In space, our Earth not only feels the gravitational pull

of the mighty Sun, it too can feel the gravitational effect

of the Moon acting on it. Our Moon may be much much
smaller than our Sun, but remember, it is much much
closer. Since our Earth is not completely rigid, as it
rotates on its axis, centrifugal force causes the equator
to bulge. he non-uniform gravitational force of the Sun
and the Moon will pull on this bulge and causes the
Earth to wobble as it spin around it axis, just like a
spinning top that is almost falling off.

Technically, this wobble is called precession.

Precession of Earth’s rotational axis takes
approximately 26,000 years to make one complete
revolution. Through each 26,000-year cycle, the
direction in the sky to which the Earth’s axis points
goes around a big circle. In other words, precession
changes the “North Star” as seen from Earth.

Precession – the slow and gradual shift of Earth’s axis through a 26,000-year cycle.

When viewed from outside and looking down onto the Earth from the north, the direction of precession is clockwise. When
standing on Earth looking outward, the axis appears to move counter-
clockwise across the sky.

Currently, the Earth’s axis is pointing somewhere near Polaris in Ursa

Minor, hence north star today is Polaris. However, almost 5,000 years
ago, Thuban in the constellation of Draco was the north star, and was
used by the ancient Egyptians. In 13,000 years from now, precession
will bring Earth’s rotational axis near Vega in Lyra. That time, Vega
will become our north star.

Precession was discovered by Greek astronomer Hipparchus, who

had access to several centuries of Babylonian and Greek records. He
compared these ancient records to his own and concluded that the
axis which the heavens seemed to rotate shifted gradually, though
very slowly.

The point where the sun is at its northernmost position above the
celestial equator or at its highest in the sky is called the summer
solstice where day is longest and night is shortest. It is sometimes
called the June solstice because it happens on or near June 21.

The winter or December solstice occurs when the sun is at its southernmost position or at its lowest in the sky. This normally
happens during December 21, day is shortest while night is longest.

https://mydarksky.org/2008/10/14/the-earths-wobble-precession/

By around 500 B.C., most ancient Greeks believed that Earth was round, not flat. But they had no idea how big the planet
is until about 240 B.C., when Eratosthenes devised a clever method of estimating its circumference.

It was around 500 B.C. that Pythagoras first proposed a spherical Earth, mainly on aesthetic grounds rather than on any
physical evidence. Like many Greeks, he believed the sphere was the most perfect shape.

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) the first to propose a spherical Earth based on actual physical evidence. He listed several
arguments for a spherical Earth: ships disappear hull first when they sail over the horizon, Earth casts a round shadow on
the moon during a lunar eclipse, and different constellations are visible at different latitudes.

The first person to determine the size of Earth was Eratosthenes of Cyrene, who produced a surprisingly good measurement
using a simple scheme that combined geometrical calculations with physical observations. Eratosthenes was born around
276 B.C., which is now Shahhat, Libya. He studied in Athens at the Lyceum. Around 240 B.C., King Ptolemy III of Alexandria
appointed him chief librarian of the library of Alexandria.

Eratosthenes’ most famous accomplishment is his measurement of the circumference of Earth. He recorded the details of
this measurement in a manuscript that is now lost, but his technique has been described by other Greek historians and
writers.
Eratosthenes had heard from travelers about a well in Syene
(now Aswan, Egypt) with an interesting property: at noon on
the summer solstice, which occurs about June 21 every year,
the sun illuminated the entire bottom of this well, without
casting any shadows, indicating that the sun was directly
overhead. Eratosthenes then measured the angle of a shadow
cast by a stick at noon on the summer solstice in Alexandria,
and found it made an angle of about 7.2 degrees, or about 1/50
of a complete circle.

So Eratosthenes hired bematists, professional surveyors

trained to walk with equal length steps. They found that Syene
lies about 5000 stadia from Alexandria. found that the distance
between the cities was about 5,000 stadia. That's roughly between 500 and 600 miles (800 and 900 kilometers), depending
on which version of that unit of measurement scholars think he used. With that, he could do a quick back-of-the-scroll
calculation. Since the sun hit straight-on in Syene and at a 7.2-degree angle in Alexandria, the distance between them
should be a 7.2-degree chunk of the 360-degree sphere that is the Earth. He also knew that that 7.2-degree chunk was
roughly 500 miles long. It turns out that 7.2 is to 360 what 500 is to 25,000 — and that was his answer. The Earth was
25,000 miles (40,000 kilometers) around.

Eratosthenes then used this to calculate the circumference of the Earth to be about 250,000 stadia. Modern scholars
disagree about the length of the stadium used by Eratosthenes. Values between 500 and about 600 feet have been
suggested, putting Eratosthenes’ calculated circumference between about 24,000 miles and about 29,000 miles. The Earth
is now known to measure about 24,900 miles around the equator, slightly less around the poles.

So, was Eratosthenes right? Even though some of his assumptions were faulty and his distances were rough, he was only
off by about 100 miles. Today, we know that the Earth is 24,901 miles (40,075 kilometers) around at its equator, a little bit
less if you measure pole-to-pole. Not bad for a guy and his stick.

https://curiosity.com/topics/how-the-ancient-greeks-knew-the-earth-was-round-curiosity/

https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200606/history.cfm

Explain how Plato’s problem of “Saving the Appearances” constrained Greek models of the Universe

Plato's problem of the “saving the appearances” became an obstacle to the Greeks' models of the universe as Plato gave
a challenge to astronomers to explain the non-regular motions (combination of circular motions and constant speed of
rotation) of planets, sun, and moon. In particular, this challenge or task is considered to be a clumsy mechanism.

The theory of planetary motion assumed that the planets must move ‘perfectly’ in a circular motion. In the same way, the
Greeks believed that the apparent motion of the planets were based on the uniformity of their behavior as move on their
orbits, without considering the irregularities in their movement. For example, in the celestial sphere, the stars appear to
rotate uniformly, from east to west, until they return back to their starting point. From these ideas, Plato posed an important
question to his students that revolved in the two main principles of the Greek philosophers.

Plato’s ‘Saving the Appearances’

Before he posed his question, Plato first cited his observations about the stars and the planets. He explained that the stars
appear to move around the earth in a 'perfect' path. However, he described that some of the ‘stars’ appear to 'wander'
across the sky, giving irregular figures throughout the year. He accounted the 'wandering stars' as planets and that they
move in a uniform and orderly manner in circles or in combinations of circles. Finally, he asked his students on how can
they explain all these observations about the planetary motion and ‘save the appearances’ (in today's term, 'fit the
observations with the data').

He posed the question because the observations about the planetary motion and the apparent motions of the planets did
not seem to coincide with each other. Given that the planets move in a perfect path or in a uniform circular motion, there
were still apparent irregular motions of the planets or planets that still 'wander' across the sky.

compare and contrast the models/descriptions of the universe by Eudoxus, Aristotle, Aristarchus, Ptolemy, and Copernicus

compare and contrast explanations and models of astronomical phenomena (Copernican, Ptolemaic, and Tychonic)

Anaximander of Miletus (611-546 BC), Among the first Greek philosophers to suggest a geocentric system: Earth was a flat
disk (cylinder) fixed and unmoving at the center. Sun, Moon & Stars were affixed to rotating crystalline spheres centered on
the Earth. Sun, Moon & Stars were physical objects.

Pythagoras of Samos (569-475 BC)

Philosopher & Mathematician, founded the Pythagorean school. Taught that spheres are the perfect geometric shapes.
Pythagorean Model: Spherical Earth fixed at the center Planets & Stars on concentric crystalline spheres
 Anaximander refined Thales' ideas and proposed a model which had a cylindrical
Earth at rest in the centre of the Universe, surrounded by air then one or more
spherical shells with holes in them. These appeared as stars due to the rim of fire
that lay beyond the solid sphere.

Figure 1.2 Anaximander had a cylindrical Earth surrounded by air and a solid
sphere. Holes in the solid sphere allowed the light from the outer rim of fire to shine
through, appearing as stars and the Sun.

Anaximenes refined Anaximander's model by suggesting that the stars were fixed
on to a solid, transparent crystalline sphere that rotated about the Earth.

Later Ionians contributed more ideas and discoveries. Anaxogoras (c. 450 BC) realised that the Moon shone by reflected
sunlight, had mountains and was inhabited and that the Sun was not a god but a large fiery stone much larger than Greece
and a large distance from Earth. Empedocles suggested that light traveled fast but not at infinite speed. Democritus
proposed not just at atomist model of matter but also proposed that the Milky Way was composed of thousands of
unresolved stars.

An Athenian and a pupil of Socrates, Plato (428-348 BC had a profound influence on philosophy and he wrote widely on
many different fields). All heavenly motions were circular or spherical as the sphere was the perfect shape. Such was his
influence that the concept of circular paths was not challenged until Kepler, after many years of painstaking calculations,
discovered the elliptical orbits of planets nearly 2,000 years later.

A pupil of Plato, Eudoxus (408 BC) elaborated a geocentric model composed

of crystalline spheres, incorporating the Platonic ideal of uniform circular
motion.

System of 27 Spheres: 1 for the fixed stars, 3 each for the Sun and Moon, 4
each for the 5 planets. Spheres within spheres in perfect circular motion
combine to give retrograde motions. Eudoxus of Cnidus, a student of ancient
Greek philosopher Plato presented the first mathematical theory of the
universe about a hundred years later. Eudoxus’ model placed a spherical
Earth at the centre of the universe. The Sun, planets, and stars were then
placed in giant transparent spheres surrounding it. A model of the universe
that has the Earth at the centre is known as a geocentric model of the universe.
Aristotle's (384-322 BC) work had a profound influence on western thought,
eventually being absorbed and molded into supporting Christian theology and
dogma.
Aristotle believed that all matter consists of a mixture of four elements: earth,
water, air, and fire. Each of these elements has a tendency to reach its ‘natural
place’. However, these elements are only present in terrestrial objects. In the case
of the celestial bodies, a fifth element called aether, was the reason why the
heavens were created. The aether has its own motion based on its nature: pure
and absolute. Its motion has no end and no beginning; thus, its natural place is a
circular motion. However, the Earth was an exception. It cannot have the
circular motion of the aether due to its nature, which was primarily composed of
the element earth.
Based on this philosophy, Aristotle devised a system to explain the uniform and
ordered movement of the celestial bodies. In his system, the stars were
embedded outside the largest sphere where the “prime mover” is found. The
prime mover keeps the stars moving in
a constant motion, causing a friction to the smaller spheres of the outer planets and
the spheres where the sun and the inner planets were located.
Interestingly whilst most classical models were variations on geocentric models, one
of the Pythagoreans, Aristarchus of Samos (c. 310 - 230 BC) proposed a model
that placed the Sun at the centre, that is a heliocentric Universe. His model would
be familiar to us today as a reasonable description of the solar system. All the
planets, including the earth, revolved around a fixed Sun in circular orbits. The Earth
rotated once a day on its axis and the Moon revolved about the Earth
The last of the great classical astronomers, Claudius Ptolemy (150 AD) lived in
Alexandria. He contributed to mathematics, optics, geography and music but is
chiefly remembered for his vast work on astronomy, known as the Almagest. In it
he detailed a model of the Universe that profoundly influenced Western and Arabic thought for the next 1,500 years.
Ptolemy relied heavily on tools invented and observations made by earlier astronomers. Apollonius (262 - 190 BC) had
developed the concepts of the eccentric and the epicycle to explain planetary motions (see Figure 1.5
below). Hipparchus (161 - 126 BC) had organised
earlier Babylonian records together with his own
observations to develop a catalogue of 850 stars. He
plotted them on a celestial sphere and introduced the
concept of comparing brightnesses on a magnitude
scale that forms the basis of that still used today.
Ptolemy synthesised all this work and incorporated his
own careful observations to produce a model that was
to become accepted as the standard model until the
1600s
Figure 1.3The Epicycle, Deferent and Eccentric.
A planet orbits point x in a circular path called the
epicycle. The deferent is the circular path that point x takes around the centre of motion, C.
This is not the same point as the location of the Earth. The offset is called the eccentric.
Different planets would have different eccentrics, deferents and epicycles. The resultant
path traced out by a planet could account for retrograde motion and variations in brightness.

The Earth-centered Universe of Aristotle and

Ptolemy held sway on Western thinking for almost
2000 years. Then, in the 16th century a "new" (but
remember Aristarchus) idea was proposed by the
Polish astronomer Nicolai Copernicus (1473-
1543). In a book called On the Revolutions of the
Heavenly Bodies (that was published as
Copernicus lay on his deathbed), Copernicus
proposed that the Sun, not the Earth, was the
center of the Solar System. Such a model is called
a heliocentric system. The ordering of the planets
known to Copernicus in this new system is
illustrated in the following figure, which we
recognize as the modern ordering of those planets.

Tychonic system, scheme for the structure of the solar system put
forward in 1583 by the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe. He retained
from the ancient Ptolemaic system the idea of Earth as a fixed centre
of the universe around which the Sun and Moon revolved, but he held
that, as in the newer system of Copernicus, all other planets revolved
around the Sun.

According to Nicolaus Copernicus, the sun is should be positioned

motionless near the center of the universe. Earth and all the planets
surround it, rotating around the sun in some circular paths that can
be modified by uniform speed and epicycles (Copernican)

According to Ptolemy, the sun, moon, and planets like Mars orbit the earth. He thought that stars move around our planet
earth every day and the motion of the biggest star - the sun, and the moon, as well as the planets was added to that first
common motion of the entire universe or heavens. (Ptolemaic) Each planet moves in a circular path called epicycle which
moves around a larger circular path called deferents.

However, according to Danish astronomer, Tycho Brahe it was actually a combination of Copernican and Ptolemaic. He
believed that the planets in the heavens of solar system revolve only around the sun but our planet is the center of the
universe. (Tychonic)

https://www.atnf.csiro.au/outreach/education/senior/cosmicengine/classicalastronomy.html
https://www.pas.rochester.edu/~blackman/ast104/copernican9.html
https://brainly.ph/question/1370540
https://www.facebook.com/notes/grade-11-physical-science-vnhs/lesson-67-models-of-astronomical-phenomena-
copernican-ptolemaic-and-tychonic/2060318253984389/

explain how Galileo’s astronomical discoveries and observations (lunar craters, phases of Venus, moons of Jupiter, sun
spots, supernovas, the apparently identical size of stars as seen through the naked eye, and telescope observations) helped
weaken the support for the Ptolemaic model.

Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are easily seen in the sky without the aid of telescopes. These planets can be
easily confused with stars and are only seen at specific times of the day. The best time to look for these planets would be
before sunrise and after sunset.
 Even before the invention of the telescope, ancient people have already observed different astronomical phenomena. The
most observable objects in the sky are the sun and moon.

Babylonian and Egyptian civilizations used a primitive version of a sundial, called gnomon, in systematically observing the
motion of the sun. By looking at the shadows that the gnomon casts, they were able to observe that the sun rises in the
eastern part of the sky, reaches its highest point in midday, and sets in the western part of the sky.

Also, they recorded that the points where the sun rises and sets on the horizon varies over a year and these variations
happen periodically. They observed that these variations are related to weather and so concluded that seasonal changes
in climate happen during a course of one year.

Phases of the Moon

Ancient people have observed that the moon changes its path and its appearance within a period of 29.5 days. They
observed that the moon changes its appearance from thin semi-circular disk to full circular disk. These phases of the moon
is the basis of ancient calendars.

Lunar Eclipse
Besides their observation in the different phases of the moon, they also noticed that there are times when the moon or part
of it seemed to be covered by a shadow for a brief moment. A lunar eclipse occurs when the Earth casts its shadow on the
moon when the Earth is between the Sun and the Moon. A phenomenon such as this is known as a lunar eclipse wherein
the moon changes into a dark or blood red color.

Solar Eclipse
Aside from lunar eclipse, the occurrence of a solar eclipse was also observed. Solar eclipse occurs when the Moon is in
between the Sun and the Earth and the moon partially or completely blocks out the sun.

The Motion of the Stars

It was also observed that the stars appear to be attached to a celestial sphere that rotates around an axis in one day. This
axis intersects the celestial sphere at a point in the northern sky and is presently close to the northern star, Polaris. Also,
the constellations’ positions in the night sky vary depending on the time of the year.

Visibility of Planets
Astronomers have discovered that Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are planets because they have noticed that
the stars are in a fixed position with respect to each other (like how constellations are always grouped). But there are very
bright stars that change positions periodically. These “stars” do not belong to any group of constellations in the sky. Thus,
they are called “wanderers” or planetes in Greek terms.

Key Points

Even before the advent of the telescopes, ancient astronomers were able to observe the:

• rising and setting of the Sun in the east and the west, respectively,
• point where the Sun rises and sets in the horizon varies in a year,
• phases of the moon,
• lunar eclipse,
• solar eclipse,
• daily and annual motion of the stars, and
• planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.

https://lagmandana.wordpress.com/2017/11/24/astronomical-phenomena-known-to-astronomers-before-the-advent-of-
telescopes/

Galileo's Observations

Galileo made several key discoveries through his systematic use and refinement of the telescope.

The Moon

According to Aristotelian principles the Moon was above the sub-lunary sphere and in the
heavens, hence should be perfect. He found the "surface of the moon to be not smooth,
even and perfectly spherical,but on the contrary, to be uneven, rough, and crowded with
depressions and bulges. And it is like the face of the earth itself, which is marked here and
there with chains of mountains and depths of valleys." He calculated the heights of the
mountains by measuring the lengths of their shadows and applying geometry.

Moons of Jupiter
 Observations of the planet Jupiter over successive night revealed four star-like
objects in a line with it. The objects moved from night to night, sometimes
disappearing behind or in front of the planet. Galileo correctly inferred that these
objects were moons of Jupiter and orbited it just as our Moon orbits Earth. For the
first time, objects had been observed orbiting another planet, thus weakening the
hold of the Ptolemaic model. Today these four moons are known as the Galilean
satellites; Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto.

The Phases of Venus

Venus was observed to go through a sequence of phases similar to the Moon. This could not be explained in the Ptolemaic
model but could be accounted for by either the Sun-centered Copernican model or the Earth-centered Tychonic model that
had the other planets orbiting the Sun as it orbited the Earth. Galileo rejected Tycho's model as an unnecessary hybrid and
used the discovery to consolidate his support of the Copernican model.

Sunspots

Along with contemporaries such as Thomas Harriot, David Frabicius and Christoph Scheiner, Galileo observed dark regions
that appeared to move across the surface of the Sun. Debate centered on whether these were satellites of the Sun or actual
spots on its surface. Galileo, in his Letters on Sunspots supported the sunspot interpretation and used it to show that the
Sun was rotating. Its blemishes and imperfections again undermined the Aristotelian ideal of a perfect cosmos.

"Appendages" on Saturn

Galileo noted two appendages from the sides of Saturn. These disappeared then later reappeared. It was not until 1656
that the Dutch scientist, Christiaan Huygens correctly described them as rings.

Stars in the Milky Way

Even through a telescope the stars still appeared as points of light. Galileo suggested
that this was due to their immense distance from Earth. This then eased the problem
posed by the failure of astronomers to detect stellar parallax that was a consequence
of Copernicus' model. On turning his telescope to the band of the Milky Way Galileo
saw it resolved into thousands of hitherto unseen stars. This posed the question as to
why there were invisible objects in the night sky?

More stars are resolved in this drawing by Galileo of the Pleiades than are visible to the unaided eye.

https://www.atnf.csiro.au/outreach/education/senior/astrophysics/galileo.html

http://galileo.rice.edu/bio/narrative_6.html

explain how Brahe’s innovations and extensive collection of data in observational astronomy paved the way for Kepler’s
discovery of his laws of planetary motion

The publication of De revolutionibus by Copernicus in 1543 initiated a revolutionary change in the views of people on the
cosmos and movement of celestial bodies, but at the beginning the process was slow. Scientists from those times realised
that the geocentric astronomy of Ptolemy was rather inaccurate in anticipating locations of the planets and therefore the
work by Copernicus was welcomed with great expectations.

Erasmus Reinhold compiled the heliocentric Prutenicae tabulae coelestium motuum (Prutenic Tables), the aim of which
was to commemorate Copernicus’s achievements, ‘whose efforts and research revived the studies of the movement of
celestial bodies, studies which were about to collapse’. The astronomical tables, however, constructed on the basis of the
Copernicus model, did not provide a significant improvement in the accuracy of prediction of the planets’ locations on the
celestial sphere: the maximum errors still reached a level of several degrees, which would amount to a couple or even
several diameters of the Moon.

In November 1563, a young Danish astronomer, Tycho Brahe, while observing the conjunction of Jupiter with Saturn found
that Ptolemaic Alfonsine Tables were wrong in predicting this phenomenon by about a month, whereas the Prutenic Tables
by about two days. He then declared that the two errors meant that the real revolution in astronomy had not yet taken place.

Before the invention of telescope Brahe observed stars and planets until the year 1597, reaching an accuracy in defining
their positions that would amount to just the minute of arc (1’). In that time Brahe and other European astronomers also
found that the 1577 comet was moving in the space among the planets, which meant that they were not supported on fixed
spheres, as the traditional cosmology implied. That way astronomy at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries faced the
possibility of improvement of models of planetary movements – owing to Brahe’s observation material – as well as the need
to discover the real causes of these movements. In both cases it was Johannes Kepler who made the important step.

thorough observations of Mars collected by Brahe, Kepler discovered that planets do not move in circles, as the ancient
astronomers and Copernicus had assumed, but in ellipses. In one focus of the elliptical orbit was the Sun, which justified
Kepler’s assumptions that it was the physical cause for planetary movements. He announced his discovery in 1609 in a
work entitled Astronomia nova (New Astronomy).
It was thanks to observations of Mercury passing against the background of the Sun, which could be observed on 7th
November 1631, that Europe could become convinced about that. Pierre Gassendi in Paris stated that Kepler’s predictions
had been miscalculated by only 14’, while the Alfonsine Tables by 4o25’, and the Prutenic Tables by 5o. It is also worth
mentioning that in his observations Gassendi used a telescope, which had already been changing the face of astronomy
for more than 20 years.

http://copernicus.torun.pl/en/revolution/development/1/

apply Kepler’s 3rd law of planetary motion to objects in the solar system

The Law of Ellipses

Kepler's first law - sometimes referred to as the law of ellipses - explains that planets are orbiting the sun in a path
described as an ellipse. The two other points (represented here by the tack locations) are known as the foci of the ellipse.
Kepler's first law is rather simple - all planets orbit the sun in a path that resembles an ellipse, with the sun being located at
one of the foci of that ellipse.

The Law of Equal Areas

Kepler's second law - sometimes referred to as the law of equal areas -

describes the speed at which any given planet will move while orbiting the sun.
The speed at which any planet moves through space is constantly changing. A
planet moves fastest when it is closest to the sun and slowest when it is furthest
from the sun. Yet, if an imaginary line were drawn from the center of the planet
to the center of the sun, that line would sweep out the same area in equal
periods of time. For instance, if an imaginary line were drawn from the earth to
the sun, then the area swept out by the line in every 31-day month would be
the same. This is depicted in the diagram below. As can be observed in the
diagram, the areas formed when the earth is closest to the sun can be
approximated as a wide but short triangle; whereas the areas formed when the
earth is farthest from the sun can be approximated as a narrow but long
triangle. These areas are the same size. Since the base of these triangles are
shortest when the earth is farthest from the sun, the earth would have to be
moving more slowly in order for this imaginary area to be the same size as
when the earth is closest to the sun.
The dot pattern shows that as the planet is closest the sun, the planet is moving fastest and as the planet is farthest from
the sun, it is moving slowest. Nonetheless, the imaginary line joining the center of the planet to the center of the sun sweeps
out the same amount of area in each equal interval of time.

The Law of Harmonies

Kepler's third law - sometimes referred to as the law of harmonies - compares the orbital period and radius of orbit of a
planet to those of other planets. Unlike Kepler's first and second laws that describe the motion characteristics of a single
planet, the third law makes a comparison between the motion characteristics of different planets. The comparison being
made is that the ratio of the squares of the periods to the cubes of their average distances from the sun is the same for
every one of the planets. As an illustration, consider the orbital period and average distance from sun (orbital radius) for
Earth and mars as given in the table below.
Period Average T2/R3
Planet
(s) Distance (m) (s2/m3)
Earth 3.156 x 107 s 1.4957 x 1011 2.977 x 10-19
Mars 5.93 x 107 s 2.278 x 1011 2.975 x 10-19

Observe that the T2/R3 ratio is the same for Earth as it is for mars. In fact, if the same T2/R3 ratio is computed for the other
planets, it can be found that this ratio is nearly the same value for all the planets (see table below). Amazingly, every planet
has the same T2/R3 ratio.
Period Average T2/R3
Planet
(yr) Distance (au) (yr2/au3)
Mercury 0.241 0.39 0.98
Venus .615 0.72 1.01
Earth 1.00 1.00 1.00
Mars 1.88 1.52 1.01
Jupiter 11.8 5.20 0.99
Saturn 29.5 9.54 1.00
Uranus 84.0 19.18 1.00
 Neptune 165 30.06 1.00
Pluto 248 39.44 1.00
(NOTE: The average distance value is given in astronomical units where 1 AU is equal to the distance from the earth to the
sun - 1.4957 x 1011 m. The orbital period is given in units of earth-years where 1 earth year is the time required for the earth
to orbit the sun - 3.156 x 107 seconds. )

Kepler's third law provides an accurate description of the period and distance for a planet's orbits about the sun. Additionally,
the same law that describes the T2/R3 ratio for the planets' orbits about the sun also
accurately describes the T2/R3 ratio for any satellite (whether a moon or a man-made
satellite) about any planet. There is something much deeper to be found in this T2/R3 ratio
- something that must relate to basic fundamental principles of motion.
Kepler's Third Law is the most complicated, and it relates the period T of planets orbit,
which is the time spent for one revolution around the sun, to the average distance R to the
sun.
1. Earth has an orbital period of 365 days and its mean distance from the Sun is 1.495x108
km. The planet Pluto’s mean distance from the Sun is 5.896x109 km. Using Kepler’s third
law, calculate Pluto’s orbital period in Earth days.

Given: 𝑇𝐸1 = 365 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑟𝐸1 = 1.495𝑥108 𝑘𝑚 𝑟𝑃2 = 5.896𝑥109 𝑘𝑚 𝑇𝑃2 =?

2. Titan, the largest moon of Saturn, has a mean

orbital radius of 1.22x109 m. The orbital period
of Titan is 15.95 days. Hyperion, another moon of
Saturn, orbits at a mean radius of 1.48x109 m.
Use Kepler’s third law of planetary motion to
predict the orbital period of Hyperion in days.

𝑟𝑇 = 1.22𝑥109
𝑚 𝑇𝑇 = 15.95 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
𝑟𝐻 = 1.48𝑥109 𝑚
𝑇𝐻 =?

Compare and contrast the Aristotelian and Galilean conceptions

of vertical motion, horizontal motion, and projectile motion.

https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/u6l4b.cfm
http://lehman.edu/faculty/anchordoqui/101-P4_s.pdf
https://slideplayer.com/slide/2773911/

https://www.slideshare.net/JohnAdrianCA/universal-laws-
of-physics-aristotle-v-galilei

Type of motion Aristotle Galileo

Horizontal Qualitatively different. Bodies seem to need push An object in motion, if unimpeded, will
or pull to maintain horizontal motion continue to be in motion, and an external force
(contrary to their ‘natural’ motion). is not necessary to maintain the motion. If the
earth surface is very flat and extended
infinitely, objects that are pushed will not be
impeded. Thus, objects will continue to move.
Vertical - The element earth moves down toward its natural In the absence of a resistance, objects would
resting place. fall not depending on their weight, but in the
– Water’s natural place is just above earth. time of fall. Also, if the object encountered a
– Air rises to its natural place in the atmosphere. resistance force from a fluid equal or greater
– Fire leaps upwards to its natural place above the that its weight, it will slow down and reaches
atmosphere. a uniform motion until it reaches the bottom
and stops.
Projectile – is an object upon which the only force acting is A projectile is a combination of uniform motion
gravity. in the horizontal direction and uniformly
 – A projectile is any object that once projected or accelerated motion in the vertical direction. If
dropped continues in motion by its own inertia and it not impeded, it will continue to move even
is influenced only by the downward force of gravity without an applied force.

In ancient Greece, Aristotle was considered as the most outstanding scientist in his time. In his view, all objects in the
universe has a proper place which can be determined by their nature. He thought that the motion of an object proceeds
from its nature, which is dependent on the combination of four elements - earth, water, air and fire. He divided motion into
two - natural motion and violent motion.

Natural Motion - Objects tend to seek their natural place and will strive to get there.
Violent Motion - This is any forced motion, either a push or a pull, that opposes the natural motion of an object.

Example: The nature of feather is a combination of earth and air. However, its air nature is dominant. Therefore, it falls to
the ground, but not as fast as a rock will do. The big problem with Aristotle's views is connected to projectile motion.
He was not able to explain what maintains the motion of a projectile (object) after it leaves the thrower's hand.

As a summary, Aristotle postulated that the heavier the object, the faster it should fall or strive to find its natural
place.

Galileo discredited Aristotle's ideas through observation and experimentation. He was the first scientist to provide evidence
by dropping several objects of different weights from the top of the Leaning Tower of Pisa and comparing their falls.

He also disagreed with Aristotle's idea that an object will require a push or a pull to keep it moving. According to Galileo,
without interference, a moving object will keep moving in a straight line forever. It will not need a push, a pull or
any kind of force. He tested this hypothesis by observing the motion of various objects on a plane tilted at different angles.
Based on his observations, a ball moves faster on a downward sloping plane, while loses its speed on an upward
sloping plane.

From that, he hypothesized that a ball rolling on a horizontal plane will neither speed up nor slow down. It would stop
not because of its nature but because of friction. In the absence of friction or any other opposing forces, the ball will
continue to move forever.

In terms of projectile motion, Galileo postulated that any object will fall at the same rate
regardless of their mass.

Example: A hammer and a feather will fall at the same time when air resistance is
neglected. Galileo understood that vertical motion does not affect horizontal motion.An object
projected horizontally will reach the ground in the same time as an object dropped vertically. No
matter how large the horizontal velocity is, the downward acceleration is always the same.

For almost 2000 years, Aristotle's idea was widely accepted around the world. However, he was
not able to consider "friction" in his ideas. Galileo was the first scientist to realize that friction was like a force (a push or a
pull), so he developed the idea about inertia. Inertia is the property of an object to resist its motion.

https://kayejhanani.wordpress.com/2017/11/19/aristotelian-conceptions-vertical-motion-horizontal-motion-and-
projectile-motion/

https://brainly.ph/question/1332444
https://www.mansfieldct.org/Schools/MMS/staff/hand/Projectilemotion.htm