝜆 =] = = .
𝑏𝑏1 𝑏𝑏2 𝑏𝑏3

This is the Cartesian form of the equation of a straight line passing through the point with
position vector 𝑎𝑎1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑎𝑎3 𝒌𝒌 in a direction parallel to the vector 𝑏𝑏1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑏𝑏2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑏𝑏3 𝒌𝒌.

𝐵𝐵
Suppose instead that the direction vector of the line is
unknown. Instead, two points, 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵, with position vectors 𝒂𝒂
and 𝒃𝒃, respectively, are known. In this case, the vector 𝐴𝐴
�����⃗
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝒃𝒃 − 𝒂𝒂. Let 𝑅𝑅 be a general point on the line with position 𝒃𝒃
vector 𝒓𝒓. Then 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 are parallel to the vector 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴.
Therefore, 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝜆𝜆(𝒃𝒃 − 𝒂𝒂) and 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝜇𝜇(𝒃𝒃 − 𝒂𝒂), where 𝜆𝜆 and 𝜇𝜇 𝒂𝒂
are parameters. In this case, the vector equation of the line
could be written as:
𝒓𝒓 = 𝒂𝒂 + 𝜆𝜆(𝒃𝒃 − 𝒂𝒂) OR 𝒓𝒓 = 𝒃𝒃 + 𝜇𝜇(𝒃𝒃 − 𝒂𝒂). 𝑂𝑂
𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏1
Let 𝒂𝒂 = 𝑎𝑎1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑎𝑎3 𝒌𝒌 = �𝑎𝑎2 � and 𝒃𝒃 = 𝑏𝑏1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑏𝑏2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑏𝑏3 𝒌𝒌 = �𝑏𝑏2 �, and so
𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏3
𝑏𝑏1 − 𝑎𝑎1
𝒃𝒃 − 𝒂𝒂 = (𝑏𝑏1 − 𝑎𝑎1 )𝒊𝒊 + (𝑏𝑏2 − 𝑎𝑎2 )𝒋𝒋 + (𝑏𝑏3 − 𝑎𝑎3 )𝒌𝒌 = �𝑏𝑏2 − 𝑎𝑎2 �.
𝑏𝑏3 − 𝑎𝑎3

Then 𝒓𝒓 = 𝒂𝒂 + 𝜆𝜆(𝒃𝒃 − 𝒂𝒂) can be rewritten as:

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 Further Mathematics AS Unit 1: Further Pure Mathematics A

𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏1 − 𝑎𝑎1

�𝑦𝑦� = �𝑎𝑎2 � + 𝜆𝜆 �𝑏𝑏2 − 𝑎𝑎2 �.
𝑧𝑧 𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏3 − 𝑎𝑎3

From the top line, 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝜆𝜆(𝑏𝑏1 − 𝑎𝑎1 ), 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝜆𝜆(𝑏𝑏2 − 𝑎𝑎2 ) and 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎3 + 𝜆𝜆(𝑏𝑏3 − 𝑎𝑎3 ). Since 𝜆𝜆
is the same for the three equations, we have:
𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎1 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑎𝑎2 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑎𝑎3
[𝜆𝜆 =] = = .
𝑏𝑏1 − 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏2 − 𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏3 − 𝑎𝑎3

Worked Example 1
Find the vector equation of the straight line which passes through the point 𝐴𝐴 with position
vector 3𝒊𝒊 − 5𝒋𝒋 + 2𝒌𝒌 and is parallel to the vector 7𝒊𝒊 − 4𝒌𝒌.

Solution:
3 7
Using the notation above, 𝒂𝒂 = �−5� and 𝒃𝒃 = � 0 �.
2 −4
Therefore, the vector equation of the line is:
3 7 3 + 7𝜆𝜆
𝒓𝒓 = �−5� + 𝜆𝜆 � 0 � = � −5 �.
2 −4 2 − 4𝜆𝜆
Alternatively, we can write:
𝒓𝒓 = 3𝒊𝒊 − 5𝒋𝒋 + 2𝒌𝒌 + 𝜆𝜆(7𝒊𝒊 − 4𝒌𝒌) = (3 + 7𝜆𝜆)𝒊𝒊 − 5𝒋𝒋 + (2 − 4𝜆𝜆)𝒌𝒌.

Worked Example 2
Find a vector and Cartesian equations of the straight line which passes through the points 𝐴𝐴
and 𝐵𝐵 with coordinates (4,5, −1) and (6,3,2).

Solution:
The position vectors of the points 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 are 𝒂𝒂 = 4𝒊𝒊 + 5𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌 and 𝒃𝒃 = 6𝒊𝒊 + 3𝒋𝒋 + 2𝒌𝒌. The
vector
�����⃗ = 𝒃𝒃 − 𝒂𝒂 = (6𝒊𝒊 + 3𝒋𝒋 + 2𝒌𝒌) − (4𝒊𝒊 + 5𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌) = 2𝒊𝒊 − 2𝒋𝒋 + 3𝒌𝒌
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
gives the direction of the line.

Therefore, the vector equation of the line is:

𝒓𝒓 = 4𝒊𝒊 + 5𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌 + 𝜆𝜆(2𝒊𝒊 − 2𝒋𝒋 + 3𝒌𝒌) = (4 + 2𝜆𝜆)𝒊𝒊 + (5 − 2𝜆𝜆)𝒋𝒋 + (−1 + 3𝜆𝜆)𝒌𝒌.

Alternatively:
4 2 4 + 2𝜆𝜆
𝒓𝒓 = � 5 � + 𝜆𝜆 �−2� = � 5 − 2𝜆𝜆 �.
−1 3 −1 + 3𝜆𝜆

Note that b could have been chosen instead of a as the point on the line.

The Cartesian equation of the straight line is given by:

𝑥𝑥 − 4 𝑦𝑦 − 5 𝑧𝑧 + 1
= = .
2 −2 3

Scalar Product
Consider the two vectors 𝒂𝒂 and 𝒃𝒃 as shown. The angle between the
two vectors is denoted by 𝜃𝜃. 𝒃𝒃
Recall that the length of a vector 𝒂𝒂 is denoted by |𝒂𝒂|. If the vector 𝒂𝒂
𝒂𝒂 = 𝑎𝑎1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑎𝑎3 𝒌𝒌, then:
𝜃𝜃
|𝒂𝒂| = �𝑎𝑎12 + 𝑎𝑎22 + 𝑎𝑎32 .

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 Further Mathematics AS Unit 1: Further Pure Mathematics A

The scalar product between two vectors 𝒂𝒂 = 𝑎𝑎1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑎𝑎3 𝒌𝒌 and 𝒃𝒃 = 𝑏𝑏1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑏𝑏2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑏𝑏3 𝒌𝒌 is
denoted by 𝒂𝒂. 𝒃𝒃. It is defined as 𝒂𝒂. 𝒃𝒃 = |𝒂𝒂||𝒃𝒃| cos 𝜃𝜃.

Note that if |𝒂𝒂| = 0 or |𝒃𝒃| = 0 then 𝒂𝒂. 𝒃𝒃 = 0. We note that |𝒂𝒂| = 0 if and only if 𝒂𝒂 = 𝟎𝟎, where
0 denotes the zero vector. Similarly, |𝒃𝒃| = 0 if and only if 𝒃𝒃 = 𝟎𝟎.

Assuming that 𝒂𝒂 and 𝒃𝒃 are non-zero vectors, observe that 𝒂𝒂. 𝒃𝒃 = 0 when cos 𝜃𝜃 = 0. This
happens when 𝜃𝜃 = 90∘ . This means that if the vectors 𝒂𝒂 and 𝒃𝒃 are perpendicular, then
𝒂𝒂. 𝒃𝒃 = 0. Similarly, if 𝒂𝒂. 𝒃𝒃 = 0, then the vectors 𝒂𝒂 and 𝒃𝒃 are perpendicular.

Recall that the unit vectors 𝒊𝒊, 𝒋𝒋 and 𝒌𝒌 are perpendicular to each other. Therefore, 𝒊𝒊. 𝒋𝒋 = 0,
𝒊𝒊. 𝒌𝒌 = 0 and 𝒋𝒋. 𝒌𝒌 = 0. Taking 𝒂𝒂 = 𝑎𝑎1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑎𝑎3 𝒌𝒌 and 𝒃𝒃 = 𝑏𝑏1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑏𝑏2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑏𝑏3 𝒌𝒌, we can write:
𝒂𝒂. 𝒃𝒃 = (𝑎𝑎1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑎𝑎3 𝒌𝒌). ( 𝑏𝑏1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑏𝑏2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑏𝑏3 𝒌𝒌)
= 𝑎𝑎1 𝒊𝒊. (𝑏𝑏1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑏𝑏2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑏𝑏3 𝒌𝒌) + 𝑎𝑎2 𝒋𝒋. (𝑏𝑏1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑏𝑏2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑏𝑏3 𝒌𝒌) + 𝑎𝑎3 𝒌𝒌. (𝑏𝑏1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑏𝑏2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑏𝑏3 𝒌𝒌).

All the terms with the exception of the first, fifth and last will be zero, since the unit vectors
are perpendicular to each other. Therefore:
𝒂𝒂. 𝒃𝒃 = (𝑎𝑎1 𝒊𝒊). (𝑏𝑏1 𝒊𝒊) + (𝑎𝑎2 𝒋𝒋). (𝑏𝑏2 𝒋𝒋) + (𝑎𝑎3 𝒌𝒌). (𝑏𝑏3 𝒌𝒌) = (𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏1 )𝒊𝒊. 𝒊𝒊 + (𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏2 )𝒋𝒋. 𝒋𝒋 + (𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏3 )𝒌𝒌. 𝒌𝒌.

Each unit vector has a length of 1. Therefore, |𝒊𝒊| = 1, |𝒋𝒋| = 1 and |𝒌𝒌| = 1. Two identical
vectors have an angle of 0 between them, since they point in the same direction. In this
case, cos 𝜃𝜃 = cos 0 = 1. Therefore:
𝒊𝒊. 𝒊𝒊 = 𝒋𝒋. 𝒋𝒋 = 𝒌𝒌. 𝒌𝒌 = 1 × 1 × 1 = 1.

This means that:

𝒂𝒂. 𝒃𝒃 = 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏2 + 𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏3 .

This alternative method for calculating 𝒂𝒂. 𝒃𝒃 is useful for finding the angle between two
vectors. Rearranging 𝒂𝒂. 𝒃𝒃 = |𝒂𝒂||𝒃𝒃| cos 𝜃𝜃 gives:
𝒂𝒂. 𝒃𝒃 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏2 + 𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏3
cos 𝜃𝜃 = = .
|𝒂𝒂||𝒃𝒃| �𝑎𝑎 + 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑎2 �𝑏𝑏 2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 + 𝑏𝑏 2
2
1 2 3 1 2 3

Worked Example 3
Given that points A and B have position vectors 𝒂𝒂 = 8𝒊𝒊 + 5𝒋𝒋 − 4𝒌𝒌 and 𝒃𝒃 = 5𝒊𝒊 − 4𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌,
respectively:
(i) �����⃗.
Find the vector 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
(ii) State the vector equation of the line that passes through A and B.
(iii) Find 𝒂𝒂. 𝒃𝒃.
(iv) Find the angle between the vectors 𝒂𝒂 and 𝒃𝒃.

Solution:
(i) �����⃗ = 𝒃𝒃 − 𝒂𝒂 = 5𝒊𝒊 − 4𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌 − (8𝒊𝒊 + 5𝒋𝒋 − 4𝒌𝒌) = −3𝒊𝒊 − 9𝒋𝒋 + 3𝒌𝒌.
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
(ii) 𝐴𝐴 lies on the line, and the direction of the line is �����⃗𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴. Therefore:
𝒓𝒓 = 8𝒊𝒊 + 5𝒋𝒋 − 4𝒌𝒌 + 𝜆𝜆(−3𝒊𝒊 − 9𝒋𝒋 + 3𝒌𝒌)
= (8 − 3𝜆𝜆)𝒊𝒊 + (5 − 9𝜆𝜆)𝒋𝒋 + (−4 + 3𝜆𝜆)𝒌𝒌.
(iii) 𝒂𝒂. 𝒃𝒃 = 8 × 5 + 5 × (−4) + (−4) × (−1) = 40 − 20 + 4 = 24.
(iv) We firstly calculate |𝒂𝒂| and |𝒃𝒃|:
|𝒂𝒂| = �82 + 52 + (−4)2 = √64 + 25 + 16 = √105
|𝒃𝒃| = �52 + (−4)2 + (−1)2 = √25 + 16 + 1 = √42.
Hence:
𝒂𝒂. 𝒃𝒃 24
cos 𝜃𝜃 = = ,
|𝒂𝒂||𝒃𝒃| √105√42

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 Further Mathematics AS Unit 1: Further Pure Mathematics A

which means:
24
𝜃𝜃 = cos−1 � � = 68.8∘ .
√105√42
Therefore, the angle between the vectors 𝒂𝒂 and 𝒃𝒃 is 68. 8∘ .

Equations of a Plane
Consider a plane, 𝛱𝛱, passing through a point 𝐴𝐴
𝛱𝛱
with position vector 𝒂𝒂. Consider an arbitrary point 𝒄𝒄
𝐴𝐴 𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅 on the plane with position vector 𝒓𝒓.
𝒃𝒃
Using the triangle law for vectors:
�����⃗ .
𝒓𝒓 = 𝒂𝒂 + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝒂𝒂 𝒓𝒓

Let 𝒃𝒃 and 𝒄𝒄 be two non-parallel vectors in the

plane. Any other vector in the plane can be
obtained as a combination of the vectors 𝒃𝒃 and 𝒄𝒄. 𝑂𝑂
Therefore:
�����⃗
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝜆𝜆𝒃𝒃 + 𝜇𝜇𝒄𝒄.

This means that the position vector of 𝑅𝑅 can be written as

𝒓𝒓 = 𝒂𝒂 + 𝜆𝜆𝒃𝒃 + 𝜇𝜇𝒄𝒄.

This is the vector form of the equation of a plane, passing through the point 𝐴𝐴 with position
vector 𝒂𝒂, containing the non-parallel vectors 𝒃𝒃 and 𝒄𝒄.

The direction of a plane can also be described by

considering a normal vector, 𝒏𝒏. This is a vector 𝒏𝒏
that is perpendicular to the plane. However, 𝛱𝛱
normal vectors are not unique to a particular 𝑅𝑅
plane. One normal vector will be the normal to an 𝐴𝐴
infinite number of planes. This means that, on its
own, the normal vector cannot uniquely
determine a plane. 𝒂𝒂 𝒓𝒓

However, suppose that we know some point 𝐴𝐴,

with position vector 𝒂𝒂, lies in the plane. Letting 𝑅𝑅
be a general point in the plane with position 𝑂𝑂
vector 𝒓𝒓, then the vector �����⃗
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝒓𝒓 − 𝒂𝒂 lies in the
plane. Therefore, the vector 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 �����⃗ is perpendicular
to the normal vector 𝒏𝒏.

This means that (𝒓𝒓 − 𝒂𝒂). 𝒏𝒏 = 0, which we can re-write as 𝒓𝒓. 𝒏𝒏 − 𝒂𝒂. 𝒏𝒏 = 0 or 𝒓𝒓. 𝒏𝒏 = 𝒂𝒂. 𝒏𝒏. Since
𝒂𝒂 is a fixed point in the plane, 𝒂𝒂. 𝒏𝒏 will be some constant which we denote by 𝑘𝑘. Therefore,
the equation of a plane can be written as:
𝒓𝒓. 𝒏𝒏 = 𝑘𝑘.
𝑥𝑥
Working in 3-dimensions, we know that 𝒓𝒓 = 𝑥𝑥𝒊𝒊 + 𝑦𝑦𝒋𝒋 + 𝑧𝑧𝒌𝒌 = �𝑦𝑦� is a generic point in the
𝑧𝑧
𝑛𝑛1
plane. Denote the normal vector by 𝒏𝒏 = 𝑛𝑛1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑛𝑛2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑛𝑛3 𝒌𝒌 = �𝑛𝑛2 �. Then using the scalar
𝑛𝑛3

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 Further Mathematics AS Unit 1: Further Pure Mathematics A

product, we have 𝒓𝒓. 𝒏𝒏 = 𝑛𝑛1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑛𝑛2 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑛𝑛3 𝑧𝑧. This means the equation of the plane can be re-
written as 𝑛𝑛1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑛𝑛2 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑛𝑛3 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑘𝑘. This gives the Cartesian form of the equation of a plane.

Excerpt from Formula Booklet

The equation of a plane in Cartesian form is 𝑛𝑛1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑛𝑛2 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑛𝑛3 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑘𝑘.

Worked Example 4
The plane 𝛱𝛱 passes through the point 𝐴𝐴 and is perpendicular to the vector 𝒏𝒏. Given that
2 3
�����⃗
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = �3� and 𝒏𝒏 = � 1 � where 𝑂𝑂 is the origin, find an equation of the plane:
5 −1
(i) in scalar product form,
(ii) in Cartesian form.

Solution:
(i) The scalar product form of the plane is 𝒓𝒓. 𝒏𝒏 = 𝑘𝑘, where 𝑘𝑘 = 𝒂𝒂. 𝒏𝒏. Firstly,
2 3
𝒂𝒂. 𝒏𝒏 = �3� . � 1 � = (2 × 3) + (3 × 1) + (5 × −1) = 6 + 3 − 5 = 4.
5 −1

Therefore, the scalar product form of the plane 𝛱𝛱 is:

3
𝒓𝒓. � 1 � = 4.
−1
𝑥𝑥
(ii) The vector 𝒓𝒓 = �𝑦𝑦� denotes a general point in the plane. Therefore:
𝑧𝑧
𝑥𝑥 3
𝑦𝑦
𝒓𝒓. 𝒏𝒏 = � � . � 1 � = 3𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑧𝑧.
𝑧𝑧 −1

This means that the Cartesian form of the equation of the plane 𝛱𝛱 is:
3𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑧𝑧 = 4.

Worked Example 5
Find the vector equation of the plane that passes through the points 𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵 and 𝐶𝐶 with position
vectors 𝒂𝒂 = 2𝒊𝒊 + 2𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌, 𝒃𝒃 = 3𝒊𝒊 + 2𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌 and 𝒄𝒄 = 4𝒊𝒊 + 3𝒋𝒋 + 5𝒌𝒌.

Solution:
The vectors �����⃗
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 and �����⃗
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 lie in the plane.
�����⃗
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 3𝒊𝒊 + 2𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌 − (2𝒊𝒊 + 2𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌) = 𝒊𝒊
�����⃗
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 4𝒊𝒊 + 3𝒋𝒋 + 5𝒌𝒌 − (2𝒊𝒊 + 2𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌) = 2𝒊𝒊 + 𝒋𝒋 + 6𝒌𝒌.

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 Further Mathematics AS Unit 1: Further Pure Mathematics A

Hence, a vector equation of the plane is:

𝒓𝒓 = 2𝒊𝒊 + 2𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌 + 𝜆𝜆𝒊𝒊 + 𝜇𝜇(2𝒊𝒊 + 𝒋𝒋 + 6𝒌𝒌).

Calculating the Angles Between Lines and Planes

The scalar product can be used to calculate the angles between lines and planes.

Angle Between Two Lines

Consider two intersecting lines with equations 𝒓𝒓𝟏𝟏 = 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏 + 𝜆𝜆𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏 and 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 = 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐 + 𝜇𝜇𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐 . The vectors
𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏 and 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐 are the direction vectors of each line. Therefore, to find the angle between these
lines, we need to find the angle between the two direction vectors. Using the scalar product,
we deduce that the acute angle between two intersecting lines with direction vectors 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏 and
𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐 is:

𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏 . 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐
cos 𝜃𝜃 = � �.
|𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏 ||𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐 |

The modulus surrounding the whole expression on the right-hand side guarantees that the
answer obtained is an acute angle. If the obtuse angle is required, use the formula above
and subtract the resulting angle from 180∘ .

Angle Between Two Planes

The angle between two planes is the same as the angle between their normal vectors.
Suppose that two intersecting planes have equations 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 . 𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏 = 𝑘𝑘1 and 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 . 𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐 = 𝑘𝑘2 . The angle
between the two normal vectors can be found using the scalar product:

𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏 . 𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐
cos 𝜃𝜃 = � �.
|𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏 ||𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐 |

The modulus surrounding the whole expression on the right-hand side guarantees that the
answer obtained is an acute angle. If the obtuse angle is required, use the formula above
and subtract the resulting angle from 180∘ .

Angle Between a Line and a Plane

To find the angle between a line and a plane, it is easier to first find the angle between the
line and the normal to the plane. Suppose the line has the equation 𝒓𝒓 = 𝒂𝒂 + 𝜆𝜆𝒃𝒃 and the
plane has equation 𝒓𝒓. 𝒏𝒏 = 𝑘𝑘. The angle between the normal vector and the direction vector of
the line can then be found using the scalar product:

𝒃𝒃. 𝒏𝒏
cos 𝜃𝜃 = � �.
|𝒃𝒃||𝒏𝒏|

Again, the modulus surrounding the whole expression on the right-hand side guarantees that
the answer obtained is an acute angle. Subsequently, the angle between the line and the
plane is 𝛼𝛼 = 90∘ − 𝜃𝜃. The obtuse angle between the line and the plane is 180∘ − 𝛼𝛼.

8
 Further Mathematics AS Unit 1: Further Pure Mathematics A

Worked Example 6
The lines 𝑙𝑙1 and 𝑙𝑙2 have vector equations of the form 𝒓𝒓 = (2𝒊𝒊 + 𝒋𝒋 + 𝒌𝒌) + 𝜆𝜆(3𝒊𝒊 − 8𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌) and
𝒓𝒓 = (7𝒊𝒊 + 4𝒋𝒋 + 𝒌𝒌) + 𝜇𝜇(2𝒊𝒊 + 2𝒋𝒋 + 3𝒌𝒌), respectively. Given that 𝑙𝑙1 and 𝑙𝑙2 intersect, find the
acute angle between the lines to one decimal place.

Solution:
The direction vectors for the lines are 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏 = 3𝒊𝒊 − 8𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌 and 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐 = 2𝒊𝒊 + 2𝒋𝒋 + 3𝒌𝒌. We have:

𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏 . 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐 = 6 − 16 − 3 = −13,

�32
|𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏 | = + (−8)2 + (−1)2 = √9 + 64 + 1 = √74,
|𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐 | = �22 + 22 + 32 = √4 + 4 + 9 = √17.

Hence:
−13
cos 𝜃𝜃 = � � ⇒ 𝜃𝜃 = 68.5∘ .
√74 × √17
Worked Example 7
Find the acute angle between the planes with Cartesian equations 4𝑥𝑥 + 4𝑦𝑦 + 7𝑧𝑧 = 13 and
7𝑥𝑥 − 4𝑦𝑦 − 4𝑧𝑧 = 6.

Solution:
The coefficients of 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 and 𝑧𝑧 give the coordinates of the normal to each plane. The normal
to the first plane is 𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏 = 4𝒊𝒊 + 4𝒋𝒋 + 7𝒌𝒌 and to the second plane is 𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐 = 7𝒊𝒊 − 4𝒋𝒋 − 4𝒛𝒛. We have:

𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏 . 𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐 = 28 − 16 − 28 = −16,

�
|𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏 | = 42 + 42 + 72 = √16 + 16 + 49 = √81,
|𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐 | = �72 + (−4)2 + (−4)2 = √49 + 16 + 16 = √81.

Hence:
−16
cos 𝜃𝜃 = � � ⇒ 𝜃𝜃 = 78.6∘ .
√81 × √81
Worked Example 8
The line 𝑙𝑙 has equation 𝒓𝒓 = 2𝒊𝒊 + 𝒋𝒋 − 5𝒌𝒌 + 𝜆𝜆(3𝒊𝒊 + 4𝒋𝒋 − 12𝒌𝒌).The plane 𝛱𝛱 has equation
𝒓𝒓. (2𝒊𝒊 − 2𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌) = 0. Find the acute angle between 𝑙𝑙 and 𝛱𝛱.

Solution:
The direction of the line is 𝒃𝒃 = 3𝒊𝒊 + 4𝒋𝒋 − 12𝒌𝒌. The normal to the plane is 𝒏𝒏 = 2𝒊𝒊 − 2𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌. To
find the angle between the line and the plane, we firstly find the angle between the line and
the normal. We have:
𝒃𝒃. 𝒏𝒏 = 6 − 8 + 12 = 10,
|𝒃𝒃| = �3 + 4 + (−12)2 = √9 + 16 + 144 = √169 = 13,
2 2

|𝒏𝒏| = �22 + (−2)2 + (−1)2 = √4 + 4 + 1 = √9 = 3.

Hence:
10
cos 𝜃𝜃 = � � ⇒ 𝜃𝜃 = 75.1∘ .
13 × 3

Therefore, the angle between the line and the plane is 90 − 75.1 = 14.9∘ .

Intersecting Lines and Planes

The intersection of lines and planes requires the use of simultaneous equations to find out
whether the lines and planes intersect.

9
 Further Mathematics AS Unit 1: Further Pure Mathematics A

Intersection of Two Lines

In two-dimensions, two lines either intersect at one point, are parallel (so do not intersect) or
are coincident (the same line). The solutions, if they exist, can be found by solving a pair of
simultaneous equations for each line. This was covered in Unit 1 of AS Mathematics.

Lines in three-dimensions may also intersect at one point, in which case there is a unique
solution. The lines may also be parallel, in which case there are no solutions, or coincident
for which there are infinitely many solutions. However, in three-dimensions, the lines may
also be skew. This means that they point in different directions but do not intersect. In this
case, there are also no solutions.

To determine whether two lines intersect, we firstly write their equations in column notation
and set them equal to each other. This gives three equations involving the parameters 𝜆𝜆 and
𝜇𝜇. Selecting two of these equations, we solve them simultaneously to find 𝜆𝜆 and 𝜇𝜇. If there is
no solution, the lines do not intersect. If there is a solution, we need to check whether this
solution satisfies the third equation. If the values of 𝜆𝜆 and 𝜇𝜇 do not work in the third equation,
the lines do not intersect. Otherwise, you will have found a value of 𝜆𝜆 and 𝜇𝜇 satisfying all
three equations. Substituting either value back into the equation of one of the lines will then
give the point of intersection. Using the other equation is a useful check.

Worked Example 9
The lines 𝑙𝑙1 and 𝑙𝑙2 have vector equations 𝒓𝒓 = 3𝒊𝒊 + 𝒋𝒋 + 𝒌𝒌 + 𝜆𝜆(𝒊𝒊 − 2𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌) and
𝒓𝒓 = −2𝒋𝒋 + 3𝒌𝒌 + 𝜇𝜇(−5𝒊𝒊 + 𝒋𝒋 + 4𝒌𝒌), respectively. Show that the two lines intersect, and find the
position vector of the point of intersection.

Writing each of the equations in column notation, we have:

3 + 𝜆𝜆 −5𝜇𝜇
𝒓𝒓 = �1 − 2𝜆𝜆� 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝒓𝒓 = � −2 + 𝜇𝜇�.
1 − 𝜆𝜆 3 + 4𝜇𝜇

Putting these equal to each other, we have the following three equations:
3 + 𝜆𝜆 = −5𝜇𝜇
1 − 2𝜆𝜆 = −2 + 𝜇𝜇
1 − 𝜆𝜆 = 3 + 4𝜇𝜇

Adding the first and the third equations, we have 4 = 3 − 𝜇𝜇, and so 𝜇𝜇 = −1.
Substituting into the first equation, we have 3 + 𝜆𝜆 = 5, and so 𝜆𝜆 = 2.

We now check that these values of 𝜆𝜆 and 𝜇𝜇 satisfy the second equation:
1 − 2𝜆𝜆 = 1 − 4 = −3, − 2 + 𝜇𝜇 = −2 − 1 = −3.

Therefore, 𝜆𝜆 = 2 and 𝜇𝜇 = −1 satisfy all three equations and so the lines intersect.
Substituting 𝜆𝜆 = 2 gives:
3+2 5
𝒓𝒓 = �1 − 4� = �−3�.
1−2 −1
Therefore, the position vector of the point of intersection is 5𝒊𝒊 − 3𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌.

Worked Example 10
𝑥𝑥−2 𝑦𝑦+3 𝑥𝑥+1 𝑦𝑦 𝑧𝑧−4
The lines 𝑙𝑙1 and 𝑙𝑙2 have equations = = 𝑧𝑧 − 1 and = = respectively. Prove
4 2 5 4 −2
that 𝑙𝑙1 and 𝑙𝑙2 are skew.

The line 𝑙𝑙1 passes through the point 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏 = 2𝒊𝒊 − 3𝒋𝒋 + 𝒌𝒌 and has direction 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏 = 4𝒊𝒊 + 2𝒋𝒋 + 𝒌𝒌.
Therefore, the vector equation of 𝑙𝑙1 is 𝒓𝒓 = 2𝒊𝒊 − 3𝒋𝒋 + 𝒌𝒌 + 𝜆𝜆(4𝒊𝒊 + 2𝒋𝒋 + 𝒌𝒌).
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 Further Mathematics AS Unit 1: Further Pure Mathematics A

The line 𝑙𝑙2 passes through the point 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐 = −𝒊𝒊 + 4𝒌𝒌 and has direction 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐 = 5𝒊𝒊 + 4𝒋𝒋 − 2𝒌𝒌.
Therefore, the vector equation of 𝑙𝑙2 is 𝒓𝒓 = −𝒊𝒊 + 4𝒌𝒌 + 𝜇𝜇(5𝒊𝒊 + 4𝒋𝒋 − 2𝒌𝒌).

Writing each of the equations in column notation, we have:

2 + 4𝜆𝜆 −1 + 5𝜇𝜇
𝒓𝒓 = �−3 + 2𝜆𝜆� 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝒓𝒓 = � 4𝜇𝜇 �.
1 + 𝜆𝜆 4 − 2𝜇𝜇

Putting these equal to each other, we have the following three equations:
2 + 4𝜆𝜆 = −1 + 5𝜇𝜇
−3 + 2𝜆𝜆 = 4𝜇𝜇
1 + 𝜆𝜆 = 4 − 2𝜇𝜇.

Subtracting two times the second equation from the first equation gives 8 = −1 − 3𝜇𝜇, and so
9
𝜇𝜇 = −3. Substituting into the second equation, we have −3 + 2𝜆𝜆 = −12 and so 𝜆𝜆 = − .
2

We now check whether these values of 𝜆𝜆 and 𝜇𝜇 work in the third equation:
9 7
1 + 𝜆𝜆 = 1 − = − , 4 − 2𝜇𝜇 = 4 + 6 = 10.
2 2
Therefore, 𝜆𝜆 and 𝜇𝜇 do not satisfy all three equations, and so the lines do not intersect. Since
the direction vectors of the lines are not multiples of each other, they are not parallel and
therefore the lines must be skew.

Intersection of a Line and a Plane

A line may intersect a plane at one point, in which case there is a unique solution for the
point of intersection. However, the line and plane may also be parallel. There are two
possible cases: the line is parallel to but does not lie in the plane, in which case there are no
solutions; or the line is parallel to and lies in the plane, in which case there are infinitely
many solutions.

To investigate whether a line and plane intersect, substitute the vector equation for the line
into the equation for the plane. This will then give an equation in terms of the parameter 𝜆𝜆.
Solving for 𝜆𝜆 and substituting back into the equation for the line will give the point of
intersection.

Worked Example 11
Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of the line 𝑙𝑙 and the plane 𝛱𝛱 where 𝑙𝑙 has
equation 𝑟𝑟 = −𝒊𝒊 + 𝒋𝒋 − 5𝒌𝒌 + 𝜆𝜆(𝒊𝒊 + 𝒋𝒋 + 2𝒌𝒌) and 𝛱𝛱 has equation 𝒓𝒓. (𝒊𝒊 + 2𝒋𝒋 + 3𝒌𝒌) = 4.

Solution:
−1 + 𝜆𝜆
We can express the line in column notation: 𝒓𝒓 = � 1 + 𝜆𝜆 �.
−5 + 2𝜆𝜆

−1 + 𝜆𝜆 1
Substituting this into the equation for the plane, we have: � 1 + 𝜆𝜆 � . �2� = 4,
−5 + 2𝜆𝜆 3
i.e.,
(−1 + 𝜆𝜆) × 1 + (1 + 𝜆𝜆) × 2 + (−5 + 2𝜆𝜆) × 3 = 4
−1 + 𝜆𝜆 + 2 + 2𝜆𝜆 − 15 + 6𝜆𝜆 = 4
9𝜆𝜆 − 14 = 4
𝜆𝜆 = 2.

11
 Further Mathematics AS Unit 1: Further Pure Mathematics A

Therefore, the line and the plane meet when 𝜆𝜆 = 2. Substituting this into the equation of the
line gives the point:
−1 + 2 1
𝒓𝒓 = � 1 + 2 � = � 3 �.
−5 + 4 −1

Therefore, the coordinates of the point of intersection of the line and the plane are (1, 3, −1).

Worked Example 12
The line 𝑙𝑙 has equation 𝒓𝒓 = 2𝒊𝒊 + 3𝒋𝒋 − 2𝒌𝒌 + 𝜆𝜆(𝒊𝒊 + 𝒋𝒋 + 𝒌𝒌). Show that 𝑙𝑙 does not meet the plane
with equation 𝒓𝒓. (𝒊𝒊 + 𝒋𝒋 − 2𝒌𝒌) = 1. Give a geometrical interpretation of your answer.

Solution:
2 + 𝜆𝜆
We can express the line in column notation: 𝒓𝒓 = � 3 + 𝜆𝜆 �.
−2 + 𝜆𝜆

2 + 𝜆𝜆 1
Substituting this into the equation for the plane, we have: � 3 + 𝜆𝜆 � . � 1 � = 1,
−2 + 𝜆𝜆 −2
i.e.,
(2 + 𝜆𝜆) × 1 + (3 + 𝜆𝜆) × 1 + (−2 + 𝜆𝜆) × −2 = 1
2 + 𝜆𝜆 + 3 + 𝜆𝜆 + 4 − 2𝜆𝜆 = 1
9 = 1.

This is impossible. Therefore, the line and plane do not intersect. This means the line is
parallel to the plane but does not lie in the plane.

Perpendicular Distances Between Lines, Points and Planes

In this section, we consider the perpendicular distances between lines, points and planes.

Perpendicular Distance Between Two Lines

For any two lines 𝑙𝑙1 and 𝑙𝑙2 that do not intersect, there exists a line segment passing through
a point 𝐴𝐴 on line 𝑙𝑙1 and a point 𝐵𝐵 on line 𝑙𝑙2 such that 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 is perpendicular to both lines. If the
lines are parallel, there are infinitely many line segments that are perpendicular to both lines,
all having the same length. However, if the lines are skew, the line segment 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 is unique. In
both cases, the length of the line segment that is perpendicular to both lines provides the
shortest distance between the lines.

Let 𝒓𝒓 = 𝒂𝒂 + 𝜆𝜆𝒄𝒄 be the equation of the first line and 𝒓𝒓 = 𝒃𝒃 + 𝜆𝜆𝒅𝒅 be the equation of the second
line. The point 𝐴𝐴 with position vector 𝒂𝒂 lies on the first line, and the point 𝐵𝐵 with position
vector 𝒃𝒃 lies on the second line.

�����⃗ = 𝒃𝒃 − 𝒂𝒂. The line segment that gives the shortest distance will occur
Consider the vector 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
when this vector is parallel to the vector 𝒏𝒏 = 𝑛𝑛1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑛𝑛2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑛𝑛3 𝒌𝒌, which is mutually perpendicular
to both lines. Therefore, 𝒄𝒄. 𝒏𝒏 = 0 and 𝒅𝒅. 𝒏𝒏 = 0. This gives equations in terms of 𝑛𝑛1 , 𝑛𝑛2 and 𝑛𝑛3 ,
which can be solved to find the vector 𝒏𝒏.

�����⃗ and 𝒏𝒏 are parallel, (𝒃𝒃 − 𝒂𝒂). 𝒏𝒏 = |𝒃𝒃 − 𝒂𝒂||𝒏𝒏|. Therefore, the shortest distance, 𝐷𝐷,
When 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
between the two lines is:
|(𝒃𝒃 − 𝒂𝒂). 𝒏𝒏|
𝐷𝐷 = .
|𝒏𝒏|

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 Further Mathematics AS Unit 1: Further Pure Mathematics A

Worked Example 13
1 0 −1 2
The lines 𝑙𝑙1 and 𝑙𝑙2 have equations 𝒓𝒓 = �0� + 𝜆𝜆 �1� and 𝒓𝒓 = � 3 � + 𝜇𝜇 �−1� respectively,
0 1 −1 −1
where 𝜆𝜆 and 𝜇𝜇 are scalars. Find the shortest distance between these two lines.

Solution:
We seek a vector 𝒏𝒏 = 𝑛𝑛1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑛𝑛2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑛𝑛3 𝒌𝒌 that is mutually perpendicular to both lines. This
occurs when:
(𝒋𝒋 + 𝒌𝒌). (𝑛𝑛1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑛𝑛2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑛𝑛3 𝒌𝒌) = 0
𝑛𝑛2 + 𝑛𝑛3 = 0.
𝑛𝑛2 = −𝑛𝑛3
and
(𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − 𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌). (𝑛𝑛1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑛𝑛2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑛𝑛3 𝒌𝒌) = 0
2𝑛𝑛1 − 𝑛𝑛2 − 𝑛𝑛3 = 0.
2𝑛𝑛1 = 0.

Therefore, 𝑛𝑛1 = 0. This means the vector 𝒏𝒏 has the form 𝑛𝑛2 𝒋𝒋 − 𝑛𝑛2 𝒌𝒌. Taking 𝑛𝑛2 = 1, we have
the vector 𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌 which is perpendicular to both lines. Letting 𝒂𝒂 = 𝒊𝒊 and 𝒃𝒃 = −𝒊𝒊 + 3𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌, then:
𝒃𝒃 − 𝒂𝒂 = −𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 3𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌,
(𝒃𝒃 − 𝒂𝒂). 𝒏𝒏 = (2 × 0) + (3 × 1) + (−1 × −1) = 4,
|𝒏𝒏| = �12 + 12 = √1 + 1 = √2.

Therefore, the shortest distance 𝐷𝐷 between the two lines is:

|(𝒃𝒃 − 𝒂𝒂). 𝒏𝒏| 4 4√2
𝐷𝐷 = = = = 2√2.
|𝒏𝒏| √2 2

Note that the above method can only be used for skew lines. If the lines are parallel, an
alternative approach is needed. Firstly, we introduce the perpendicular distance between a
point and a line.

Perpendicular Distance Between a Point and Line

Consider a two-dimensional line with equation 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑐𝑐 and a point (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ). The
perpendicular distance 𝐷𝐷 between the point and the line is given by:
|𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑐𝑐|
𝐷𝐷 = .
√𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2

Worked Example 14
Find the shortest distance between the line 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 + 5 and the point (4,10).

Solution:
Re-writing the line in the form −3𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 = 5, we have 𝑎𝑎 = −3, 𝑏𝑏 = 1 and 𝑐𝑐 = 5. The point is
(𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) = (4,10). Therefore, using the formula for the perpendicular distance, we have:
| − 3 × 4 + 1 × 10 − 5| |−7| 7√10
𝐷𝐷 = = = .
�(−3)2 + 12 √10 10
7√10
Therefore, the shortest distance between the line and the point is 10
.

To find the shortest distance between a three-dimensional line and a point, consider the
�����⃗ , where 𝑅𝑅 is a general point on the line 𝒓𝒓 = 𝒂𝒂 + 𝜆𝜆𝒃𝒃 and 𝑋𝑋 = (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑥𝑥3 ) is the given
vector 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋
point. Solving �����⃗
𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 . 𝒃𝒃 = 0 gives the value of 𝜆𝜆 for which the vector �����⃗
𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 is perpendicular to 𝒃𝒃.

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 Further Mathematics AS Unit 1: Further Pure Mathematics A

�����⃗, we can then find |𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋

Substituting this into 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 �����⃗ | giving the shortest distance between the
point and the line.

Worked Example 15
Find the shortest distance between the line 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 + 5 and the point (4,10).

Solution:
𝑦𝑦−5
Re-writing the line in the form 𝑥𝑥 = , we can write the line in the form 𝒓𝒓 = −5𝒋𝒋 + 𝜆𝜆(𝒊𝒊 + 3𝒋𝒋).
3
�����⃗ :
The point 𝑋𝑋 is (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) = (4,10). We find the vector 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋
�����⃗
𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = 5𝒋𝒋 + 𝜆𝜆(𝒊𝒊 + 3𝒋𝒋) − (4𝒊𝒊 + 10𝒋𝒋) = (−4 + 𝜆𝜆)𝒊𝒊 + (−5 + 3𝜆𝜆)𝒋𝒋.

�����⃗ . 𝒃𝒃 = 0, i.e.,
This vector is perpendicular to 𝒃𝒃 = 𝒊𝒊 + 3𝒋𝒋 when 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋
(−4 + 𝜆𝜆) × 1 + (−5 + 3𝜆𝜆) × 3 = 0
−4 + 𝜆𝜆 − 15 + 9𝜆𝜆 = 0
10𝜆𝜆 = 19
𝜆𝜆 = 1.9.

Hence, �����⃗
𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = (−4 + 𝜆𝜆)𝒊𝒊 + (−5 + 3𝜆𝜆)𝒋𝒋 = −2.1𝒊𝒊 + 0.7𝒋𝒋, and so the shortest distance between
the point and the line is:
49 7 7√10
�����⃗ � = �(−2.1)2 + 0.72 = √4.41 + 0.49 = √4.9 = � =
𝐷𝐷 = �𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = .
10 √10 10
This confirms the answer found in Worked Example 14.

Worked Example 16
Show that the shortest distance between the two lines with vector equations given by
𝒓𝒓 = 𝒊𝒊 + 2𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌 + 𝜆𝜆(𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 + 4𝒋𝒋 + 3𝒌𝒌) and 𝒓𝒓 = 2𝒊𝒊 + 𝒌𝒌 + 𝜇𝜇(𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 + 4𝒋𝒋 + 3𝒌𝒌), where 𝜆𝜆 and 𝜇𝜇 are
21√2
scalars, is .
10

Solution:
We note that the lines are parallel, since both lines have the same direction vector. We know
that the vector 𝒊𝒊 + 2𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌 lies on the first line. Therefore, we find the shortest distance
between this point and the second line. We have 𝑋𝑋 = (1, 2, −1) and 𝒃𝒃 = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 + 4𝒋𝒋 + 3𝒌𝒌.

�����⃗:
Let 𝑅𝑅 denote a general point on the the second line. We find the vector 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋
�����⃗
𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = 2𝒊𝒊 + 𝒌𝒌 + 𝜇𝜇(𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 + 4𝒋𝒋 + 3𝒌𝒌) − (𝒊𝒊 + 2𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌) = (1 + 5𝜇𝜇)𝒊𝒊 + (−2 + 4𝜇𝜇)𝒋𝒋 + (2 + 3𝜇𝜇)𝒌𝒌.

This vector is perpendicular to 𝒃𝒃 when �����⃗

𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 . 𝒃𝒃 = 0, i.e.,
(1 + 5𝜇𝜇) × 5 + (−2 + 4𝜇𝜇) × 4 + (2 + 3𝜇𝜇) × 3 = 0
5 + 25𝜇𝜇 − 8 + 16𝜇𝜇 + 6 + 9𝜇𝜇 = 0
50𝜇𝜇 + 3 = 0
3
𝜇𝜇 = − .
50

Hence, �����⃗
𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = (1 + 5𝜇𝜇)𝒊𝒊 + (−2 + 4𝜇𝜇)𝒋𝒋 + (2 + 3𝜇𝜇)𝒌𝒌 = 0.7𝒊𝒊 − 2.24𝒋𝒋 + 1.82𝒌𝒌, and so the shortest
distance between the two lines is:
882 √882 √441√2 21√2
�����⃗ � = �0.72 + (−2.24)2 + (1.82)2 = √8.82 = �
�𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = = = .
100 10 10 10

Worked Example 17
𝑥𝑥−1 𝑦𝑦−1 𝑧𝑧+3
The line 𝑙𝑙 has equation = = , and the point 𝐴𝐴 has coordinates (1,2, −1).
𝟐𝟐 −𝟐𝟐 −𝟏𝟏
14
 Further Mathematics AS Unit 1: Further Pure Mathematics A

(i) Find the shortest distance between 𝐴𝐴 and 𝑙𝑙.

(ii) Find a Cartesian equation of the line that is perpendicular to 𝑙𝑙 and passes
through 𝐴𝐴.

Solution:
(i) The vector equation of 𝑙𝑙 is 𝒓𝒓 = 𝒊𝒊 + 𝒋𝒋 − 3𝒌𝒌 + 𝜆𝜆(2𝒊𝒊 − 2𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌). The position vector of point 𝐴𝐴 is
𝒂𝒂 = 𝒊𝒊 + 2𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌. Let 𝑅𝑅 denote a general point on the line. We find the vector �����⃗ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 :
�����⃗ (𝒊𝒊
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝒊𝒊 + 𝒋𝒋 − 3𝒌𝒌 + 𝜆𝜆(2𝒊𝒊 − 2𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌) − + 2𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌) = 2𝜆𝜆𝒊𝒊 + (−1 − 2𝜆𝜆)𝒋𝒋 + (−2 − 𝜆𝜆)𝒌𝒌.

This vector is perpendicular to the direction vector of the line, 𝒃𝒃 = 2𝒊𝒊 − 2𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌, when we have
�����⃗ . 𝒃𝒃 = 0, i.e.,
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
2𝜆𝜆 × 2 + (−1 − 2𝜆𝜆) × −2 + (−2 − 𝜆𝜆) × −1 = 0
4𝜆𝜆 + 2 + 4𝜆𝜆 + 2 + 𝜆𝜆 = 0
9𝜆𝜆 + 4 = 0
4
𝜆𝜆 = − .
9
8 1 14
Hence, �����⃗
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 2𝜆𝜆𝒊𝒊 + (−1 − 2𝜆𝜆)𝒋𝒋 + (−2 − 𝜆𝜆)𝒌𝒌 = − 𝒊𝒊 − 𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌, and so the shortest distance
9 9 9
between the point and the line is:
8 2 1 2 14 2 261 29 √29
�����⃗ �
�𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 � = �− � + �− � + �− � = � =� = .
9 9 9 81 9 3

(ii) The line passing through 𝐴𝐴 perpendicular to the line 𝑙𝑙 has direction �����⃗
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴. Therefore, the
vector equation of the line through 𝐴𝐴 perpendicular to 𝑙𝑙 is given by:
8 1 14
𝒓𝒓 = 𝒊𝒊 + 2𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌 + 𝜆𝜆 �− 𝒊𝒊 − 𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌�.
9 9 9
1
Setting 𝜇𝜇 = − 𝜆𝜆, we can re-write the equation of the line as:
9
𝒓𝒓 = 𝒊𝒊 + 2𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌 + 𝜇𝜇(8𝒊𝒊 + 𝒋𝒋 + 14𝒌𝒌).

Perpendicular Distance Between a Point and a Plane

Consider the plane with Cartesian equation 𝑛𝑛1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑛𝑛2 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑛𝑛3 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑘𝑘. The perpendicular distance
between this plane and the point (𝛼𝛼, 𝛽𝛽, 𝛾𝛾) is given by:
|𝑛𝑛1 𝛼𝛼 + 𝑛𝑛2 𝛽𝛽 + 𝑛𝑛3 𝛾𝛾 − 𝑘𝑘|
𝐷𝐷 = .
�𝑛𝑛12 + 𝑛𝑛22 + 𝑛𝑛32

Worked Example 18
Find the perpendicular distance from the point with coordinates (3,2, −1) to the plane with
equation 2𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑦𝑦 + 𝑧𝑧 = 5.

Solution:
Using the standard notation, 𝑛𝑛1 = 2, 𝑛𝑛2 = −3, 𝑛𝑛3 = 1, 𝑘𝑘 = 5, 𝛼𝛼 = 3, 𝛽𝛽 = 2 and 𝛾𝛾 = −1.
Therefore, the perpendicular distance between the point and the plane is:
|(2 × 3) + (−3 × 2) + (1 × −1) − 5| |−6| 6√14 3√14
𝐷𝐷 = = = = .
�22 + (−3)2 + 12 √14 14 7

Summary of Key Points:

• The vector equation of a straight line passing through the point 𝐴𝐴 with position vector
𝒂𝒂, and parallel to the vector 𝒃𝒃, is:
𝒓𝒓 = 𝒂𝒂 + 𝜆𝜆𝒃𝒃.
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 Further Mathematics AS Unit 1: Further Pure Mathematics A

• The vector equation of the straight line passing through the point 𝐴𝐴 with position
vector 𝒂𝒂 and point 𝐵𝐵 with position vector 𝒃𝒃 is:
𝒓𝒓 = 𝒂𝒂 + 𝜆𝜆(𝒃𝒃 − 𝒂𝒂).

• If 𝒂𝒂 = 𝑎𝑎1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑎𝑎3 𝒌𝒌 and 𝒃𝒃 = 𝑏𝑏1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑏𝑏2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑏𝑏3 𝒌𝒌, the equation of the line with vector
equation 𝒓𝒓 = 𝒂𝒂 + 𝜆𝜆𝒃𝒃 can be given in Cartesian form as:
𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎1 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑎𝑎2 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑎𝑎3
= = .
𝑏𝑏1 𝑏𝑏2 𝑏𝑏3

• The vector equation of a plane passing through the point 𝐴𝐴 with position vector 𝒂𝒂
containing the non-parallel vectors 𝒃𝒃 and 𝒄𝒄 is:
𝒓𝒓 = 𝒂𝒂 + 𝜆𝜆𝒃𝒃 + 𝜇𝜇𝒄𝒄.

• The scalar product of two vectors 𝒂𝒂 and 𝒃𝒃 that have an angle 𝜃𝜃 between them is
defined as:
𝒂𝒂. 𝒃𝒃 = |𝒂𝒂||𝒃𝒃| cos 𝜃𝜃.

• Two non-zero vectors 𝒂𝒂 and 𝒃𝒃 are perpendicular if and only if:

𝒂𝒂. 𝒃𝒃 = 0.

• If 𝒂𝒂 = 𝑎𝑎1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑎𝑎3 𝒌𝒌 and 𝒃𝒃 = 𝑏𝑏1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑏𝑏2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑏𝑏3 𝒌𝒌, then:

𝒂𝒂. 𝒃𝒃 = 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏2 + 𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏3 .

• The acute angle between two intersecting straight lines with direction vectors 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏 and
𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐 is given by:
𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏 . 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐
cos 𝜃𝜃 = � �.
|𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏 ||𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐 |

• The scalar product form of the equation of a plane is:

𝒓𝒓. 𝒏𝒏 = 𝑘𝑘
where 𝑘𝑘 = 𝒂𝒂. 𝒏𝒏 for any point in the plane with position vector a.

• The Cartesian equation of a plane in three dimensions can be written in the form
𝑛𝑛1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑛𝑛2 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑛𝑛3 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑘𝑘,
where 𝒏𝒏 = 𝑛𝑛1 𝒊𝒊 + 𝑛𝑛2 𝒋𝒋 + 𝑛𝑛3 𝒌𝒌.

• The acute angle 𝜃𝜃 between two planes with normal vectors 𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏 and 𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐 is given by:
𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏 . 𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐
cos 𝜃𝜃 = � �.
|𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏 ||𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐 |

• The acute angle 𝜃𝜃 between a line with direction vector 𝒃𝒃 and a plane with normal
vector 𝒏𝒏 is 90 − 𝜃𝜃, where:
𝒃𝒃. 𝒏𝒏
cos 𝜃𝜃 = � �.
|𝒃𝒃||𝒏𝒏|

• Two lines are skew if they are not parallel and they do not intersect.

• The perpendicular distance between two skew lines is:

|(𝒃𝒃 − 𝒂𝒂). 𝒏𝒏|
𝐷𝐷 = ,
|𝒏𝒏|
where 𝒂𝒂 and 𝒃𝒃 are position vectors of points on each line and 𝒏𝒏 is a mutual
perpendicular to both lines.

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 Further Mathematics AS Unit 1: Further Pure Mathematics A

• The perpendicular distance between a point and a line is:

|𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑐𝑐|
𝐷𝐷 = ,
√𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2
where the coordinates of the point are (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) and the equation of the line is given by
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑐𝑐.

• The perpendicular distance between a point and a plane is:

|𝑛𝑛1 𝛼𝛼 + 𝑛𝑛2 𝛽𝛽 + 𝑛𝑛3 𝛾𝛾 − 𝑘𝑘|
𝐷𝐷 = ,
�𝑛𝑛12 + 𝑛𝑛22 + 𝑛𝑛32
where (𝛼𝛼, 𝛽𝛽, 𝛾𝛾) are the coordinates of the point and 𝑛𝑛1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑛𝑛2 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑛𝑛3 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑘𝑘 is the
equation of the plane.

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 Further Mathematics AS Unit 1: Further Pure Mathematics A

Questions
1. The line 𝑙𝑙 passes through the point 𝑃𝑃(3, 2, 5) and is perpendicular to the plane 𝛱𝛱 whose
vector equation is 𝒓𝒓. �2𝒊𝒊 – 𝒋𝒋 + 4𝒌𝒌� = 3. Find:
a) the vector equation of the line 𝑙𝑙;
b) the position vector of the point where the line 𝑙𝑙 meets the plane 𝛱𝛱.
c) Hence find the perpendicular distance of 𝑃𝑃 from 𝛱𝛱.

2. The line 𝐿𝐿 passes through the points 𝐴𝐴(5, – 1, 2) and 𝐵𝐵(6, 3, – 1).
a) (i) Find the vector equation of the line 𝐿𝐿.
(ii) Find the Cartesian form of the equation of 𝐿𝐿.
b) The plane 𝛱𝛱 has equation 2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦– 4𝑧𝑧 = 51.
(i) Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of 𝐿𝐿 and 𝛱𝛱.
(ii) Find the acute angle between 𝐿𝐿 and 𝛱𝛱.

Question 1 Worked Solution

The line 𝑙𝑙 passes through the point 𝑃𝑃(3, 2, 5) and is perpendicular to the plane 𝛱𝛱 whose
vector equation is 𝒓𝒓. �2𝒊𝒊 – 𝒋𝒋 + 4𝒌𝒌� = 3. Find:
a) the vector equation of the line 𝑙𝑙;
b) the position vector of the point where the line 𝑙𝑙 meets the plane 𝛱𝛱.
c) Hence find the perpendicular distance of 𝑃𝑃 from 𝛱𝛱.

Solution:
a) The line 𝑙𝑙 passes through the point 𝑃𝑃 which has position vector 𝒑𝒑 = 3𝒊𝒊 + 2𝒋𝒋 + 5𝒌𝒌. The line
is perpendicular to the plane and is therefore parallel to the normal to the plane. This means
the direction of the line is the same as the direction of the normal to the plane, and so the
direction of the line is 2𝒊𝒊 – 𝒋𝒋 + 4𝒌𝒌. Therefore:
𝒓𝒓 = 3𝒊𝒊 + 2𝒋𝒋 + 5𝒌𝒌 + 𝜆𝜆(2𝒊𝒊 – 𝒋𝒋 + 4𝒌𝒌).

b) We can re-write the vector equation of 𝑙𝑙 as 𝒓𝒓 = (3 + 2𝜆𝜆)𝒊𝒊 + (2– 𝜆𝜆)𝑗𝑗 + (5 + 4𝜆𝜆)𝒌𝒌.

Substituting this into the vector equation of 𝛱𝛱, we have:

[(3 + 2𝜆𝜆)𝒊𝒊 + (2– 𝜆𝜆)𝒋𝒋 + (5 + 4𝜆𝜆)𝒌𝒌]. (2𝒊𝒊– 𝒋𝒋 + 4𝒌𝒌) = 3

(3 + 2𝜆𝜆) × 2 + (2– 𝜆𝜆) × −1 + (5 + 4𝜆𝜆) × 4 = 3
6 + 4𝜆𝜆 − 2 + 𝜆𝜆 + 20 + 16𝜆𝜆 = 3
21𝜆𝜆 + 24 = 3
21𝜆𝜆 = −21
𝜆𝜆 = −1.

Therefore, the position vector of the point where the line and the plane intersect is given by
𝒓𝒓 = (3 + 2𝜆𝜆)𝒊𝒊 + �2– 𝜆𝜆�𝑗𝑗 + (5 + 4𝜆𝜆)𝒌𝒌 = 𝒊𝒊 + 3𝒋𝒋 + 𝒌𝒌.

c) We note that the position vector of 𝑃𝑃 is 3𝒊𝒊 + 2𝒋𝒋 + 5𝒌𝒌 and the position vector of 𝑄𝑄, where
the line meets the plane, is 𝒒𝒒 = 𝒊𝒊 + 3𝒋𝒋 + 𝒌𝒌. Since the points 𝑃𝑃 and 𝑄𝑄 lie in the line, we know
that the vector �����⃗
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 is perpendicular to the plane. Therefore, |𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 �����⃗ | will give the perpendicular
distance from the point to the plane. Now:
�����⃗
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝒒𝒒– 𝒑𝒑 = 𝒊𝒊 + 3𝒋𝒋 + 𝒌𝒌 − (3𝒊𝒊 + 2𝒋𝒋 + 5𝒌𝒌) =– 2𝒊𝒊 + 𝒋𝒋– 4𝒌𝒌.

Hence, the perpendicular distance from the point to the plane is:
�����⃗ � = �22 + 12 + (−4)2 = √4 + 1 + 16 = √21.
�𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

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 Further Mathematics AS Unit 1: Further Pure Mathematics A

Question 2 Worked Solution

The line 𝐿𝐿 passes through the points 𝐴𝐴(5, – 1, 2) and 𝐵𝐵(6, 3, – 1).
a) (i) Find the vector equation of the line 𝐿𝐿.
(ii) Find the Cartesian form of the equation of 𝐿𝐿.
b) The plane 𝛱𝛱 has equation 2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦– 4𝑧𝑧 = 51.
(i) Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of 𝐿𝐿 and 𝛱𝛱.
(ii) Find the acute angle between 𝐿𝐿 and 𝛱𝛱.

a) (i) The point 𝐴𝐴 has position vector 𝒂𝒂 = 5𝒊𝒊 − 𝒋𝒋 + 2𝒌𝒌, and the point 𝐵𝐵 has position vector
given by 𝒃𝒃 = 6𝒊𝒊 + 3𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌. Therefore, �����⃗𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝒃𝒃– 𝒂𝒂 = (6𝒊𝒊 + 3𝒋𝒋 − 𝒌𝒌)– (5𝒊𝒊 − 𝒋𝒋 + 2𝒌𝒌) = 𝒊𝒊 + 4𝒋𝒋– 3𝒌𝒌.
The line 𝐿𝐿 passes through 𝒂𝒂 and has direction �����⃗ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴. Therefore, the vector equation of 𝐿𝐿 is:
�����⃗
𝒓𝒓 = 𝒂𝒂 + 𝜆𝜆𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 5𝒊𝒊– 𝒋𝒋 + 2𝒌𝒌 + 𝜆𝜆(𝒊𝒊 + 4𝒋𝒋– 3𝒌𝒌).

(ii) Since 𝒓𝒓 = 𝑥𝑥𝒊𝒊 + 𝑦𝑦𝒋𝒋 + 𝑧𝑧𝒌𝒌, we can form the equations:

𝑥𝑥 = 5 + 𝜆𝜆, 𝑦𝑦 = −1 + 4𝜆𝜆, 𝑧𝑧 = 2 − 3𝜆𝜆.
𝑦𝑦+1 𝑧𝑧−2
Hence, 𝜆𝜆 = 𝑥𝑥 − 5 = = and so the equation of the line is:
,
4 −3
𝑦𝑦 + 1 𝑧𝑧 − 2
𝑥𝑥 − 5 = = .
4 −3
b) (i) The line has vector equation 𝒓𝒓 = (5 + 𝜆𝜆)𝒊𝒊 + (– 1 + 4𝜆𝜆)𝒋𝒋 + (2 − 3𝜆𝜆)𝒌𝒌. The normal to the
plane 2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦 − 4𝑧𝑧 = 51 is 𝒏𝒏 = 2𝒊𝒊 + 3𝒋𝒋 − 4𝒌𝒌. Therefore, the vector equation of the plane is
𝒓𝒓. (2𝒊𝒊 + 3𝒋𝒋 − 4𝒌𝒌) = 51.

Substituting the line into the equation for the plane, we get:
[(5 + 𝜆𝜆)𝒊𝒊 + (– 1 + 4𝜆𝜆)𝒋𝒋 + (2 − 3𝜆𝜆)𝒌𝒌]. (2𝒊𝒊 + 3𝒋𝒋 − 4𝒌𝒌) = 51
2(5 + 𝜆𝜆) + 3(−1 + 4𝜆𝜆) − 4(2 − 3𝜆𝜆) = 51
10 + 2𝜆𝜆 − 3 + 12𝜆𝜆 − 8 + 12𝜆𝜆 = 51
26𝜆𝜆 − 1 = 51
26𝜆𝜆 = 52
𝜆𝜆 = 2.

Therefore, the point of intersection is 𝒓𝒓 = (5 + 2)𝒊𝒊 + �– 1 + 8�𝒋𝒋 + (2 − 6)𝒌𝒌 = 7𝒊𝒊 + 7𝒋𝒋 − 4𝒌𝒌.
Hence, the coordinates of the point of intersection are (7, 7, −4).

(ii) To find the angle 𝜃𝜃 between 𝐿𝐿 and 𝛱𝛱, we firstly find the angle between 𝐿𝐿 and the normal
vector 𝒏𝒏. We have:
(𝒃𝒃 − 𝒂𝒂). 𝒏𝒏 = 2 + 12 + 12 = 26,
|(𝒃𝒃 − 𝒂𝒂)| = �12 + 42 + (−3)2 = √1 + 16 + 9 = √26,
|𝒏𝒏| = �22 + 32 + (−4)2 = √4 + 9 + 16 = √29.

Hence:
26
cos 𝜃𝜃 = � � ⇒ 𝜃𝜃 = 18.76∘ .
√26 × √29

Therefore, the angle between the line and the plane is 90 − 18.76 = 71.24∘.

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