SOFiLOAD

Loads and Load Functions

SOFiSTiK | 2025
 SOFiLOAD
Loads and Load Functions

SOFiLOAD Manual, Service Pack 2025-1.1 Build 3

Copyright © 2024 by SOFiSTiK AG, Nuremberg, Germany.

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new editions of this manual.

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either one is completely error free. Errors and omissions are corrected as soon as they are detected.

The user of the program is solely responsible for the applications. We strongly encourage the user to test the
correctness of all calculations at least by random sampling.
 Contents | SOFiLOAD

Contents

Contents i

1 General 1-1

2 Theoretical Principles 2-1

2.1 Equivalent Nodal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
2.2 Prestressing Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2

3 Input Description 3-1

3.1 Input language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3.2 Input records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
3.3 GRP – Selection and Properties of Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
3.4 ACT – Definition of an Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
3.5 LC – Definition of a Load Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15
3.6 NODE – Nodal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19
3.7 CABL – Cable Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-21
3.8 TRUS – Truss Element Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-22
3.9 Definition of Beam Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23
3.10 BEAM – Distributed Beam Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-26
3.11 BEPL – Point Beam Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-29
3.12 QUAD – Element Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-34
3.13 BRIC – Element Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-39
3.14 COPY – Loads from Other Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-41
3.14.1 Support forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-44
3.14.2 Load trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-44
3.14.3 Wind and Wave loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-46
3.15 Free Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-48
3.15.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-48
3.15.2 Projection of Loading Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-49
3.15.3 Beam loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-50
3.15.4 Special Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-50
3.16 LAR – Load Distribution Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-52
3.17 POIN – Free Point Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-55
3.18 LINE,CURV – Free Line Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-58
3.19 AREA – Free Area Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-63
3.19.1 Wind loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-67
3.20 VOLU – Volume Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-68
3.20.1 Loading in Silos and Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-70
3.21 GUID – Globally Unique Identifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-72
3.22 EXPO – Export of Load Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-74
3.23 EVAL – Evaluations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-75

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3.23.1 Eigen Stress and Equivalent Linear Temperature Load . . . . . 3-75

3.23.2 Spectral densities of loadings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-77
3.24 CTRL – Optional Control Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-79
3.25 ECHO – Printout Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-81

4 Dynamic Loads 4-1

4.1 Pushover Analysis - Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
4.2 RESP – Response Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10
4.2.1 Eurocode EC 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-12
4.2.2 Uniform/International Building Code UBC/IBC . . . . . . . . . . 4-13
4.2.3 DIN EN 1998-1/NA:2023-11 and DIN 4149 (2005 and 1981) . 4-14
4.2.4 SIA 260 and ÖNORM B 4015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-14
4.2.5 Italian NTC according DM-2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-14
4.2.6 Greek Code EAK (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
4.2.7 Russian Code SNiP II-7-81 (1995/2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
4.2.8 Indian Standard IS 1893-2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
4.2.9 Japan Road Association-2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16
4.2.10 Chinese Code GB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16
4.2.11 Wind spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-17
4.2.12 Modal Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-18
4.3 FUNC – Load Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19
4.3.1 Functions for Pedestrians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-20
4.3.2 Aperiodic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-21
4.3.3 Functions for Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-21
4.3.4 Ground accelerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-22
4.4 FIMP – Import of Load Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-23
4.5 ACCE – Accelerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24
4.6 STEP – Dynamic History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-30
4.7 SIMQ – Simulation of earthquake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-31
4.8 REVA – Response spectra for acceleration function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-32
4.9 PUSH – Pushover Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-34
4.9.1 TYPE - Analysis Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-35
4.9.2 SPL - Structural Performance Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-53

5 Train Loading 5-1

5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
5.2 Load Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
5.3 GAX – Geometry of an Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4
5.4 LANE – Width of Traffic Lanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
5.5 TRAI – Load Train Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10
5.5.1 Impact Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-14
5.5.2 Centrifugal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-15
5.5.3 Load Trains according to Eurocode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-16
5.5.4 Load Trains SLW and LKW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26
5.5.5 Load trains BS 5400, TMH7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-28
5.5.6 Heavy Load trains BS 5400, TMH7, IS 1227 . . . . . . . . . . . 5-30
5.5.7 Live Loads according to AASHTO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-31
5.5.8 Load trains according CAN/CSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-33
5.5.9 Load trains IRC 6-2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-34
5.5.10 Load trains of the Japan Road Association . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-35

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 Contents | SOFiLOAD

5.5.11 Load trains AS 5100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-36

5.5.12 Swedish Load Trains (BRO 2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-37
5.5.13 French Load Trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-38
5.5.14 Railway train loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-40
5.5.15 Military NATO Load Trains (Stanag 2021) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-46
5.6 TRPL – Point Load of load train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-47
5.7 TRBL – Block Load of Load Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-50
5.8 TREX – Load Train Visualisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-52

6 Wind Loading 6-1

6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
6.2 Wind Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
6.3 Windforce Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
6.4 Turbulences and Aerodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6
6.5 Response Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6
6.6 Atmospheric Wind Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8
6.7 WIND – Windparameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11
6.8 WPRO – Wind profils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15
6.9 WROU – Roughness for wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17
6.10 WTOP – Topology for Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-20
6.11 WSPE – Wind Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-22
6.11.1 Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-22
6.11.2 Coherence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-25
6.11.3 Turbulence Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-27
6.12 WTST – Test of coherency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-28
6.13 WGEN – Generation of Wind Spectra and Histories . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-30
6.14 WIPT – Wind Tunnel Data Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-33

7 Wave Loading 7-1

7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... ... 7-1
7.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... ... 7-1
7.3 Regular Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... ... 7-2
7.3.1 Linear Wave Theory (Airy) . . . . . . . . . .......... ... 7-3
7.3.2 Stokes 2nd and 5th Order Wave Theory . .......... ... 7-4
7.3.3 Cnoidal Wave Theory: 3rd Order and 5th Order Iwagaki ap-
proximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... ... 7-5
7.3.4 Stretching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... ... 7-6
7.3.5 Validity of Wave Theories . . . . . . . . . . .......... ... 7-7
7.3.6 Wave Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... ... 7-10
7.4 Irregular Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... ... 7-10
7.5 WAVE – Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... ... 7-12

8 Snow Loads 8-1

9 Load Take Down 9-1

9.1 Source – Target Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
9.1.1 1:1 Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
9.1.2 N:M Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2
9.1.3 All Loads – Falldown of Source Geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2
9.1.4 All Loads – Automatic Target Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-3

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SOFiLOAD | Contents

9.1.5 All Loads – Corrections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-4

9.2 Load Transfer Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-6
9.3 Modes for Target Geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-8
9.4 LTD – Load Take Down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-9
9.5 LTDG – Load Take Down – Geometry Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-13

10 Output Description 10-1

10.1 Check List of Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1
10.2 Check List of Load Case Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1
10.3 Meshfree Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2
10.4 Nodal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3
10.5 QUAD Element Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3
10.6 BRIC Element Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4
10.7 Beam Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4
10.8 Truss and Cable Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4
10.9 Accelerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5
10.10 Wind Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5
10.11 Load and Time Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6
10.12 Export of Load Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-7
10.13 Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-7

Bibliography 10-9

iv SOFiSTiK 2025
 General | SOFiLOAD

1 General

SOFiLOAD generates loading for all SOFiSTiK-Modules.

Loads are organized in load cases, which are members of a unique action. Load cases are
addressed via a number, while the action is designated by up to 4 characters, 48 combinations
have been reserved for designated types of actions.

The combination of the load cases within the actions may be done in a very general way, there
are however three predefined combination methods: permanent, optional, exclusive.

The final combination of the actions is then done within MAXIMA or AQB via combination
coefficients (ψ) and safety factors (γ), which may vary in there value from load case to load
case, but will be always applied with the same kind of factor.

The loads can be defined independently of a FEM-mesh. SOFiLOAD will handle the transition
from the geometric model to the analysis model by converting general loading patterns to more
specific nodal or elemental loads. The user may influence the conversion process if needed.

The loads are either already in the database or may be defined via SOFiLOAD. If the element
mesh is changed, SOFiLOAD has to repeat the elemental assignment. Beside that you may
specify nodal or elemental loads directly as known from other finite element systems. Those
loads will be deleted however if the element mesh is changed or explicit redefinition of a load
case takes place.

Record names and items have been change compared to former definitions in SOFiSTiK to
become more simple and unified. Thus it is not possible in general to copy old CADINP-data,
but the export-function may be helpful in many cases. All input load values will be converted
according to the units defined in SOFiSTiK. DIM.

There are also possibilities to generate loads from results in the database. These are especially
support forces converted to loads, imperfections, creep deformations or prestressing effects.

As an special extension we have provided or intended load generators to deal with the rather
complex loading of load trains on bridges, earth quake, wind and snow on the structure with
very extended features. These options are not part of the basic program version however.

This manual starts with the simple nodal and elemental loads, will then cover the geometric
load definitions and finally come to the more complex load generators.

SOFiSTiK 2025 1-1

SOFiLOAD | General

1-2 SOFiSTiK 2025

 Theoretical Principles | SOFiLOAD

2 Theoretical Principles

2.1 Equivalent Nodal Loads

The Finite Element system is a discrete system and is therefore only enabled to treat with
equivalent nodal load contributions, not with real point loads or moments. The difference of the
two meanings can be seen in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1: Equivalent nodal loads for mesh refinement

When the mesh density is increased, you will have different load patterns for a distributed load,
but the same for a point load. This indicates also that a given mesh has a distinct resolution for
load distributions. The coarser mesh can not distinguish between two point loads, a distributed
load or a point load between the nodes.

On the other side this states that a load may be specified as a single nodal load only if the
size of load is less than the element mesh size. If you refine the mesh near that load point you
will get higher and higher stresses or forces, as the finite elements will approximate you infinite
solution better and better. So you choose either a mesh size not smaller than the minimum
load distribution area (thickness for plates for example) or you have to specify the loads as
distributed loads.

From that we conlude further, that the generated nodal loads by SOFiLOAD may be only as
accurate as the given Finite Element mesh.

For beam loading we have the special case, that loading is also defined within the element
having an effect on all internal forces. But we have to distinguish between a standard FE-
Beam-Element having only cubic displacement functions and a more generalized Beam Ele-
ment according to the Transfer-Method. The first will require a finer mesh to model complex
loading accurately, the latter may have restrictions on the modelling of the stiffness. (Piece-
wise constant in STAR2 e.g).

SOFiSTiK 2025 2-1

SOFiLOAD | Theoretical Principles

2.2 Prestressing Loads

For springs, cables and trusses you may specify in SOFiMSHA a constant value of prestress,
acting in any load case. For cables and trusses you may also define a load case dependant
prestress. Any type of prestress will introduce like a thermal expansion strains acting on the
element.

Cables and trusses will be prestresses by some external influence. For fixed ends these strains
will introduce the prestress, for flexible supports you will get deformations diminishing your
given prestress. If you want to achieve a given value of prestress you have to define external
loading or use an element with low stiffness and the given prestress.

For beams, by contrast, prestress is defined as an equilibrium state of stress (prestressed

concrete via tendons). Thus we have an additional component to consider. Since the prestress
is imposed on the element itself, the resulting forces on freely deformable beams are the input
prestress forces themselves. If the deformation is constraint however, constraining forces arise.
In the limiting case, e.g. if a beam is not allowed to deform at all the resultant force is zero,
because the forces imposed by the prestress are beared by the support instead of the beam.

For beams you may specify a statically determinate part of the prestress by the tendon force
and its eccentricity and inclination. The distribution along the axis is linear for the stress, but
cubically for the eccentricity. The effect of the prestress has to aspects. First we have the
additional forces within a section, second we have deformations, introducing new forces if
constraints exist.

Due to the shear forces it is strongly recommended not to combine different tendons in a single
one if the eccentricity is not the same.

2-2 SOFiSTiK 2025

 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

3 Input Description

3.1 Input language

The input occurs in a free format with the CADINP input language (see the general manual
SOFiSTiK: ”FEA / STRUCTURAL Installation and Basics”).

Input is defined within blocks of CADINP-Input language, separated by the record name END.
Within each block, values to CTRL and ECHO will be active for the total block, while all other
values cover only the current load case.

There are the following possibilities:

• Only definition of LC with a number

Will print all loads of that load case.
• Definition of LC with parameters but without any loading
Will change those parameters and redistribute all global loading to a the current mesh.
• Input of LC with loads
The load case is redefined, deleting all old data.

Three categories of units are distinguished:

mm Fixed unit. Input is always required in the specified unit.

[mm] Explicit unit. Input defaults to the specified unit. Alternatively, an explicit as-
signment of a related unit is possible (eg. 2.5[m] ).

[mm] 1011 Implicit unit. Implicit units are categorised semantically and denoted by a cor-
responding identity number (shown in green). Valid categories referring to the
unit ”length” are, for example, geodetic elevation, section length and thickness.
The default unit for each category is defined by the currently active (design code
specific) unit set. This input default can be overridden as described above. The
specified unit in square brackets corresponds to the default for unit set 5 (Eu-
rocodes, NORM UNIT 5).

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

3.2 Input records

The following record names and icons are defined:

Record Items
GRP NO VAL CS WIND CW CFR
ACT TYPE GAMU GAMF PIS0 PSI1 PSI2 PS1S
GAMA PART SUP TITL
LC NO TYPE FACT FACD DLX DLY DLZ
GAMU GAMF PIS0 PSI1 PSI2 PS1S
GAMA CRI1 CRI2 CRI3 TITL
NODE NO TYPE P P2 P3 P4 P5
P6 P7 FRAD EXX EYY EZZ
CABL FROM TO INC TYPE PA PE
TRUS FROM TO INC TYPE PA PE
BEAM FROM TO INC TYPE PA PE A
L EYA EZA EYE EZE REF
REFT
BEPL FROM TO INC TYPE P A
EY EZ REF REFT OPT
QUAD FROM TO INC TYPE P X Y
Z DPX DPY DPZ NTYP VTYP
BRIC FROM TO INC TYPE P X Y
Z DPX DPY DPZ NTYP
COPY NO FACT TYPE FROM TO INC REF
DX DY DZ ALPH WIDE YEX
PROJ
LAR NO NAR GRP GRP1 GRP2 GRP3 M
N T X1 Y1 Z1 X2
Y2 Z2 X3 Y3 Z3 X4
Y4 Z4
POIN REF NO TITL PROJ WIDE NREF TYPE
P X Y Z
LINECURV REF NO TITL PROJ WIDE NREF TYPE
P1 X1 Y1 Z1 P2 X2
Y2 Z2 ...
P6 X6 Y6 Z6
AREA REF NO TITL PROJ WIDE NREF TYPE
Table continued on next page.

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

Record Items
P1 X1 Y1 Z1 P2 X2
Y2 Z2 ...
P6 X6 Y6 Z6
VOLU REF NO TITL TYPE P1 X1 Y1
Z1 P2 X2 Y2 Z2 P3
X3 Y3 Z3
GUID ID TAG
EXPO NO TO PASS
EVAL TYPE NO NAME IND
CTRL OPT VAL V2 V3 V4
ECHO OPT VAL VAL1
RESP TYPE CLAS MOD SA SB SMIN TB
TC TD TE K1 K2 ZONE AG
AH AV BEZ
FUNC T F T1 TMIN TMAX S F2
T2 F3 T3 F4 T4 TITL
ACCE TYPE NO AX AY AZ AXX AYY
AZZ WXX WYY WZZ REF REFX REFY
REFZ ARED AH GH LINF
STEP N DT LCST TITL
GAX NO S X Y Z R A
R2 NX NY NZ ALF INCL INCR
TYPE TITL
LANE NO TYPE WR WL SA SE YCA
YCE YRA YLA YRE YLE L HSA
HSE INCA INCE HEFF BEFF DEFF INCD
ASL
TRAI TYPE P1 PFAC WIDT PHI PHI2 PHIS
PHI4 V FUGA XCON YEX DIR DIRT
FRB DAB BOGI FRBO DABO WHEE FRWH
DAWH
TRPL P PB PW PF PFAC DIST A
DPOS DMIN DMAX Y Y2 HW ZW
HF PHI B BW LW SNO FRB
DAB BOGI FRBO DABO WHEE FRWH DAWH
CONT
Table continued on next page.

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

Record Items
TRBL P PB PW PF PFAC VARI A
L LMAX LDEL Y Y2 HW ZW
HF PHI B BW LW SNO FRB
DAB BOGI FRBO DABO WHEE FRWH DAWH
TREX NO GRP SNO NODE OPT
WAVE TYPE H T D SWL DX DY
DZ UC EXPU RHO NF TMIN TMAX
GAM ALF SIGA SIGB S PHI
WIND CODE ZONE CLAS DX DY DZ XREF
YREF ZREF DXR DYR DZR GH HMIN
VR VB
WPRO H V VBOE TLON TLAT TVER LLON
LLAT LVER
WROU SEA A1 R1 A2 R2 ... ...
A9 R9
WTOP TYPE XM YM ZM DX DY DZ
H B
WSPE TYPE A1LO A2LO A3LO BLO CLO
A1LA A2LA A3LA BLA CLA A1VE
A2VE A3VE BVE CVE C3E KUU KUV
KUW KVU KVV KVW KWU KWV KWW
WGEN LCG SPEC LCOH HIST T DT FMIN
FMAX FDEL HTYP NR0 NR1 NR2 NR3
NR4 NR5 NR6 NR7 NR8 NR9 TO
WIPT X Y Z GRP TOL ELIM MNAM
LTD OPT SRLC SRCT SRC TRGT TRG LMAX
TRGM DZ TYPE FACT FROM
LTDG X1 Y1 Z1 X2 Y2 Z2 X3
Y3 Z3 TYP TITL GUID

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

3.3 GRP – Selection and Properties of Groups

GRP

Item Description Unit Default

NO Group number − -
VAL Value of selection LT FULL
OFF do not use group
YES use without printout
FULL use and print
CS Construction stage for sections − -

WIND Option for wind loading LT MEAN

NONE no wind loads
MEAN mean reference values for WGEN
GUST direct equivalent static loading
INFL Inflow boundary for DOLFYN
SHOW Visualisation of turbulence
CW Factor for wind pressure coefficients − -
CFR Factor wind pressure for frictional parts − -
WAVE Option for wave loading LT LOAD
NONE No wave loading
LOAD apply wave loadingn
SHOW Visualisation of surface

Without specification all elements will be used. If defining values only the selected groups will
be used for the elemental loads of the following load cases. Group selections will be ignored,
if a free defined loading is applied based on structural elements (SLN, SAR, LAR as well as
AUTO on these) Thus this selection will be needed only for those cases where the geometric
selection is not sufficient.

The selection of groups may be different for different load cases. For very complex load pat-
terns you may generate the loading within several load cases and combine them then via the
command COPY to a single load case.

The value CW defines a global factor to the wind pressure coefficients. The pressure coeffi-
cients are defined for plane elements via the record name QUAD, for beam elements they are
defined with the sections. Reduction factors ψ are f.e. defined for chimneys as a function of
the total height.

The value CFR defines the frictional coefficients cfr according Table 10.13.1. of EC 1 part 2-4:

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

Surface Frictional value cfr

smooth (e.g. Steel, smooth concrete) 0.01
rough (e.g. rough concrete, tar roofs) 0.02
very rough (e.g. corrugated, ripped, folded) 0.04

With CS you may select between different variants of cross sections defined in AQUA with
different wind loading areas and roughness values.

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

3.4 ACT – Definition of an Action

See also: ACT, LC

ACT

Item Description Unit Default

TYPE Designation of action LT4 !

GAMU Unfavourable partial safety factor − *
GAMF Favourable partial safety factor − *
PSI0 Combination coefficient rare − *
PSI1 Combination coefficient frequent − *
PSI2 Combination coefficient quasi-permanent − *
PS1S Combination coefficient infrequent − *
GAMA Partial safety factor accidental − *

PART Partition to which the action belongs: LT *

G permanent
P prestress
Q variable action
Q_1 variable action load group 1
...
Q_99 variable action load group 99
A accidental action
E seismic action
SUP Default superposition of the load cases within the ac- LT *
tion:
PERM permanent with unique factor
PERC permanent with individual factors
COND conditional
EXCL mutually exclusive within category
EXEX mutually exclusive within action
UNSI COND with unfavourable sign
USEX EXCL with unfavourable sign
ALEX permanent but exclusive within action

TITL Designation of action LT24 *

As type of the action one may use any literal with up to 4 characters, however some combina-
tions are reserved for special purpose. They are defined in the corresponding INI-files and will
follow the designation of the selected design code as close as possible. An overview is given in
the table below. Furthermore, it is possible to subdivide each action with up to two characters
in categories, designated with a character from A to Z, each having distinguished combination
coefficients or partial safety factors. The category will be appended with an underscore to the
name of the action.

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

• Each category has its own combination values and its own load cases and a default super-
position rule within the action category.
• Each action comprehends all its categories, i.e. one may select either a sub category on
its own or all categories by the generic name of the category. (Q selects all Q_?)

I N I - File/ EC- Default s

act ion G

loadcase

loadcase

act ion Q

act ion Q_A

loadcase

loadcase

act ion Q_B

loadcase

loadcase

Figure 3.1: Structure of the actions, their categories and their load cases

For example there are for road bridges in EN 1990 for the uniform life load UDL and the movable
double axle different combination coefficients. For simple cases one will define a load case for
every span of type L_U (UDL), to be superimposed conditionally, while the discrete load cases
of different load positions of the double axle will be defined as type L_T and exclude each
other. All load cases however will be applied together as leading variable action.

Finally any individual load case may have its own combination factors assigned in SOFiLOAD.
(see LC). This should be avoided however and a definition of combination coefficients in MAX-
IMA is then at least ambiguous and of little use therefore.

Normal Add. Spec. Remark

− for LC only: not assigned to an action
NONE
Gg ZGg SGq dead load (G + G_1 + G_2)

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

Normal Add. Spec. Remark

G_1 g Z1g S1q primary dead load
G_2 g Z2g S2q secondary dead load
Pg ZPg SPq Prestress (for old DIN use V !)
Cg ZCg SCq Creep and shrinkage
Qq ZQ SQ variable load
L ZL SL life load (L in analog mode L_T (TS), ZL in analog mode L_U
(UDL))
W ZW  SW  Wind (use ZW for Bridges)
Sq ZS SS Snow (use ZS for Bridges)
Rg ZR SR Earth pressure, Water Pressure
Fq ZF  SF  Settlements (ZF = expected, SF = possible)
T ZT  ST  Temperature
A ZA SA Accidental
B ZB SB Construction, Maintenance
(ZB = resistance of bearings, SB = Exchange of bearings)
E ZE SE Seismic (ZE = Service, SE = Design)
g = Load case is permanent (always added)
q = Load case is conditional (added if unfavourable)
 = Load cases are conditional excluding each other

The actions indicated in the table are used only as preset action, provided that they are avail-
able in the INI-file of the selected design code.

The entries within one row with preceding Z for additional loading and S for special loading
may be treated in AQB as belonging to the same action.

For the seiesmic action there is in EN 1998 an importance factor γ depending on the impor-
tance class to be selected by the user explicitly:

Class factor Description

I 1.4 Buildings whose integrity during earthquakes is of vital importance for civil
protection, e.g. hospitals, fire stations, power plants, etc.
II 1.2 Buildings whose seismic resistance is of importance in view of the conse-
quences associated with a collapse, e.g. schools, assembly halls, cultural
institutions etc.
III 1.0 Ordinary buildings, not belonging to the other categories
IV 0.8 Buildings of minor importance for public safety, e.g. agricultural buildings,
etc.
In principal every action may be subdivided by categories. For some action types (Q, L or
S) the values from EN 1990 (resp. DIN 1055-100, Table A2 or other deviations) are already
available as follows:

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

Action ψ0 ψ1 ψ2
Q: Payload for buildings [0.70] [0.50] [0.30]
- Q_A Housing [0.70] [0.50] [0.30]
- Q_B Offices [0.70] [0.50] [0.30]
- Q_C Assembly rooms [0.70] [0.70] [0.60]
- Q_D Sales rooms [0.70] [0.70] [0.60]
- Q_E Storage rooms [1.00] [0.90] [0.80]
Live load for buildings
- Q_F truck load < 30kN [0.70] [0.70] [0.60]
- Q_G 30kN < truck load < 160kN [0.70] [0.50] [0.30]
- Q_H Roofs [0.00] [0.00] [0.00]
L: Live loads according EN 1990
- L_T, Tandem Axle of LM 1 (γ = 1.35) [0.75] [0.75] [0.00]
GR_T
- L_U, UDL loading of LM 1 (γ = 1.35) [0.40] [0.40] [0.00]
GR_U
- L_C Load model UIC 71 (γ = 1.45) [0.80] [0.80] [0.00]
- L_D Load model SW/0 (γ = 1.45 [0.80] [0.80] [0.00]
- L_E Load model SW/2 (γ = 1.20) [0.00] [1.00] [0.00]
Live load for buildings
- L_F truck load < 30kN [0.70] [0.70] [0.60]
- L_G 30kN < truck load < 160kN [0.70] [0.50] [0.30]
- L_H Roofs [0.00] [0.00] [0.00]
S: Snow for buildings
- S_L = buildings up to 1000m elevation [0.50] [0.20] [0.00]
- S_H = buildings above 1000m elevation [0.70] [0.50] [0.20]
- For SIA 260 with PSI0 as elevation h 1-60/ h 1-250/ h 1-1000/ h
W: Wind for buildings [0.60] [0.20] [0.00]
T: Temperature (no fire) for buildings [0.60] [0.50] [0.00]
F: Settlements [1.00] [1.00] [1.00]
Other actions [0.80] [0.70] [0.50]

A definition of ACT will reinitialize the action with the defaults defined in the INI-file depending
on the category of the design code. Values GAMU to PS1S replace the predefined values.
The user should check the defaults in all cases. Deviations of the PSI-values for wind and
temperature especially for bridges or other non buildings are to be expected as all values are
"boxed values" depending on individual or country dependant settings. For example you will
find in OENORM B 4750 categories with trucks between 30 and 60 kN with values augmented
by 0.1 for ψ1 and ψ2 .

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

For all EN codes as well the SIA codes there are two defaults for the live load for buildings with
the categories F,G and H. The user can choose, whether the live load for buildings should be
in an own action L (with categories L_F, L_G and L_H) or whether these categories should be
a part of the action Q in addition to the payloads for buildings (categories Q_A till Q_H).

If the category of the design code or the design code is changed in AQUA, all actions should
be redefined. ACT INIT deletes all defined actions and superposition rules if specified in
SOFiLOAD.

With the specification of ACT all subsequent load cases in SOFILOAD will then have this action
type as default.

The item PART defines, to which action of the selected superposition equation the input ac-
tion belongs. The actions in the superposition equations are distinguished according to their
temporal variances:

• permanent actions: PART G e.g dead load

PART P prestress
• variable actions PART Q
PART Q_1 load group 1
PART Q_2 load group 2
...
PART Q_99 load group 99
• accidental actions PART A
• seismic action PART E

Thus the item PART allows the correct classification of user-defined actions, but also of special
cases as for example PART G SUP ALEX (always but exclusive, it means, that only one load
case is always used). Exclusively the item SUP controls, how the load cases which are a part
of the actions are used for the superposition (always, conditional, mutually exclusive).

Meant for example PART P, that the input action is used in the equation part Pk for superposi-
tions for ultimate and serviceability limit state (EC,DIN, DIN-FB, see manual MAXIMA, chapter
2).

The item PART depends on TYPE for preset actions. For example PART G is the default for
the actions G, G_1 and G_2, PART P for the actions P and C, PART Q for the actions Q and L,
PART A for the action A and PART E for the action E.

The item PART has to be input for user-defined actions. Otherwise the user-defined actions
get PART Q (default).

Hint
All categories of an action must have the same definition of PART. E.g. categories Q_A
and Q_B of the variable action Q get PART Q. Only the load groups of a variable action
PART Q_1 till Q_99 can be different.

The item SUP defines the default treatment of multiple load cases within an action. The default

SOFiSTiK 2025 3-11

SOFiLOAD | Input Description

will be taken from the INI-File, but for free defined types of actions it is EXCL in general, if the
type of the action has a leading Q it will become COND and for a leading G it will be PERM.

In MAXIMA one may overwrite this for any particular load case of an action or recombine
load cases (e.g. 0.7*LC_101(Ex)+0.5*LC_102(Ey)). Due to historic reasons there are special
literals at record LC in MAXIMA in addition to the literals of SUP:

SOFiLOAD MAXIMA
Remark
ACT SUP LC TYPE
PERM G always (permanent), partial safety factor action-wise
PERC PERC always (permanent) with variable factors, partial safety factor load-
case-wise
COND Q conditional (only unfavourable)
EXCL A* mutually exculsive
EXEX Ano mutually exclusive but conditional inclusive categories (only within
an action), MAXIMA record LC only one alternative group number
Ano
UNSI W changing sign (e.g. seismic actions)
USEX X* changing sign, mutually exclusive
ALEX AG1 always but exclusive (only within an action)
F additional load case to be combined

Using SUP PERM the same partial safety factor is used for all load cases of a permanent
action (e.g. ACT G). In this case the sum of the values of the single load cases is decisive,
whether the unfavourable (GAMU) or the favourable (GAMF) partial safety factor is applied. In
the contrast to that the partial safety factors are considered load-case-wisely, if SUP PERC is
defined. Here one load case of the permanent action can get GAMU and another GAMF.

SUP EXEX excludes only categories against each other within an action (no exclusion
of different actions). If for example the categories X_1 and X_2 of the action X are defined
with SUP EXEX, then only the most unfavourable load case is used either from X_1 or from
X_2 and also only, if it has an unfavourable contribution. In the contrast to that an unfavourable
load case from X_1 and an unfavourable load case from X_2 are used for the input of SUP
EXCL.

SUP ALEX defines a permanent alternative group (MAXIMA record LC TYPE AG1). Only
the load cases of an action or all load cases of the categories of an action are used for the
formation of a permanent alternative group. Here only a load case is considered for the super-
position, also if it has a favourable contribution. Load cases of different actions do not exclude
themselves mutually. If SUP ALEX is input for some actions, a load case is considered per
action.

In program MAXIMA it is additionally possible to assign load cases of an action or category to

several permanent alternative groups. The input is done in program MAXIMA with LC ... TYPE
AG1 till AG99.

The total mechanism of the defaults for the action types is governed by the following rules:

• By selecting a design code within AQUA all definitions given in the associated INI-File in the

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

[action] -section will become available. If no such file is available, defaults in the program
are available for all EC and newer DIN (since year 2000). For all other cases there are
exactly two predefined actions G and Q without any coefficients or factors.
• When addressing an action, a copy of this definition is created in the database which has
then the possibility of deviating factors if explicitly defined with this record or via the SOFi-
PLUS menus.
• When creating a load case, the factors are copied from the action definition to the load
case. However, those factors may be modified for any individual load case.
• For special design purposes the factors may be changed temporarily when using the load
cases in AQB.

Variable action - load groups:

The load groups PART Q_1 till Q_99 can be used for a better formation of combination without
intermediate superpositions in MAXIMA e.g. for the load models of the bridge design (EN
1990/A1). If different load groups are defined for categories with corresponding inputs for the
item SUP, then the intermediate superpositions and the following superpositions are done in
one MAXIMA run.
Example:

PROG SOFILOAD
HEAD
ACT XY_A gamu 1.4 0.0 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.6 PART Q_1 SUP excl
ACT XY_B gamu 1.3 0.0 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 PART Q_1 SUP excl
ACT XY_C gamu 1.45 0.0 0.6 0.3 0.0 0.6 PART Q_2 SUP exex
ACT XY_D gamu 1.35 0.0 0.5 0.2 0.0 0.5 PART Q_3 SUP exex

...

PROG MAXIMA
HEAD
COMB 1 desi TYPE desi BASE 2100
ACT XY_A
LC -1
ACT XY_B
LC -1
ACT XY_C
LC -1
ACT XY_D
LC -1

or

COMB 2 expl TYPE desi BASE 2200

ADD {QI} gamm

First of all three load groups Q_1, Q_2 and Q_3 are defined with PART in the program
SOFiLOAD. The categories XY_A und XY_B are a art of the load group 1. Their load cases are
mutually exclusive only within the respective category about the input SUP EXCL. The cate-

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

gories XY_C and XY_D are a part of the load groups 2 and 3. All load cases of both categories
are mutually exclusive about the input SUP EXEX.

With one of the MAXIMA combinations then the superposition is done as follows: First of all
MAXIMA searches which load cases of the load group 1 are decisive (possible one ore two or
no load case = first intermediate superposition).Then the decisive load case of the load groups
2 and 3 is determined (possible one or no load case = second intermediate superposition). In
the last step the final superposition is done. Either the decisive load cases of the load group 1
or the decisive load case of the goups 2 and 3 are here the final result.

It should be noted here that load groups are mutually exclusive. If, for example, the superpo-
sition of the load cases for two load load groups are specified with SUP COND - conditionally,
only the load cases of the decisive load group are taken into account.

Example:

PROG SOFILOAD
HEAD
ACT XY_1 gamu 1.4 0.0 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.6 PART Q_1 SUP cond
ACT XY_2 gamu 1.3 0.0 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 PART Q_2 SUP cond

The load cases of category XY_1 belong to load group 1 and those of category XY_2 belong
to load group 2. Thus, either the load cases of XY_1 or of XY_2 are taken into account in the
superposition depending on which brings the more unfavorable result.

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

3.5 LC – Definition of a Load Case

LC

Item Description Unit Default

NO Number of load case − 0

TYPE Type/Action of load case LT4 *
FACT Factor of load case − 1.0
FACD Factor of structural dead weight − 0.0
DLX component of dead weight in X-direction − *
DLY component of dead weight in Y-direction − *
DLZ component of dead weight in Z-direction − *

GAMU Unfavourable safety factor − *

GAMF Favourable safety factor − *
PSI0 Combination coefficient standard − *
PSI1 Combination coefficient frequent − *
PSI2 Combination coefficient quasi-permanent − *
PS1S Combination coefficient non-frequent − *
GAMA Safety factor accidental − *
CRIT Time criteria sec 0
CRI1 User criteria I − 0
CRI2 User criteria II − 0
CRI3 User criteria III − 0

TITL Title of loadcase LT32 -

Defining LC will select this load case for further treatment.

• nodal loads: NODE

• Elemental loading: BEPL, BEAM TRUS, CABL, QUAD, BRIC
• Copy loading: COPY, EVAL
• meshless point load: POIN
• meshless line load: LINE
• meshless areal loading: AREA
• meshless load on volumes: VOLU
• Dynamic Loads, Load Trains on bridges, Wind loads

There are levels of working on load cases for SOFiLOAD:

SOFiSTiK 2025 3-15

SOFiLOAD | Input Description

• Change of parameters of an action

No definition of a load case number defines the safety factors and combination coefficients
of the action TYPE.
• Change of load case parameters
Values TYPE, FACT, CRIT to CRI3 or TITL may be changed for existing load cases. But
you may not define a factor of the dead load or any other loading as this will delete the total
loading of that load case automatically.
• Load generation
Via load type REST you may change not only parameters but all the generated loading
will be reestablished from the load generators - This is especially useful for postprocessing
from graphical input definitions.
For a load case containing COPY commands, i.e. is composed by other load cases, all
loads are deleted and repeated all the COPY commands with REST.
• Explicit definition of loading
If factors of the structural dead weight or other loading are defined after a LC record, all
loading data for that load case will be deleted, to allow the redefinition of loading for a given
load case.
• Explicit deletion of a load case
If defining the TYPE DEL the total load case including all known data will be deleted imme-
diately .

The factor of the load case has (despite the wind load generator) no specific influence in
SOFiLOAD and may be changed later at any time. Loads will be multiplied by this factor only
when used in the analysis itself. The factor FACT affects all forces and moment loadings,
however, not temperature, strain and prestressing loadings! It does also not affect dead load
factors FACD, DLX, DLY or DLZ.

The components of the dead weight will be in the positive direction of the requested global
axis. You have to enter the correct sign for DLX to DLZ. If you specify only FACD, SOFiLOAD
will apply the dead load in the direction defined as the gravity direction. A definition will delete
all loads of this load case automatically.

As type of the load case on may specify the name of an action. Only predefined or explicitly
defined actions may be used with LC (see ACT). If the load case is supposed not to be assigned
for an action, the literal NONE or ’-’ has to be input for TYPE. There are also some special
literals possible, assigning a (e.g. non linear) load case to be of a spcific type used for special
design tasks:

(D) Ultimate Design combination

(A) Ultimate accidental combination
(E) Ultimate Earthquake combination
(P) Service: Quasi permanent combination
(F) Service: Frequent combination
(N) Service: Non-frequent combination
(R) Service: Rare (characteristic) combination
(H) Comb. of principal loading

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

(HZ) Comb. of principal+supplemental loading

(PT) permanent load combination e.g. for timber
(LT) long term load combination e.g. for timber
(MT) middle term load combination e.g. for timber
(ST) short term load combination e.g. for timber
(VT) very short term load combination e.g. for timber

Values GAMU to PS1S belong to the action TYPE in general. However they may have indi-
vidual values for every specific load case. Thus at the time of the creation of a load case, the
current values from the action will be taken as default for the individual load case for Version
23. Starting with version 2010 however only the explicitly defined values will be kept, all other
values will adopt to those of the action itself if the action is changed.

Values CRI1 to CRI3 are very general parameters of the load case. They may be used freely for
postprocessing via DBVIEW. You may specify them in advance or set them after the analysis
by reading some results from the database. (e.g. a system dimension, a strength reduction
etc.) TALPA uses CRI1 for the safety factor of the material needed by analysis according to
Fellenius.

A load case imperfection will be defined with TYPE IMP. The load cases of this type allow to
use imperfection loads for the definition of load case combinations for the analysis according
to second order theory. These load cases can not be used for a linear analysis of single load
cases with ASE, STAR2 and also not for a superpositíon of the linear load cases with MAXIMA.

Defining TYPE EINF a load case will be declared as influence line. You have to specify at
least one load to select the value, the influence line is intended for. You need a separate load
case for any value to be treated, but then the influence line will have all components of loading
available. For an influence line load case only deformations in global coordinates are printed
in general.

Influence Line needed Loading e.g.

Beam-moment Unit disrotation BEPL D?
Beam-force Unit dislocation BEPL W?
QUAD-force Dirac-delta curvature QUAD E*
Support force nodal displacement NODE W?
Displacement nodal load NODE P?

Example for the influence line for moment MY at beam 1001 at location 2.0 to be saved as load
case number 91:

LC 91 EINF
BEPL 1001 DY 1.0 2.0

Via this concept you may compute very special influence lines. If you want to know the influ-
ence line for the upper normal stress of a section σ = N/A - M/W, you may define this via (Area
A is #A, momentum resistance W is #W:

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

LC 92 EINF
BEPL 1001 WX 1.0/#A 2.0
BEPL 1001 DY -1.0/#W 2.0

For plates and shells there are special load types for QUAD, allowing the necessary dirac-delta
load to be defined.

To a establish and to evaluate many or all possible influence lines, the procedures provided by
program ELLA are far more easier and faster.

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

3.6 NODE – Nodal Loads

See also: LC, TRUS, CABL, beam-loading, QUAD, BRIC, COPY, free-
loading
NODE

Item Description Unit Default

NO Number of node or designation of secondary group −/ LT !

number
TYPE Type of Loading LT PG

P1 Load values [∗] !

P2 up to seven depending on load type [∗] -
P3 [∗] -
P4 [∗] -
P5 [∗] -
P6 [∗] -
P7 [∗] -
FRAD Radial factor for load values LT -
R multiply with radius
RR multiply with square of radius

EXX Exzentricity to node [m] 1001 -

EYY (will be immediately converted to moments) [m] 1001 -
EZZ [m] 1001 -

Loads in nodes will be defined in individual components or as complete vectors with the Literals
P, M and V resp. PP. MM and VV. In those cases up to seven components may be defined.

Local load directions require nodes with a local coordinate system (SOFiMSHC). Only nodes
which are input as structural points (SPT points) with a local coordinate system in SOFiMSHC
can be used here. If no such system is found, the global coordinate directions will be used
instead.

For special cases you may multiply the load values with the radius (e.g. centrifugal forces,
internal pressures etc) or with the square of the radius. The radius is the distance of the node
to the global axis which has been selected as gravity direction.

In the case of axial symmetry load values are interpreted as circumference related, e.g. a radial
load of 2 kN/m must be provided as PYY ± 2.0. The program then automatically accounts for
the radial position of the load application point.

If a degree of freedom which has a kinematic constraint gets a nodal displacement, the con-
straint will be deactivated. There is no way to invert that support condition. That’s why there
are no local displacements available. They have to to be modelled with stiff spring elements if
desired.

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

As type there is available:

Table 3.8: Type of the Nodal Loading

TYPE Description Unit

PG Load in gravity direction kN
PXX Load in global X-direction kN
PYY Load in global Y-direction kN
PZZ Load in global Z-direction kN
MXX Moment about global X-direction kNm
MYY Moment about global Y-direction kNm
MZZ Moment about global Z-direction kNm
PX Load in local x-direction kN
PY Load in local y-direction kN
PZ Load in local z-direction kN
MX Moment about local x-direction kNm
MY Moment about local y-direction kNm
MZ Moment about local z-direction kNm
MB Warping bimoment kNm2
Load vectors:
PP global components of force PXX-PZZ kN
MM global components of moment MXX-MZZ kNm
VV = PXX,PYY,PZZ,MXX,MYY,MZZ,MB kN,
kNm
P local components of force PX-PZ kN
M local components of moment MX-MZ kNm
V = PX,PY,PZ,MX,MY,MZ,MB kN,
kNm
(the components have to be defined via P1 to P3 resp P1 to P7)
WXX Support displacement in global X-direction mm
WYY Support displacement in global Y-direction mm
WZZ Support displacement in global Z-direction mm
DXX Support rotation about global X-direction mrd
DYY Support rotation about global Y-direction mrd
DZZ Support rotation about global Z-direction mrd

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

3.7 CABL – Cable Loading

See also: LC, NODE, TRUS, beam-loading, QUAD, BRIC, COPY,

free-loading
CABL

Item Description Unit Default

FROM Number of first element or GRP − !

TO Number of last element or group number − FROM
INC Increment of element numbers − 1

TYPE Load type and direction LT PG

PA Load value at cable start point [∗] !
PE Load value at cable end point [∗] PA

CABL is loading a range of cable elements with the same loading. Instead of a number FROM
you may enter the literal GRP and the group number at TO to select all elements of a group.

For TYPE you have the choice of:

Table 3.10: Type of the Cable Loading

TYPE Description Unit

PG Load in gravity direction kN/ m
PXX Load in global X-direction
PYY Load in global Y-direction
PZZ Load in global Z-direction
PXP Load in global x-direction measured in projection kN/ m
PYP Load in global y-direction measured in projection
PZP Load in global z-direction measured in projection
EX Strain in axial direction 0/ 00
VX Prestress kN
WX Change of length mm
DT Temperature difference K
WIND Wind loading −
SNOW Snow loading −

Loading on cable elements will be converted to nodal loads, as the element has no basic
bearing capacity transverse to the cable. In a following nonlinear analysis the deflection of the
cable will be evaluated. Thus it is recommended to insert nodes at all important points of a
cable.

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

3.8 TRUS – Truss Element Loading

See also: LC, NODE, CABL, beam-loading, QUAD, BRIC, COPY,

free-loading
TRUS

Item Description Unit Default

FROM Number of first element or GRP − !

TO Number of last element or group number − FROM
INC Increment of element numbers − 1
TYPE Load type and direction LT PG
PA Load value at truss start point [∗] !
PE Load value at truss end point [∗] PA

TRUS is loading a range of truss elements with the same loads. Instead of a number FROM
you may enter the literal GRP and the group number at TO to select all elements of a group.

For TYPE you have the choice of:

Table 3.12: Type of the Truss Loading

TYPE Description Unit

PG Load in gravity direction kN/ m
PXX Load in global X-direction
PYY Load in global Y-direction
PZZ Load in global Z-direction
PXP Load in global x-direction measured in projection kN/ m
PYP Load in global y-direction measured in projection
PZP Load in global z-direction measured in projection
EX Strain in axial direction 0/ 00
VX Prestress kN
WX Change of length mm
DT Temperature difference K
WIND Wind loading −
SNOW Snow loading −

Loading on truss elements will be converted to nodal loads, as the element has no basic
bearing capacity transverse to the element. Thus it is recommended to insert nodes at all
important points of a truss.

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

3.9 Definition of Beam Loading

See also: LC, NODE, TRUS, CABL, QUAD, BRIC, COPY, free-loading, BEAM, BEPL
Loading on Beams will be defined either via trapezoidal loads via BEAM or as Point loads via
BEPL or as general variant loading via multiple BEPL function values.

Loading on beams will be defined independent from an elemental subdivision covering multiple
elements. You may specify always a range of element numbers establishing a total beam.

The extensions of the loading will be referenced always to the total set of selected beam el-
ements. The position within the section is always based on the beam axis. I.e. for a centric
beam this will be the gravity axis, for an eccentric beam it will be the reference axis which is
in the origin of the cross section coordinate system. The default however is always "gravity
center". The input reference system may be changed for every single beam loading.

The beams will be appended despite their position in space in the sequence of their element
numbers from start node to end node. Numbers may be missing within the sequence. If the
coordinates of two successive beams do not match a message will be issued if the value of
INC is defined explicitly.

PE
PA

Beam 1 Beam 2 Beam 3 Beam 4 Beam 5

A L

Figure 3.2: Beam loading

Via REF you may select different systems for the definition of the loading extent (A and L). The
extend will be converted in such cases to local beam coordinates immediately. In general the
distances are relative to the beginning node of the beam sequence, if the following possible
literals are specified with a preceeding "-" sign, the extend will be measured in the reverse
direction beginning at the end node of the beam sequence.

S Beam longitudinal axis

XX Projection of beam axis on global coordinate axis
YY Projection of beam axis on global coordinate axis
ZZ Projection of beam axis on global coordinate axis
XY Projection of beam axis on global coordinate plane
XZ Projection of beam axis on global coordinate plane
YZ Projection of beam axis on global coordinate plane
SS ratio of the total overall continuous beam length
SSS ratio of the total supporting length

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

LSS ratio of the total free span length

GXX as XX but in absolute world coordinates
GYY as YY but in absolute world coordinates
GZZ as ZZ but in absolute world coordinates

XY

YY

y
z

Figure 3.3: Reference systems REF

Special attention has to be paid in those cases where the beam is not monotone within the
selected reference System. This is the case for all circular or general closed liner systems. As
the reference system is always using absolute values in adding up the total length, we will have
a total length of 2H in the depth direction if the height of the structure is called H. A variant load
depending on the depth on both sides of the system is thus to be defined via two variant loads
of length H on the total beam system.
X
Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô

Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô

Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô

Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô

H
Y
Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô

Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô

Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô

Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô

Emax
Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô Ô

Emax
Figure 3.4: Projective Loading

Input of loading via:

BEAM 1001 1021 1 PXX A 0.0 L #H PA 0.0 PE -#EMAX REF YY

BEAM 1001 1021 1 PXX A #H L 2*#H PA #EMAX PE 0.0 REF YY

The action point of the load within the cross-section can be controlled by means of the excen-

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

tricities EYA/ EYE and EZA/ EZE. Interpretation of these load excentricities defaults to:

Load definition without Load definition with

excentricities excentricities
Beam type centric" (without excentricities refer to gravity
reference axis NP=0) centre
Beam type ”excentric” (with action in gravity centre excentricities refer to origin
reference axis NP=-1) of cross-sectional
coordinate system

However, via the item REFT an explicit reference measure may be specified (change of default
behaviour). For REFT there are the following possibilities:

• Literal S for the gravity center

• Literal NULL or ’0000’ for the origin of the sectional coordinate system
• Any name ID assigned to a sectional Point (SPT, VERT)
• Any name ID of a circle (CIRC) where the name only will select the center, while the variants
ID+Y to ID-Z select the corresponding quadrant point.
• Any name ID of thin walled elements (PLAT/PANE) where ID.M or the name only selects
the center, while the variants ID.A and ID.E select the start or end point of the element.

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

3.10 BEAM – Distributed Beam Loading

See also: LC, NODE, TRUS, CABL, beam-loading, BEPL, QUAD,

BRIC, COPY, free-loading, EVAL
BEAM

Item Description Unit Default

FROM Number of first element or GRP or SLN −/ LT !

TO Number of last element − FROM
or group number or identifier of SLN !
INC Increment of element numbers − 1

TYPE Load type and direction LT PG

PA Load value at load start point [∗] !
PE Load value at load end point [∗] PA
A Distance to start / end from total beam [m] 1001 *
L Length of loading [m] 1001 *
EYA Local coordinates of loading at start [mm] 1011 ”ys”
EZA relative to the beam or reference axis [mm] 1011 ”zs”
EYE Local coordinates of loading at end [mm] 1011 EYA
EZE relative to the beam or reference axis [mm] 1011 EZA
REF Reference system for A and L LT S
(see beam-loading for possible options)
REFT Reference system for EYA ... EZ LT *
S Center (NP=0)
NULL Sectional coordinate system
ID Point ID within section /newline see beam-
loading

BEAM defines the loading on a sequence of beams as it is defined in the section 3.9: ”Definition
of Beam Loading”. Instead of a number FROM you may enter the literal GRP and the group
number at TO to select all elements of a group.

For TYPE you may specify:

Table 3.14: Type of the Beam Loading

TYPE Description Unit

PG Load in gravity direction kN/ m
PXX Load in global direction referred to the beam length
PYY (e.g. self weight)
PZZ
MXX Moment about global directions kNm/ m

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

Table 3.14: (continued)

TYPE Description Unit

MYY
MZZ
PXP Load in global direction referred to the projective kN/ m
PYP length
PZP (e.g. snow)
PX Load in local x-direction (Normal force) kN/ m
PY Load in local y-direction (Secondary bending)
PZ Load in local z-direction (Primary bending)
MX Moment about local x-direction (Torsion) kNm/ m
MY Moment about local y-direction (Primary bending)
MZ Moment about local z-direction (Secondary bending)
Pggl Componental loading (PXXX, PXXY to PZZZ) kN/ m
only the local component ”l” of a global load direction
”gg” will be applied.
PgPl Similar to Pggl, but with projective loads instead (PXP)
WIND Factor for wind loading
SNOW Factor for snow loading
EX Strain in axial direction 0/ 00
KX Curvature about local x-direction 1/ km
KY Curvature about local y-direction 1/ km
KZ Curvature about local z-direction 1/ km
(will generate deformations like moments with the same sign)
DT Uniform temperature change K
DTY Temperature difference in local y-direction K
DTZ Temperature difference in local z-direction K
T Absolute temperature (2D FiberBeam, only) ◦C

Hint: Please read the comments below

UY Secondary bending lateral imperfection mm
UZ Primary bending lateral imperfection mm
UYS Secondary lateral imperfection as factor of total length m/ m
UZS Primary lateral imperfection as factor of total length m/ m
PNX external prestressing force in local x-direction (N) kN
PMY external prestressing moment in local y-direction (My) kNm
PMZ external prestressing moment in local z-direction (Mz) kNm

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

The Literal CONT for item TYPE will activate defaults from the last record:

TYP (new) = TYP (old)

PA (new) = PE (old)
A (new) = A+L (old)

This simplifies the definition of trapezoidal combined loads

BEAM 101 PZ PE 100 L 2

TYPE CONT PE 120 L 5
TYPE CONT PE 0

This input defines a load ascending from 0 to 100 within the length of 2, then up to 120 within
the length five and descending than to the end.

The eccentricities of the load are defined in the local beam coordinate system with reference
to the connecting line between the nodes. This is the so called reference axis. If not defined
explicitly, this will be the center line of gravity. Loads of type P will create moments if eccentric-
ities are present. For nonlinear analysis there will be additional geometric stiffness and forces.
There is a difference between loads acting on the upper or lower side of a section.

General temperature distributions over the cross-sectional height (temperature profile for fire
design) may be specified with several load inputs, each describing a temperature level with a
location ZA,ZE. These general temperature profiles can be processed by the 2D FiberBeam
(TALPA). Regarding the interpretation of the ordinates ZA and ZE, three options are distin-
guished:

• If REFT -Z is defined, the provided ordinates refer to the uppermost fibre of the section; all
ZA,ZE must be ≥ 0.
• With REFT +Z, the provided ordinates refer to the lowermost fibre; all ZA,ZE must be ≤ 0.
• In all other cases, the ordinates ZA,ZE are interpreted as relative measures and will be
scaled to the actual cross-sectional dimension.

Positive values of DTY and DTZ mean that the temperature raises in the positive direction of the
corresponding y resp. z axis. Example: For a beam cross section the temperature decreases,
if 40 ◦ C are available at the side -y and 10 ◦ C at the side +y. Thus the input reads DTY -30
[ ◦ C] . This load type is only applicable for sections having a distinct extension or geometry.

An input of a temperature profile along the sectional local z-axis followed by the EVAL TEQV will
result in a computation of the equivalent linear temperature distributions. For more details, see
EVAL and Subsection 3.23.1.

The prestressing loadings PNX, PMY and PMZ are the result of a special imposed strain or
curvature. If the element is fixed, the resulting forces and moments will be identical to those of
the loading. However, if the element may deform the prestress is then reduced. The opposite
behaviour is given for the tendon prestress definable with BEPL, an eigen stress state which
needs deformability to become active. For very special cases this type of prestressing may be
also defined with load type PNXI for a whole beam in record BEAM.

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

3.11 BEPL – Point Beam Loading

See also: LC, NODE, TRUS, CABL, beamloading, BEAM, QUAD,

BRIC, COPY, free-loading
BEPL

Item Description Unit Default

FROM Number of first element or GRP or SLN −/ LT !

TO Number of last element − FROM
or group number or identifier of SLN !
INC Increment of element numbers − 1

TYPE Load type and direction LT PG

P Load value [∗] !
A Distance of load to total beam start / end [m] 1001 *
EY Local transverse y-coordinate of loading [mm] 1011 ”ys”
EZ Local transverse z-coordinate of loading [mm] 1011 ”zs”
REF Reference system for A and L LT S
(see beam-loading for possible options)
REFT Reference system for EY, EZ LT *
S Center (NP=0)
NULL Sectional coordinate system
ID Point ID within section /newline see beam-
loading
OPT Additional Options ∗/ LT *

BEPL defines the loading on a sequence of beams as it is defined in the section 3.9: ”Definition
of Beam Loading”. Instead of a number FROM you may enter the literal GRP and the group
number at TO to select all elements of a group. STEL creates a single load or a vertex for a
continuous beam. There will be always only one loading for the total quantity of beams, as long
as OPT is not specified otherwise.

For TYPE you may specify:

Table 3.16: Type of the Point Beam Loading

TYPE Description Unit

PG Load in gravity direction kN
PXX Load in global direction referred to the beam length
PYY (e.g. self weight)
PZZ
PX Load in local x-direction (Normal force) kN
PY Load in local y-direction (Secondary bending)

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

Table 3.16: (continued)

TYPE Description Unit

PZ Load in local z-direction (Primary bending)
Plgg Componental loading (PXXX, PYXX to PZZZ) kN
only the local component ”l” of a global load direction ”gg” will be
applied.
MX Moment about local x-direction (Torsion) kNm
MY Moment about local y-direction (Primary bending)
MZ Moment about local z-direction (Secondary bending)
MXX Moment about global directions kNm
MYY
MZZ

The eccentricities of the load are defined in the local beam coordinate system with reference
to the connecting line between the nodes. This is the so called reference axis. If not defined
explicitly, this will be the centre line of gravity. Loads of type P will create moments if eccentric-
ities are present. For geometric nonlinear analysis there will be additional geometric stiffness
and forces. (loads acting on the upper or lower side of a section.)

Table 3.17: Other types (Influence values)

TYPE Description Unit

WX Displacement jump in local x-direction mm
WY Displacement jump in local y-direction
WZ Displacement jump in local z-direction
DX Bending jump in local x-direction mrd
DY Bending jump in local y-direction
DZ Bending jump in local z-direction

STEL may be used to specify some standard load distributions. With a definitionb of one of
the following Literals at OPT a distributed loading will be defined with a maximum value at a
distinct location:

LINA Linear distribution, maximum at start

LINE Linear distribution, maximum at end
LINM Linear distribution, maximum at midpoint

QUAA Quadratic distribution, maximum at start

QUAE Quadratic distribution, maximum at end
QUAM Quadratic distribution, maximum at mid pointQ

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

CUBA Cubic distribution, maximum at start

CUBE Cubic distribution, maximum at end

An even more general approach may be addressed by specifying several data points with STEL
records (all consecutive records wit TYPE CONT) and OPT SPLI. This will define a cubic spline
for the load values. For prestress and imperfections the program is capable to handle with cubic
load distributions directly for a single beam. For all other load types the user has to specify
multiple elements or sections to get an effect of the variation.

Table 3.18: Other types (Vertex of Imperfections/Prestress)

TYPE Description Unit

UY Secondary bending lateral imperfection mm
UZ Primary bending lateral imperfection mm
UYS Secondary lateral imperfection as factor of total length m/ m
UZS Primary lateral imperfection as factor of total length m/ m
PNX Vertex of general prestress via tendon kN
Attention:EY and EZ use always REFT NULL
PMY Vertex of primary bending prestress kNm
PMZ Vertex of secondary bending prestress kNm
CONT Continuation of vertices ∗

With these load types of the above table you may also specify (depending on the number of
vertices) constant, linear, quadratic or cubic distributions of the loading along the sequence of
the beams. All other vertices have to follow immediately with the load type CONT. The selection
information of these records (FROM TO INC) will not be evaluated.

Attention: STAR2 combines all load definitions with the same number, this approach is not
possible in SOFiLOAD. The use of TYPE CONT is mandatory but provides more flexibility.

The loading will be only applied within the defined abscissae, you need at least two data points
therefore. If you specify only one single value, additional values will be supplied with 0.0 for
imperfections at the beginning and the end. Thus only one value at one of the ends will create
a linearly varying distribution, while one in the middle will generate a quadratic parabola. All
other load types will become constant along the total beam sequence.

For the load type PNX the cubically interpolated eccentricities Ey and EZ will generate mo-
ments and shear forces. It has been shown, that correct shear forces require separate defini-
tions for every tendon with different geometry.

Example:

BEPL 101 110 1 UZS P 0.0 A 0.0 MESS SS

TYP CONT P 1/200*1/27 A 1/3 MESS SS
TYP CONT P 1/200*8/27 A 2/3 MESS SS
TYP CONT P 1/200 A 3/3

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

defines a cubic parabola with a maximum imperfection of 1/200 at the end of the beam se-
quence 101 to 110.

Table 3.19: Other special types converting data from the database

TYPE Description Unit

PRE Prestress for stressing stage from the CDB. −
The tendons with prestressing stage OPT will become active with a
factor P (default 1.0) as loading of type PNX.
U Imperfections will be generated from deformations of load case OPT −
with a factor P (default 1.0).
UPOL as U but as a polygon (only for special cases) −
PRIM From the forces and stiffness of load case OPT the program creates −
strain and curvature loading with a factor P (default -1.0).
PRIP as PRIM but as a polygon (only for special cases) −

The values A, EY, EZ and REF will not be used in those cases.

With the definition of TYPE PRE the user may create prestressing loading from the tendon
stored in the database. This is normally done by TENDON. For changes of the system or
tendons defined via AQBS, SOFiLOAD will perform this task. With OPT -1 the prestress of the
reinforcement defined within AQUA will be used.

The definition of TYPE U will generate from the displacements in the database a similar imper-
fection. This is useful to generate imperfections from buckling forms as a difference between
first and second order theory. Another task is the effect of creep on the imperfection. There are
different views about how to chose the factor P in those cases, and the question if the imperfec-
tions should enter in the calculations twice. If needed you may subtract the old imperfections
with a factor of -1.0
N
ε = P · (3.1)
EA

My · Ez − Mz · Eyz
ky = P · (3.2)
2
Ey · Ez − Eyz

Mz · Ez − My · Eyz
kz = P · (3.3)
2
E· Ez − Eyz

With the type PRIM the program will generate strains and curvatures from the forces of load
case OPT:

The most important cases are:

• Creep of a load case (unconstraint):

P=φ (3.4)

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

• Constraints from construction stages (primary estate = default):

P = −1.0 (3.5)

• Creep of constraining from a construction stage with relaxation ρ:

φ
P= − 1.0 (3.6)
(1 + ρ · φ)

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

3.12 QUAD – Element Loading

See also: LC, NODE, TRUS, CABL, beamloading, BEAM, BEPL,

BRIC, COPY, free-loading
QUAD

Item Description Unit Default

FROM Number of first element or GRP −/ LT !

TO Number of last element or group number − FROM
INC Increment of element numbers − 1

TYPE Load type and direction LT PG

P Load value [∗] !
X Reference point for load value [m] 1001 0.0
Y [m] 1001 0.0
Z [m] 1001 0.0
DPX p(x,y,z) = p + (x-X)*DPX [∗] 0.0
DPY + (y-Y)*DPY [∗] 0.0
DPZ + (z-Z)*DPZ [∗] 0.0

NTYP Additional option LT/ − -

VTYP Value for additional option ∗ -

Z0 Coordinate along local z-dir. (thickness) [mm] 1010 !

F0 Factor for load value at this location − 1.0
... ... ...
Z15 Coordinate along local z-dir. (thickness) [mm] 1010 -
F15 Factor for load value at this location − 1.0

All elements within the given range of numbers will be loaded. The range may be larger than
the existing numbers but must contain at least one element. Instead of a number FROM the
literal GRP and the group number at TO can be specified to select all elements of a group. If
the printout of the selected elements is intended instead of the group the value INC has to be
specified explicitly as 1.

With DPX to DPZ the user specifies global varying loads (like earth or water pressure), P is
then the value at (X,Y,Z), while DPX to DPZ describe the increment in the global coordinate
directions. The Unit will be converted by the load and the geometry unit (1001).

With NTYP the user may define additional data for the loading like a reference number of
prestress or special actions for wind or snow loading.

Loadings of type PXP, PYP and PZP will use NTYP as a maximum "roof inclination" in degree.
With such a definition, only elements will be loaded, if the inclination of the normal of the area

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

against the load is smaller than this value. The sign of NTYP selects the allowed orientation
of the normal of the area relative to the load direction. Thus TYPE PZP NTYP 60 will act only
on elements with a positive component of the normal in global Z-direction and not inclined by
more than 60 degrees to the XY-plane.

Some loads, e.g. T for a fire design may be specified with a function describing the value along
the local z-axis. Up to 16 values may be defined as a pair of a thickness and a factor. Their
are three cases to be distinguished: If all ordinates are positive, they are referred absolutely
to the uppermost fibre of the QUAD-element, if they are all negative they are referred to the
lowermost fibre. In all othe cases the reference is the mid surface of the QUAD element. If the
real thickness of the QUAD element does not match the load definition, the definition will be
scaled with a warning for the third case.
There is an example to explain these three cases: ase.dat/english/bridge/temp_load_tbeam.dat
And CSM offers a function TEMP to define temperature on a haunched quad t-beam slab, see
example ase.dat/english/bridge/t_beam_bridge_excentric.dat

There are the following load types available:

Table 3.21: Type of the QUAD-Element Loading

TYPE Description Unit

PG loading in gravity direction kN/ m2
PX loading local with reference kN/ m2
PY to the element area kN/ m2
PZ kN/ m2
PXX loading global kN/ m2
PYY with reference to the element area (e.g. self weight) kN/ m2
PZZ kN/ m2
PXP loading global kN/ m2
PYP with reference to the projection area (e.g. snow) kN/ m2
PZP kN/ m2
WIND Wind loading factor Fctor
SNOW Snow loading factor Fctor
T Absolute temperature for Hot Design ◦C

DTXY temperature change in xy-plane K

DTZ temperature difference (below-above) K
≡ negative value of old DT load type
EX strain local x 0/ 00
EY strain local y 0/ 00
KX curvature local x 1/ km
KY curvature local y 1/ km
WZ settlement in local Z mm
PRE Prestress from TENDON Fctor

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Table 3.21: (continued)

TYPE Description Unit

PMXX Prestress m-xx kNm/ m
PMYY Prestress m-yy kNm/ m
PMXY Prestress m-xy kNm/ m
PVX Prestress q-x kNm/ m
PVY Prestress q-y kNm/ m
PNXX Prestress n-x kNm/ m
PNYY Prestress n-y kNm/ m
PNXY Prestress n-xy kNm/ m
IMXX Influence area for m-xx −
IMYY Influence area for m-yy −
IMXY Influence area for m-xy −
IVX Influence area for q-x −
IVY Influence area for q-y −
INXX Influence area for n-xx −
INYY Influence area for n-yy −
INXY Influence area for n-xy −

The loading types of prestress will generate a stress state and the corresponding strains and
curvatures to calculate the constraining contributions.

Load type PRE (Prestress from TENDON) will generate the loading due to tendon with pre-
stress stage NTYP within the selected QUAD-elements. The load value P should be 1.0, but
other values may be useful if you want to get the required prestress. However, the prestress in
the database will not be changed by this factor. In ASE the user has to select the appropriate
construction stage number CS in record GRP. The Input

GRP ... CS 0 ; QUAD 1 9999 1 TYP PRE 1.0 NTYP 1

will generate the prestress loading of the first stage on the net section. The calculated defor-
mations will not create additional stresses in the tendons.

For the influence areas the loading will generate a dirac-delta strain within the centre of the
elements. Load value will be 1.0 in general. The deformation of the mesh is the required
influence area. However, directly in the point of interest the FE- approach will smooth out the
singularity of the theoretical influence area.

For wind loading NTYP may specify special patterns of wind factors derived from the inclination
of the inward normal direction of the QUAD, the direction of the gravity and the wind direction.

STD obsoleted factors according old DIN 1055 Teil 4 (1986) Table 11 and picture 12 for
closed buildings, but without the extra lift off at edges and corners (0.6 < cp < 0.8).
Wind according to current design codes including the peak areas are to be defined

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via the AREA wind loading.

CYL Wind factors for cylinders based on Reynoldsnumber (DIN/EC)
where VTYP = equivalent diameter of cylinder for Reynold number to be evaluated
from VREF (see WIND) The type CYLR allows the direct definition of the Reynolds
number at VTYP.
CYLF Wind factors for cylinders (some other design codes)
Indische Norm IS 875: load value is slenderness h/D
load value < 1.0 = IS 11510 (cooling towers).
CYLK Wind pressure for cooling towers according to VGB-Richtline BTR-1997 Table 1
VTYP = 1.0 / 1.1 / 1.2 / 1.3 / 1.4 / 1.5 / 1.6

For the literals CYL and CYLR the pressure coefficients will be interpolated depending on the
Reynolds number between (Re = 5105 , cpmn = −2.2) and (Re = 1107 , cpmn = −1.5).
The load value should then become the reduction factor according to EN 1991-1-4, Pict. 17.36
resp. DIN-1055-4 [1], Pict. 14:

Figure 3.5: Reduction factor according to DIN-1055-4 [1]

For the literals CYLK the load value should be specified as the product of the dynamic enlarge-
ment factor φ of picture 5 and the interference factor F of Table 3.

For wind loading the pressure at the top of the building for suction can be considered , if
selected e.g. with -STD|-CYL|-CYR|-CYK where ” - ” works on suction only, ” + ” on pressure
only and ” * ” on all values.

There are the following load types available for HYDRA / DOLFYN:

Table 3.22: Type of the QUAD-Element Loading for HYDRA / DOLFYN

TYPE Description Unit

CFDP Pressure of fluid kN/ m2
H Piezometric head m
U, V, W Velocity of fluids m/ sec

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

Table 3.22: (continued)

TYPE Description Unit

TKN, TDN Turbulence values k , ε m2 / sec2 , m2 / sec3 , 1/ sec
Q Quantity / sec/ m2

T Absolute temperature K
QT Heat quantity W/ m2

The value of NTYP is then a number for the balances (see HYDRA manual)

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3.13 BRIC – Element Loading

See also: LC, NODE, TRUS, CABL, Beamloading, BEAM, BPEL,

QUAD, COPY, free-loading
BRIC

Item Description Unit Default

FROM Number of first element or GRP − !

TO Number of last element or group number − FROM
INC Increment of element numbers − 1

TYPE Load type and direction LT PG

P Load value [∗] !
X Reference point for load value [m] 1001 0.0
Y [m] 1001 0.0
Z [m] 1001 0.0
DPX p(x,y,z) = p + (x-X)*DPX [∗] 0.0
DPY + (y-Y)*DPY [∗] 0.0
DPZ + (z-Z)*DPZ [∗] 0.0
NTYP reserved for additional options − -

All elements within the given range of numbers will be loaded. The range may be larger than
the existing numbers but must contain at least one element. Instead of a number FROM the
literal GRP and the group number at TO can be specified to select all elements of a group. If
the printout of the selected elements is intended instead of the group the value INC has to be
specified explicitly as 1.

With DPX to DPZ the user specifies global varying loads (like earth or water pressure), P is
then the value at (X,Y,Z), while DPX to DPZ describe the increment in the global coordinate
directions. The Unit will be converted by the load and the geometry unit (1001).

There are the following load types available:

Table 3.24: Type of the BRIC-Element Loading

TYPE Description Unit

PG loading in gravity direction kN/ m3
PXX loading in global directions kN/ m3
PYY kN/ m3
PZZ kN/ m3
DT uniform temperature change K
EX strain in global direction 0/ 00
EY (local only if defined by anisotropy) 0/ 00

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Table 3.24: (continued)

TYPE Description Unit

EZ 0/ 00

There are the following load types available for HYDRA / DOLFYN:

Table 3.25: Type of the BRIC-Element Loading for HYDRA/DOLFYN

TYPE Description Unit

Q Quantity of Fluids / sec/ m3
QT Heat quantity W/ m3

The value of NTYP is then a number for the balances (see HYDRA manual)

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3.14 COPY – Loads from Other Sources

See also: LC, NODE, TRUS, CABL, BEAM, BPEL, QUAD, BRIC, free-
loading
COPY

Item Description Unit Default

NO Number of a defined load case or name of an action − !

FACT Factor for loading or combination type −/ LT 1.0
TYPE Selector for elements LT ALL
ALL All loading input
POIN free point loading
LINE free line loading
AREA free area loading
VOLU free volume loading
PSUP Supporting point loads
SUPP Vector of the supporting loads
TRAI load train loading
ELLA load train as applied in ELLA
INTE all generated analysis loading
NODE nodal loading
BEAM beam loading
TRUS truss loading
CABL cable loading
QUAD QUAD loading
BRIC BRIC loading
WIND wind pressure coefficients

FROM Number of first element or node − -

TO Number of last element or node − -
INC Increment of element or node numbers − -

REF Reference number of an axis or a lane − -

LEV Selection of a certain level (PSUP) [m] 1001 0.0
DX global or local shift of loading [m] 1001 0.0
DY global or local shift of loading [m] 1001 0.0
DZ global or local shift of loading [m] 1001 0.0
ALPH rotation before shifting [grd] 0.0
WIDE Projection depth of generated loading [m] 1001 0.0
YEX Eccentricity for load trains [m] 1001 *

CASE Evaluation case in ELLA − 1

NRE Ident of element / influence line −/ LT 1
XABS Section for beam elements [m] 1001 0.0
Table continued on next page.

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

Item Description Unit Default

XCON Explicit value of convoy distance [m] 1001 -

XV1 explicit value for 1st variable length [m] 1001 -
XV2 explicit value for 2nd variable length [m] 1001 -
...
XV15 explicit value for 15th variable length [m] 1001 -

PROJ Name of an external database LT255 -

COPY will transfer loading from other load cases to the current load case. All types of loading
definitions including generated loads by other programs will be copied. The self weight created
by the factors DLX-DLZ of record LC will be copied only if not yet defined in this load case
directly or with another COPY command within this load case.

For larger systems it might be considerably faster to copy only the nodal and elemental loads.

With a selection of NODE, BEAM, TRUS, CABL. QUAD or BRIC generated loads will be also
copied. If the COPY should be restricted to user defined loads, a ” : E” must be added to the
type.

Instead of ALL the selection of INTE will copy the generated nodal analysis loads. Elemental
loading especially temperature or prestress loading may not be treated with that method. The
generated nodal loads from self weight will be copied only with TYPE INTE. But this requires
ASE to have analyzed this load case.

Without specification of a project name, the support forces will be read from the current
database, otherwise the loads will be taken from that database.

All load cases of an action are copied with the input of the action name for load case number
NO.

Load functions may not be copied, as every load case must have a unique load function.

The load case NO may be created within a previous or the same input block. All loads may be
copied with a factor. As the global load factor of LC is not applied to the loads in the database
itself, the old global load factor remains out of scope.

For a nonlinear analysis one needs the combination of several load cases with factors normally
taken from the extreme value of some important force or moment. If MAXIMA has saved this
combination with the combination number nn, it is possible to use those factors with a definition
of COPY nn COMB.

However, with a literal for the item FACT the user may apply the building of a combination of
load cases for nonlinear analysis using safety factors and combination coefficients. This is
not a superposition like MAXIMA does. The user has to specify the load cases in the correct
sequence and selection. There is available:

DESI/DESF Design combination unfavourable/favourable:

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

X
S = γg · Gk + γq,1 · Qk,1 · γq, · ψ0, · Qk, (3.7)

ACCI/ACCF Accidental design combination unfavourable/favourable:

X
S = γg,A · ψ0,g · Gk + γA · Ad + ψ1, · Qk,1 + ψ2, · Qk, (3.8)

RARE Rare(characteristic) combination for serviceability:

X
Ss = Gk + Qk,1 + ψ0, · Qk, (3.9)

FREQ Frequent combination for serviceability:

X
Sƒ = Gk + ψ1, · Qk,1 + ψ2, · Qk, (3.10)

NONF non frequent combination for serviceability:

X
Sƒ = Gk + ψ′1 · Qk,1 + ψ1, · Qk, (3.11)

PERM Quasi permanent combination for serviceability:

X
Sp = Gk + ψ2, · Qk, (3.12)

For the variable actions Q the first given load case will be treated with the special combination
value, all other will be assigned the right most coefficients.

LC 101 ; COPY 1,2,3,4 DESI

LC 102 ; COPY 2,3,4,1 DESI

Instead of those semi automatic values it is also possible to define literals for the saved combi-
nation coefficients:

GAMU/GAMF = Safety factors unfavourable / favourable

PSIU/PSIF = Safety factors unfavourable / favourable × ψ0
PSI0/PSI1/PSI2/PS1S = Combination coefficients ψ0 , ψ1 , ψ2 , ψ′1
PS1U/PS1F = Safety factors unfavourable / favourable × ψ1
PS2U/PS2F = Safety factors unfavourable / favourable × ψ2
P1SU/P1SF = Safety factors unfavourable / favourable × ψ′1

It is possible to select special nodes or elements. This is done with the FROM TO range in
increments of INC. For free loading (POIN, LINE, AREA or VOLU) this will filter on the given
selector.

Free loadings may be also copied to a different location with a global offset DX, DY, DZ and an
initial rotation ALPH.

When copying loads, it will be remembered the source of the loadings, thus a restart (LC nn
REST) will repeat the copy process and use the current load definitions. With CTRL COPY
256 this will be supressed, the loads are then taken as currently defined and will be treated as
explictly defined loadings.

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

3.14.1 Support forces

With the load type PSUP the program will convert nodal reaction forces and with SUPP also
moments at nodes to free POIN loads. The reference type will be AUTO unless otherwise
selected with CTRL COPY, i.e. the loads will be applied within the WIDE selection in any
suitable way. The loads will be projecting in the gravity direction. A negative value of WIDE will
switch to a projection N, requiring a load definition at the true location.

With DX, DY or DZ the user can select a special coordinate value to select nodes. If the value
LEV is defined, only nodes with that ordinate in gravity direction will be treated. DX, DY and
DZ are then shifts allowing to move loads from one storey precisely to another probably lower
level.

3.14.2 Load trains

If the load case to be copied contains a load train definition TRAI, NREF must be an identifier
of a reference axis, with the specification of one of the possible lanes with number 0 to 9
appended as additional decimal digit. DX is the station value along the axis.

Loads of a loadtrain will be clipped at the edges of the traffic lane. This may be used together
with YEX to apply wide special trains across several lanes. Some loadings (eg. LM1 together
with a LM3) will not be influenced by YEX.

Loadtrains with variable distances or acting as a convoy those distances may be specified
explicitly with the items XCON (see TRAIN) , XV1 to XV 15. It is also possible to set the load
train at a position saved from ELLA with Option ECHO LPOS. To achieve this it is necessary
to specify the TYPE ELLA, to specify with NO the number of the result load cases created by
ELLA and to enter REF, CASE, NRE / XABS to address the correct selection. The respective
result will be deducted from the result load case number automatically.

It has to be pointed out however, that SOFILOAD is not able to model all fancy details of load-
ings as implemented in ELLA. ELLA transfers the favourable and unfavourable areas based on
the vertical loading and the position of the loading. SOFILOAD can not cope with variable ex-
centricities and special combination effects. ELLA may decide about favourable/unfavourable
elementary based on all load components, while SOFILOAD has to select based on the verti-
cal loading only. This includes the special effect that a point or tandem load in ELLA may be
treated at the same position to be before or behind a point at the same time.

Spans will be defined with placements along the axis, if those do not exist or INC LANE is
specified the segments defined with LANE will be taken instead. The values FROM to TO
select the spans of the lane with a loading pattern controlled by a DELT input (the dotted line
indicates the load train position specified):

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

0 −−−

−−0

4 − MAX

4 − MIN

3 4 MAX

3 4 MIN

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Figure 3.6: Load distribution in spans

Without definition of INC only the selected interval will be loaded, where the defaults for FROM
and TO are the total lane. A definition of INC will change the default to the region containing
the selected DX point. If INC is zero, only the selected range is loaded. If MAX is defined for
INC also every second span outside the range is loaded. MIN will always reverse the selected
pattern. A really correct evaluation for complicated loading should be performed via influence
lines and module ELLA.

Loads will be copied as default with a factor of one, but one may specify for FACT one of
the literals DESI, RARE, FREQ, NONF, PERM to select the combination coefficients of the
load case to be multiplied with. As an alternate or additional mean one may select with TYPE
combinations for load groups according to the EC1 or DIN Fachbericht. While without entry all
loads are taken, the possible values are:

GR0 Single vertical loads only

GRU only vertical distributed loads (UDL+Residual area)
GRU0 only vertical distributed loads within lane (UDL)
GR1 Vertical loads (gr1 in Table 4.4a)
GR2 Horizontal loads (gr2 in Table 4.4a)
GR2N non-frequent variant of group 2
GR2F frequent variant of group 2
GR2L only longitudinal loads of group 2
GR2T only transverse loads of group 2
GR20 only horizontal loads of group 2
GR3 pedestrian walk (residual) area only (gr3 in Table 4.4a)

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

GR4 LM4 / P5 on total traffic area (gr4 in Table 4.4a)

GR5 Special vehicles of LM3 (gr 5 in table 4.4.a)
all other types of load train with its frequent value
GR6 Exchange of bearings

GR11 Max. vertical 1 according table 6.6 for 1 track

...
GR17 SW/2
GR21 Max. vertical 1 according table 6.6 for 2 tracks
...
GR27 SW/2
GR31 Max. vertical 1 according table 6.6 for 3 or more tracks

The distribution and the reference of the loading may be controlled with CTRL COPY.

3.14.3 Wind and Wave loads

Loading on areas with wind according to EN 1991 requires a lot of calculation steps, as the
pressure coefficients are rather detailed and have to be specified dependent on the size of the
area. SOFiLOAD facilitates this task by providing the following steps:

• A reference load case contains all loaded areas with their real size as AREA loading of
TYPE WIND. For more details see record AREA.
• For a specific wind load case one has to specify with record WIND the direction of the wind
and the profile of the wind speed along the height.
• Then a COPY TYPE WIND (or the default ALL) will create the detailed pressure distribu-
tions according to tables 4 to 6 of DIN 1055-4 resp. tables 10.2.1 to 10.2.4 of EN 1991-1-4
depending on the defined geometry and wind direction. A positive factor selects for those
regions with changing sign the suction, a negative factor will select the pressure value. To
define the loading areas the outer dimensions of the building are needed. As these values
may not be derived from the load areas, SOFILOAD will use the outer box of all active
groups to evaluate these values.

Hint: The wind profile of the design codes define the air velocity along the height for the undis-
turbed flow. For a slender building this distribution will be seen on the front side (region D
according picture 7.5 of EN 1991-1-4), however the rear and the other sides (regions A,B,C
and E according picture 7.5 of EN 1991-1-4) have a rather constant suction which is refer-
enced to the nominal reference pressure at the top of the building. This is clearly stated in the
remark of section 7.2.2. (1).

For compact buildings (H/B < 1) the same effect is observed for the front side. The constant
pressure is again referenced to the value at the top of the building which is accounted for.

The staggered wind loading according to picture 7.4 of EN 1991-1-4, which is introduced with
"‘may"’ is not applicable in all cases and is not physical. Thus the default in SOFiLOAD is to
use the continuous variation. If that special load pattern is required, this can be achieved by
an input of:

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

TVAR 'WIND_PATTERN' 2 SCOP 'LOADING'

The possible values 0,1,2 select no variation, continuous variation, staggered load pattern.

For the wave loading a COPY will create the loadings with the Morrison equation and the
defined force coefficients. A shift off the wave kinematics may be specified by the global coor-
dinates (DX,DY,DZ). However in this case an explicit scalar definition for DX (0.5[-] or 50[%])
will shift the wave by this fraction of the wave length.

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

3.15 Free Loading

See also: LC, LAR, POIN, LINE, AREA, VOLU, COOR

Free loading is a very convenient method to place loads at any location within the structure and
let the program decide how to convert it. This is especially useful for the import of geometrically
defined loading from a CAD model. The loads will be converted by SOFiLOAD to equivalent
nodal and elemental loading. For this purpose the program will also work with pure geometrical
elements having no stiffness at all like the outer hull of a frame work. Eccentric loading may
create moments, but moments will not be transferred into a pair of forces by this approach.

Free point and line loadings will be applied exactly once within a system. For area loading the
algorithm for that would be extremely complicated, so it has not been implemented and there
is the chance for an area loading to be applied more than once.

3.15.1 References
If not otherwise specified (e.g. beam loading) the loading will be distributed in general via
quadrilateral elements, which may be taken from:

• General QUAD elements

• QUAD elements with NAR 0 (surface definition only)
• QUAD elements from a load distribution area
• Surfaces of BRIC elements These are defined by the active groups and with GFA the area
references defined for the nodes. Surfaces without area reference or with an interior volume
node will not be loaded with GFA.

For all references one has to distinguish between group based types (BGRP, QGRP and VGRP
resp FGRP) and the geometric references (SPT, SLN, SAR, SVO, GFA as well as LAR). The
geometric reference will be defined automatically with SOFiMSHC, but may be also defined
explicitly with SOFiMSHA. This information will be saved with the elements and the nodes.

The load may be specified to act only on certain types of structure. It may be useful to specify
if a load is intended to become a beam load or should be converted to nodal loads. For curved
reference elements it also makes a difference and the total load sum if the eccentricities are
taken relative to the curved reference axis/area or to the polygon edges of the elements.

If no element type is specified (AUTO), the program will try to use all possible reference types.
The difference is apparent for point loads, where a AUTO-load will always be attached to the
nearest node in the end, while an area or linear reference may decide, that this load is now off
the structure.

For the search of possible elements, the following rules are implemented:

• Explicit references are always unique. The load will be applied with particular reference to
the selected element.
• References on element types will choose fast and directly between all possible elements
to find the best fit. For AREA loading this might create multiple loading within the same
loading area, for point and line loads the elements nearest to the load will win, a definition

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of WIDE is ignored if an explicit reference REF has been given.

• For a reference to a geometric item SOFiLOAD will search in a more demanding outer loop
the structural references, followed with multiple inner loops on the elements. But if this fails
it will switch to the corresponding finite element type. Thus SPT will become NODE, SLN
to BGRP and SAR to QGRP.
• For an automatic reference the program will work first on explicit load distribution areas
LAR, then SAR resp QUAD, then on SLN resp. BEAM and last on SPT resp NODE ele-
ments. The load must be within the dimensions of the element, only for the final loop over
all nodes the value WIDE will become effective. The reference MOVE will not cycle over
the nodes, thus it will discard all loads of a load train outside the structure. The LAR areas
may be ignored if required with CTRL LAR 0.

Loadings on TRUS and CABL elements are applied with a ranking following all beam elements,
as these elements can not account corretcly for partial loadings or load excentricities. Thus
some selection by a reference number, a group number or a limited value for WIDE is always
necessary. This behaviour is manadatory to avoid loading on cables of an external tendon.

3.15.2 Projection of Loading Definitions

The optimum definition of loadings is exactly at the point where they are acting. But for some
structures, it is easier to define the load position by a projection. This first projection has
nothing to do with the load direction itself and should never be mixed up with that.

If no projection in global directions is selected, a projection on the loaded structural element

is assumed. For the interpolation and integration of the load values this projected geometry
will be used. If such a possibility is not available, the projection is done perpendicular to the
loading plane for LINE and AREA loadings.

As there is a limit on the magnitude of the projection window WIDE for curved load definitions,
it is required to specify the projection direction if a value for WIDE is selected.

WIDE WIDE

Figure 3.7: Projective loading with WIDE

The load may be defined e.g. with a certain offset from the structure itself. It will then act on all
elements within a certain range WIDE before or behind the load plane, even those which are
perpendicular to the projection plane of the load. The load value will be interpolated within the
plane of the load definition. WIDE will not cut through the elements, it will only select them by
a logical decision to be within the range or not. The load itself can act in any local or global
direction, however. For loadings within those dimensions of the element no specification of

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

WIDE is required therefor.

For the decision if a load will be attached to a specific element, the geometric size of the point
(column head or prescribed mesh size), the section of a geometric line or the thickness and
eccentricity of the area for QUAD elements will be used.

For curved surfaces the user should always specify the surface SAR if the load points are within
that structural area, or select a global projection if the loading is separate from the structure.
The latter will select only elements within the projection. The load type has no influence on
this process. If WIDE has been specified only elements before and behind the load area will
become loaded. A selection via SAR may also be used for projective loads, it will then select
the elements of this region, but will not affect the projection of the load values.

For the projection direction N (Default) the load will be assumed to act in the defined load
coordinates, thus excentricities may be obtained creating momental loadings. With the projec-
tion direction LOAD the load will be projected on the element as with XX, YY or ZZ. Thus no
moments will be created.

For the so called componental loadings it is to distinguish between a variant where the sign of
the loading is intended for the global component and a variant where it is intended for the local
component. The latter of these two variants may be selected with the projections XXL, YYL
and ZZL instead of XX, YY and ZZ.

3.15.3 Beam loading

In SOFiLOAD there are different methods to deal with loading for beam structures. The most
general method is based on explicit load distribution areas LAR and will then distribute all
loads, even point loads, on multiple beams.

This method is based on load distribution influence areas, constructed from regions either al-
ready subdivided in quadrilaterals or to be established automatically in simple cases of four
edges. There is a tiny plate-bending FE-program involved creating the support forces for sup-
ported edges or edges with a beam section. These values are permanently saved to the
database.

If now an arbitrary loading is defined it will be first converted to nodal loads for the distribution
mesh of the distribution region and then within a second step it is converted to support forces
and eventually beam loading along the edges of the area.

The other methods will load only a single distinct beam for any created part of the loading
area. For point and line loads there is a hierarchic search method, where beams are selected
based on their distance to the load. In this sequence the load will be projected onto the beams,
subdividing line loads if necessary. A point load will be always applied entirely on one beam.

For area loading however a primary and secondary span direction is selected (automatically or
explicitly). Loading will be distributed in the secondary span direction.

3.15.4 Special Hints

Coordinate definitions relative to nodes are best performed by putting the coordinates to a
variable with COOR beforehand. For simple cases for all coordinates a specification of the
literal GPT instead of the X-value and for the number of a geometric point or a node instead
of the Y-value will directly use the coordinates of that point. It is also possible to specify all

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coordinates relative to a special nodal point, which is given with its number and the the item
NREF for all loadings but VOLU.

With the literals DXY, DYZ or DZX instead of an X-value it is possibel to specify coordinates
relative to the first defined load point. With literals DDXY, DDYZ and DDZX the differences are
taken relative to the last load point.

It is not required to specify a load value in all load points. Missing load values will be interpo-
lated before saving the load (e.g. linear variant load value along a complex geometric curve)

The problem of multiple loading may occur if the user has defined overlapping elements or
there are multiple nodes with the same coordinates. For Point and LINE-loads there is a rather
easy way to assure, that no part of the loading will be applied more than once. However,
for QUAD-elements this is a very difficult task. Therefore the program will load all possible
elements. The user has to define a WIDE-value which defines all elements within a distance
WIDE before or behind the load plane will be treated as loaded. For special cases a sound
group selection may be helpful.

For all loading the percentage of the active load area based on the defined loading area respec-
tive length will be calculated and printed. A value deviating from 100 percent will be marked.
With ECHO LOAD the generated loads may be printed and controlled.

For numerical reasons tiny load components will not bes saved. load areas with a dimension
less than the factored part of the total dimensions defined by CTRL STOL will be ignored.

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3.16 LAR – Load Distribution Areas

See also: POIN, LINE, AREA, free-loading, COOR

LAR

Item Description Unit Default

NO Load distribution area for selection via AREA REF − !

LAR NO
NAR Number of a geometric area (GAR) − 0
GRP or selection of a group of QUAD elements − -

GRP1 Group selection for beam groups − all

GRP2 which should be loaded − -
GRP3 − -

Specification of an explicit structured area if neither

NAR nor GRP specified
M Partitions of N1-N2 or N3-N4 − *
N Partitions of N2-N3 or N4-N1 − *
T Application range of the load distribution ∗ 0.0
X1 Coordinates of first point or input of GPT [m] 1001 0.
Y1 for X1 and the point number for Y1 [m] 1001 0.
Z1 [m] 1001 0.
X2 Coordinates of second point or input of GPT [m] 1001 X1
Y2 for X2 and the point number for Y2. [m] 1001 Y1
Z2 [m] 1001 Z1
X3 Coordinates of third point or input of GPT [m] 1001 X2
Y3 for X3 and the point number for Y3. [m] 1001 Y2
Z3 [m] 1001 Z2
X4 Coordinates of fourth point [m] 1001 X3
Y4 For triangles the fourth point must be [m] 1001 Y3
Z4 the same as the third point. [m] 1001 Z3

Load distribution areas for beam systems can be generated with the record LAR. So it is
possible to define forces as free point, line and area loads at their action position. These
loads are converted then via load distribution areas into equivalent beam loads acting on the
corresponding beams. Other load types (moments, temperature etc.) may not be treated.

Single beam groups can be selected with GRP1, GPR2 and GRP3. Only the selected beam
groups get then a loading. Thus e.g. a loading can be allocated only to the transverse or the
longitudinal girders within a load distribution areas. Use of all beam groups is the default.

The loading area may be defined as:

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• Existent QUAD elements of an area or a group

• Explicit structures trinagular or quadrilateral mesh

Every load distribution area gets a local z direction. The positive z direction results from the
defined sense of rotation in analog mode to the QUAD elements. Thus it is possible to use free
loads with the load type PZ - load in local z direction.

Explicit definition of a load distribution area

An explicit load distribution area is described via three or four nodes which are the corner
points of a triangle or quadrangle. This area is subdivided in M and N elements. Either the
node coordinates or the numbers of already defined GPT points for X1, X2, X3, X4 are to be
input. The highest subdivision value is used here for the greater edge length in the smaller one
for the smaller edge. If no input for M and N was done or if a to coarse mesh was defined, then
SOFiLOAD generates automatically a mesh.

Figure 3.8: Generation

Generationa
The coordinates of the four corners may be defined in absolute coordinates or taken from a
structural node with the definition GPT nn. Further it is possible to enter for Z2, Z3 or Z4
one of the literals DXY, DYZ or DZX. The other two coordinates are then taken as increments
within the specified plane to the first point. A definition of only the first two points will create a
rectangle within the appropriate coordinate planes.

The load distribution areas should not be defined too large, because otherwise deductional
loads will arise. A load distribution area possibly with an overhang shown in the following
pictures for a four-span bridge should be input per span.

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

Four-span girder with four load distribution areas

Figure 3.9: Four-span girder with four load distribution areas

In case of one continuous load distribution area deductional forces can arise in the neighbour-
ing span due to a single load.

On the other hand deductional forces are generated as planned always inside for external
loads, because they are necessary for the equilibrium.

With e.g. CTRL LAR 0.3 the stiffness of the support can be softened to reduce possible
negative support forces.

It is recommended to check the LAR areas in the ANIMATOR.

Examples for load distribution areas:

• sofiload_LAR_girder.dat
• LAR_Rahm.dat

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3.17 POIN – Free Point Loads

See also: LC, LAR, LINE, AREA, VOLU, free-loading, COOR

POIN

Item Description Unit Default

REF Reference type LT AUTO

AUTO Automatic
MOVE Automatic moving load
LAR load distribution area
SLN Structural linie
SAR Structural area
GFA Surface number of BRICs
NODE generated node
BGRP Group of beam / cable / truss elements
QGRP Group of QUAD elements
VGRP Group of BRIC elements
NO Reference or group number − -
TITL Short title of loading LT12 -

PROJ Projection of load point LT N

N normal of reference area (SAR)
XX projection in global X-direction
YY projection in global Y-direction
ZZ projection in global Z-direction
WIDE Range in direction of projection [m] 1001 0.0
specification only if specific PROJ selected
NREF Reference node for coordinate values − -

TYPE Load type and direction LT PG

P Load value ∗ 0.
X Global coordinates of loading [m] 1001 0.
Y [m] 1001 0.
Z [m] 1001 0

POIN is a single point load or a similar load type acting independent from the element mesh.
The program will search for points, lines or regions where to put the load.

POIN-Loads are not singel loads with a singularity at the tip, but an energetic equivalent for
loadings in the vicinity of a node of the FE mesh. If the mesh is refined at the tip of the POIN
load, the singularities become more visible. As the transverse loading of a plate or shell may
be always spreaded to the mid surface of the plate or shell, there is the following simple rule:

POIN loadings and point supports may be used without concerns if the element size is larger
that the plate thickness. If the mesh size becomes smaller all loading ha to be defined as areal

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

loading and all supports as areal support with the true dimensions.

If the reference is NODE with an explicit number, the defaults of the coordinates will be those
of that point. Eccentricities will generate moments at the node.

For REF SLN/BGRP the eccentricities will be copied to the beam loading if beams become
active or transformed to moments in case of lines without beams.

For REF SAR/QGRP the load will always converted to up to four nodal loads without any
eccentricities.

Beam loadings may be applied in or relative to a point within the section, if a string is appended
or specified at NO, as described in LINE.

The following load types are available:

Table 3.29: Forces and moments

TYPE Description Unit

PG Load in gravity direction (not: self-weight loading) kN
PX Load in local direction kN
PY (Please keep in mind that according to REF kN
PZ different systems are available) kN
PXX Load in global direction kN
PYY kN
PZZ kN
MX Moment about local direction kNm
MY (Please keep in mind that according to REF kNm
MZ different systems are available) kNm
MXX Moment about global direction kNm
MYY kNm
MZZ kNm
MB Warping moment (only for REF SPT/SLN) kNm2

Table 3.30: Displacements of supports (only for REF GPT/NODE)

TYPE Description Unit

WXX Displacement in global X-direction mm
WYY Displacement in global Y-direction
WZZ Displacement in global Z-direction
DXX Rotational displacement about global X-direction mrd
DYY Rotational displacement about global Y-direction
DZZ Rotational displacement about global Z-direction

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Displacements of supports in local directions are not possible.

Table 3.31: Influence values for beam elements (for SLN/BGRP)

TYPE Description Unit

WX Jump of displacement in local x-direction mm
WY Jump of displacement in local y-direction
WZ Jump of displacement in local z-direction
DX Bend of displacement about local x-direction mrd
DY Bend of displacement about local y-direction
DZ Bend of displacement about local z-direction

Table 3.32: Influence values for QUAD elements (for SAR/QGRP)

TYPE Description Unit

IMXX Influence area for moment m-xx −
IMYY Influence area for moment m-yy −
IMXY Influence area for moment m-xy −
IVX Influence area for shear v-xx −
IVY Influence area for shear v-yy −
INXX Influence area for membrane force n-xx −
INYY Influence area for membrane force n-yy −
INXY Influence area for membrane force n-xy −

If several elements are possible, the first element (with the lowest number) will win.

For the influence areas the loading will generate a dirac-delta strain within the centre of the
elements. Load value will be 1.0 in general. The deformation of the mesh is the required
influence area. However, directly in the point of interest the FE- approach will smooth out the
singularity of the theoretical influence area.

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3.18 LINE,CURV – Free Line Loading

See also: LC, LAR, POIN, AREA, VOLU, free-loading, COOR

LINE,CURV

Item Description Unit Default

REF Reference type LT AUTO

AUTO Automatic
MOVE Automatic moving load
LAR load distribution area
SLN Structural linie
SAR Structural area
GFA Surface number of BRICs
EDG Nodal sequence
BGRP Group of beam / cable / truss elements
QGRP Group of QUAD elements
VGRP Group of BRIC elements
NO Reference or group number − -
TITL Short title of loading LT12 -

PROJ Projection of loading line LT N

N normal of reference area (SAR)
XX projection in global X-direction
YY projection in global Y-direction
ZZ projection in global Z-direction
XXL as XX, sign for local component
YYL as YY, sign for local component
ZZL as ZZ, sign for local component
LOAD as N, without eccentricities
WIDE Range in direction of projection [m] 1001 0.0
specification only if specific PROJ selected
NREF Reference node for coordinate values − -

TYPE Load type and direction LT PG

P1 Load value of first point ∗ 0.
X1 Coordinates of first point or input of SPT [m] 1001 0.
Y1 for X1 and the point number for Y1 or [m] 1001 0.
Z1 S or SX and the ordinate along a SLN. [m] 1001 0.
...
P6 Load value of sixth point ∗ *
X6 Coordinates of sixth point or input of SPT [m] 1001 X5
Y6 for X6 and the point number for Y6 or [m] 1001 Y5
Z6 S or SX and the ordinate Y6 along a SLN. [m] 1001 Z5

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LINE and CURV describe a polygon or a curved smooth line load, which follow

• a sequence of elements (LINE without geometry)

• a mesh independant polygon (LINE with geometry)
• a mesh independant curve (CURV with geometry)

Distribution of load values may be either explitly or obtained from a spline along the defined
load direction.

If the reference SLN,EDG or BGRP is used with an explicit number NO, the coordinates may
be omitted. The load is then uniform along the whole line. For the first two types non uniform
load distributions may be selected with NREF.

For EDG the polygonal geometry of the line will be used, while SLN follows the real curved
geometry. If a SLN has been subdivided only in parts with beam elements, the load will be
applied only on those generated beam elements. If the total line should be loaded, either
coordinates have to be defined or the REF EDG has to be used to generate nodal loads only.

Beam loadings may be applied in or relative to a point within the section, if a string is appended
or specified at NO:

@Z+|@Z- at the lower or upper edge of the section

@Y+|@Y- at the right or left edge of the section
@Y+Z+ in a corner of the bounding box
@NAME exactly at a stress point or polygon vertex or middle of a plate or a circle
@NAME.A exactly at a start point of a plate
@NAME.E exactly at an end point of a plate
@NAME+Y exactly at a start point shifted by an offset in +Y direction relative to point
NAME
@NAME-Y exactly at a start point shifted by an offset in -Y direction relative to point
NAME
@NAME+Z exactly at a start point shifted by an offset in +Z direction relative to point
NAME
@NAME-Z exactly at a start point shifted by an offset in -Z direction relative to point
NAME

The offset is the value of WIDE plus the radius of a circle or half of the thickness of a plate.

Otherwise it is possible to define up tp 63 load points. As there are possible only 6 per record,
the following points have to specified with continuation record with load type CONT:

LINE SLN 1 TYPE PX P1 to P6 ! for the points 1 to 6

TYPE CONT P1 to P6 ! for the points 7 to 12
TYPE CONT P1 to P3 ! for the points 13 to 15

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Hint
When using CONT none of the records must contain generation or list expressions!

LINE may be also used to specify some standard load distributions. With a definition of one of
the following Literals at NREF a distributed loading will be defined with a maximum value P1 at
a distinct location:

LINA Linear distribution, maximum at start

LINE Linear distribution, maximum at end
LINM Linear distribution, maximum at midpoint

QUAA Quadratic distribution, maximum at start

QUAE Quadratic distribution, maximum at end
QUAM Quadratic distribution, maximum at mid pointQ

CUBA Cubic distribution, maximum at start

CUBE Cubic distribution, maximum at end

Further it is possible to enter for X value from the 2nd load point one of the literals DXY, DYZ or
DZX. The other two coordinates are then taken as increments within the specified plane to the
first point.

It is recommended to use as few points as possible.

For the projection of the load there are the principal possibilities:

• Explicit reference to a geometric line or Edge/Boundary Element In that case all coordinates
are converted relative to that line and the interpolation of all data will be done along the line.
Two load values thus define not a standard linear loading geometry, but a loading with a
linear varying distance quasi parallel to the line. That’s why all the load points have to be
able to be projected on the SLN geometry. The load per length will be referred to the SLN
length. For any Xi it is possible to specify the literal S or SX, then Yi will be taken as the
station or true length along the structural line. If Yi is defined as factor via unit [−] or [%] ,
the values are taken as fraction of the total line, negative values are always taken in the
inverse direction relative to the end of the line.
• References on geometric lines without explicit numbers. In that case all nodes of lines will
be projected onto the loading geometry. If the projected points are within the width of the
line or the extensions of the section, the load segment will be projected back to the beam
or edge. Load values and eccentricities will be scaled to fulfil the global equilibrium.
• References on beams, truss or cable elements In a first step all beams will sorted by their
distance to the loading. Then the beams are projected on the loading geometry and the
loading segment is projected back to the beam, applying scaling as in the point above.
Loads to far away from the sectional geometry or before or behind a beam will not be
applied. If multiple element types may be selected, they are selected in the sequence
beams, trusses and cables.

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In all cases the program has a sort of Hidden-Line algorithm to ensure that no part of the
loading is active more than once.

For the loading on load distribution areas or QUAD-Elements the program proceeds as follows:

• A projection of the loading will be done into the requested region if a GAR reference type
has been chosen. All calculations will be done within the projected area. Load segments
will be treated only for the area itself.
• If a global projection is selected, all calculations will be made in the global projective plane.
The load may hit several elements which should be selected via the WIDE item.
• Without projection and reference area the projection will be done into the local element
plane.
• For an automatic reference the program will first work on areas and then on lines.

At the element level of a QUAD even curved loading lines will be converted to straight seg-
ments. As long as a data-point is within a QUAD element that will establish no problems, but
if the curved geometry touches the element only slightly this will not be considered further. A
finer mesh will create different load patterns for those cases therefore.

The following load types are available:

Table 3.34: Type of the free Line Loading

TYPE Description Unit

PG Load in gravity direction kN/ m
(not: self-weight loading)
PXX Load in global direction referred to the beam length kN/ m
PYY (e.g. self weight) kN/ m
PZZ kN/ m

PXP Load in global direction referred to the projective length kN/ m

PYP (e.g. snow) kN/ m
PZP kN/ m

PX Load in local direction kN/ m

PY (Please keep in mind that according to REF kN/ m
PZ different systems are available) kN/ m
PGGl load in local  derived from global PGG kN/ m
PGPl load in local  derived from global PGP kN/ m
where G ∈ {X, Y, Z} and  ∈ {, y, z}
(see also PROJ XXL, YYL, ZZL)
MXX Moment about global direction kNm/ m
MYY kNm/ m
MZZ kNm/ m

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

Table 3.34: (continued)

TYPE Description Unit

MX Moment about local direction kNm/ m
MY (Please keep in mind that according to REF kNm/ m
MZ different systems are available) kNm/ m

Table 3.35: Further types of the free Line Loading for REF SLN/BGRP

TYPE Description Unit

EX Strain in axial direction 0/ 00
KX curvature about local x-direction 0/ 00 / m
KY curvature about local y-direction 1/ km
KZ curvature about local z-direction 1/ km
(will generate deformations like moments with the same sign)
DT Uniform temperature difference K
DTY Temperature difference in local y-direction K
DTZ Temperature difference in local z-direction K
UY Imperfection in local y (secondary bending) mm
UZ Imperfection in local z (primary bending) mm
UYS Imperfection in local y as factor of total length m/ m
UZS Imperfection in local z as factor of total length m/ m
PRE Prestress from tendon kN
PREX External prestress kN
WIND Factor for wind loading −
PCFD Pressure and wall shear stress from a flow Analysis (see CTRL CFDL −
for the selection of the pressure field)
SNOW Factor for snow loading (see chapter 7 for more details) −

Positive values of DTY and DTZ mean that the temperature raises in the positive direction of
the corresponding Y resp. Z axis. This load type is only applicable for sections having a distinct
extension or geometry.

For the prestress type of loading the load value is the force of the tendon. All the forces,
moments, curvatures and strains will be established using the geometry of the reference axis.

Factors of WIND define additional factors for the wind pressures calculated from the wind speed
and the drag coefficients to allow the description of additional areas or shadowing effects. (cnf.
input record WIND)

For DOLFYN and HYDRA are also the same load types available in 2D for boundary elements
(SLN) as specified for the record QUAD.

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3.19 AREA – Free Area Loading

See also: LC, LAR, POIN, LINE, VOLU, free-loading, COOR

AREA

Item Description Unit Default

REF Reference type LT AUTO

AUTO Automatic
MOVE Automatic moving load
LAR load distribution area
SAR Structural area
GFA Surface number of BRICs
BGRP Group of beam elements
QGRP Group of QUAD elements
VGRP Group of BRIC elements
NO Reference or group number − -
TITL Short title or ident of loading LT12 -

PROJ Projection of loading area LT N

N normal of reference area (SAR)
XX projection in global X-direction
YY projection in global Y-direction
ZZ projection in global Z-direction
XXL as XX, sign for local component
YYL as YY, sign for local component
ZZL as ZZ, sign for local component
LOAD as N, without eccentricities
WIDE Range in direction of projection [m] 1001 0.0
specification only if specific PROJ selected
NREF Reference node for coordinate values − -

TYPE Load type and direction LT PG

P1 Load value of first point ∗ 0.
X1 Coordinates of first point or [m] 1001 0.
Y1 GPT for X1 and the point number for Y1 [m] 1001 0.
Z1 [m] 1001 0.
... ...
P6 Load value of sixth point ∗ *
X6 Coordinates of sixth point or [m] 1001 X5
Y6 GPT for X6 and the point number for Y6 [m] 1001 Y5
Z6 [m] 1001 Z5

AREA describes general polygon loading areas independent from the element mesh. The load

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

does not need to be specified in all points, missing values will be interpolated with a least
square distribution accounting for the load projection definition. Thus up to four points with
a suitable pattern will define a bilinear (4 coefficients) distribution, more points will allow a
quadratic (6 coefficients) or bicubic (10 coefficients) distribution, but sufficient points have to
be defined in at least two directions to allow the evaluation of all coefficients. If this is not the
case, the highest degree is selected which yields unique coefficients without further notice.

Kinks in the load values have to be defined via separate load areas.

Loading on areas (e.g. fillings with liquids and silos) may be defined with VOLU very efficiently.

If a constant loading on all elements of an area is to be defined, it is possible to define a

SAR/LAR/QGRP only with an explicit number NO and the load value P1. All coordinates may
be omitted in that case.

It is recommended to use as few points as possible. However it is possible to define more than
6 (up tp 63) data points. As there are possible only 6 per record, the following points have to
specified with continuation record with load type CONT:

+PROG SOFILOAD
HEAD
...
AREA SAR 1 TYPE PX P1 TO P6 ! for the points 1 to 6
TYPE CONT P1 TO P6 ! for the points 7 to 12
TYPE CONT P1 TO P3 ! for the points 13 to 15
...
END

Hint
When using CONT none of the records must contain generation or list expressions!

Further it is possible to enter for X value from the 2nd load point one of the literals DXY, DYZ
or DZX. The other two coordinates are then taken as increments within the specified plane
to the first point. A definition of only two points will create a rectangle within the appropriate
coordinate planes.

For the projection of the load there are the principal rules:

• Explicit references to an area is always unique. However if the number is not defined, the
program will check all areas. So multiple instances of the loaded area might occur. However
only those areas are used, where the load is completely within the volume defined by the
elements of the area.
• All Interpolations and geometric calculations will take place in the projected area. For SAR
and PROJ N this is the region, which might be curved. The data points of the load should be
on that surface therefore. For a global projection however the loading area may be situated
somehow away from the real structure.
• For a automatic reference, the program will start with any defined load distribution areas,
then any defined QUAD elements and structural areas and finally work on beam elements.

The loading on beam elements is best done via load distribution areas LAR or real QUAD ele-

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ments. If such are not present, the program will establish a main girder direction and distribute
the load transverse to them on those beams fully or partial within the loading area. Eccentrici-
ties of the load will be established as it would be without any transverse girders. However the
user has CTRL options STOL and COTB to influence this processing.

There are the following load types available:

Table 3.37: Type of the Free Area Loading

TYPE Description Unit

WIND Wind loading factor −
PCFD Pressure and wall shear stress from a flow Analysis (see CTRL CFDL −
for the selection of the pressure field)
SNOW Snow load shape factor (see chapter 7 for details) −
PG Loading in gravity direction kN/ m2

PX Loading local with reference kN/ m2

PY to the element area kN/ m2
PZ kN/ m2

PXX Loading in global direction with load kN/ m2

PYY value referenced to the element area kN/ m2
PZZ (e.g. self weight) kN/ m2

PXP Loading in global direction with load value kN/ m2

PYP referenced to the projection area kN/ m2
PZP (e.g. snow) kN/ m2

PXY Load in the normal direction of the area projected kN/ m2

PYZ into the given global plane kN/ m2
PZX kN/ m2
PXYS as above but load value referenced on element area kN/ m2
PYZS kN/ m2
PZXS kN/ m2
PXYP as above, but load value referenced on projected area kN/ m2
PYZP kN/ m2
PZXP kN/ m2

PGGl load in local  derived from global PGG kN/ m2

PGPl load in local  derived from global PGP kN/ m2
where G ∈ {X, Y, Z} and  ∈ {, y, z}
(see also PROJ XXL, YYL, ZZL)
MX Moment loading about local axis kNm/ m2

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

Table 3.37: (continued)

TYPE Description Unit

MY kNm/ m2
MZ kNm/ m2
MXX Moment loading about global axis kNm/ m2
MYY kNm/ m2
MZZ kNm/ m2
DTXY Temperature difference in xy plane K
DTZ Temperature difference in local z-direction K
EX Strain local x 0/ 00
EY Strain local y 0/ 00
KX Curvature local x 1/ km
KY Curvature local y 1/ km
WZ Settlements in local z mm
PMXX Prestress m-xx kNm/ m
PMYY Prestress m-yy kNm/ m
PMXY Prestress m-xy kNm/ m
PVX Prestress q-x kN/ m
PVY Prestress q-y kN/ m
PNXX Prestress n-x kN/ m
PNYY Prestress n-y kN/ m
PNXY Prestress n-xy kN/ m

The difference between PXX and PXP is given by the fact, that PXX is a load referenced to
the true area (e.g. dead weight) while PXP is referenced on the projection into the XY-plane
(e.g. snow). However, for planar systems there will be no difference as the loads are always
referenced on the true surface. The component loadings define a load direction derived from
a projection of the normal of the area into the specified global projection plane (e.g. diverting
forces of tendons). The local loads based on a global load projection are required to define
earthquake loadings on fillings of tanks. A load type PXPZ will define a horizontal projecting
pressure applied in the normal direction Z of the plane. In general the sign of the load value
will be taken on the global component. However with projection XXL, YYL or ZZL the sign of
the load value will define the local component. Thus specifying PXPZ on a circle with PROJ
XX will define a load acting depending on the orienation of the local z-axis, while PROJ XXL
will define a load acting everywhere in the same direction e.g. inwards.

For load types P and M equivalent nodal forces and moments will be established by integrating
the element shape functions.

For all other loads, creating initial stress (like temperature) over the whole element, the selec-
tion will be by hitting the loading area with the centre of the element. This is why for irregular
meshes the sum of the loading area might deviate from the 100 % aim.

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

Using load distribution areas with REF LAR a moment loading is not considered!

For DOLFYN and HYDRA are the same load types available as specified for the record QUAD.

3.19.1 Wind loads

Loading on areas with TYPE WIND have some special effects. In general the load values
specified are the pressure coefficients, but when using the COPY command, an area may be
subdivided and changed according to the provisions of the EN 1991-1-4. Deviations of DIN
EN1991-1-4 resp. DIN 1055 Table 11/Pict 12 as well as BS EN 1991-1-4 are included. The
details are controlled by the specified TITL.

• If the title is not defined or starts with the letters "CP", no conversion will be performed.
• If the title tarts with the letters "QP", the pressures according to the design code will be
created which can be used then with LAR areas for beam systems, otherwise the load type
WIND will be unchanged.
• If the title contains the text ’MEAN’ the pressures will be created as before, but based on
the mean values.
• A number after a colon at the end of the title is used for flat roofs as follows:
>0 The height of an Attica in m
<0 The reduction of the eaves either with an angle in degree or the ratio of a curva-
ture r/h

There are of course some requirements on the geometry of the loading areas:

• The loading require the total outer extend of the building, defined by all groups active for
wind loading.
• A planar load area may have as many load points as possible, but all points have to be
defined, that they are counter clockwise if you look from the outside on the surface.
• A double pitched roof (saddle or through) requires at least six load points. The first point
has to be on the ridge or groove, which is required to be horizontal and the inclination of
the roof must match along all edges everywhere.
3
4 3
2
5 4
5
1 2
1
6 6

Figure 3.10: Load points of a double pitched roof (saddle or through)

• If a load area can not be treated an error message occurs, but it is strongly recommended
to check the load values especially if the wind attack is not perpendicular to the structure.

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

3.20 VOLU – Volume Loading

See also: LC, POIN, LINE, AREA, VOLU, free-loading, COOR

VOLU

Item Description Unit Default

REF Reference type LT VGRP

LAR Load distribution area
GFA Faces of BRIC elements
SAR Structural region
SVO Structural volume
QGRP Group of QUAD elements
VGRP Group of BRIC elements
FGRP Surface of BRIC elements
NO Reference or group number − -
TITL Short title of loading LT12 -
A/U Reference value for Silo loadings ∗ -

TYPE Load type and direction LT PG

P Load value at reference point ∗ 0.
X Coordinates of reference point or [m] 1001 *
Y GPT for X and the point number for Y [m] 1001 *
Z [m] 1001 *
P1 Load value of first point/Increment ∗ P/0
X1 Coordinates of first point or [m] 1001 *
Y1 GPT for X1 and the point number for Y1 [m] 1001 *
Z1 [m] 1001 *
... ...
P5 Load value of fifth point/Increment ∗ P/0
X5 Coordinates of fifth point or [m] 1001 *
Y5 GPT for X5 and the point number for Y5 [m] 1001 *
Z5 [m] 1001 *

VOLU describes loading on volumes or a group of BRIC-elements or all QUAD-elements within

the volume. If no Coordinates are given, all elements of the group or the volume will be loaded.

It is possible to enter for X1, X2 or X3 one of the literals DXY, DYZ or DZX. The other two
coordinates are then taken as increments within the specified plane to the first point.

A geometric description like the LINE and AREA loading is not available, because this would
be to much effort. Therefore the selection of elements is only by a sheared cube, defined by
three selectable directions p1-p, p3-p2, p5-p4, which must not be colinear.

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

P5
P3
P1
P

P2
P4

Figure 3.11: The selected volume definition

The load values will be interpolated within the sheared coordinate system and added for all
three directions. In most cases it will be sufficient to define only load values P and P1 and to
use the other four points only to limit the loading ares. If the user does not supply coordinates
for a direction, the program will try to add the maximum extent in the gravity direction for P1
and the missing perpendicular directions for the other oints and treat the load value as an
increment.

For the common case of a fluid pressure it is thus sufficient to define the free surface (X or Y
or Z) and the weight of the fluid at entry P1.

LC 2 ; VOLU REF QGRP NO 1 TYPE PZ Z 0.0 P1 -10

LC 3 ; VOLU REF QGRP NO 1 TYPE PZ Z 2.0 P1 -10

Partial loading on BRIC-elements is not implemented, all elements having their centre point
within that body will be loaded, all other not. QUAD-Elements however will be clipped properly.

There are the following load types available:

Table 3.39: Type of the Volume Loading

TYPE Description Unit Unit

QUAD BRIC
PG Loading in gravity direction kN/ m2 kN/ m3
(not self weight !)

PV Internal pressure kN/ m2 n..

load value is dependant on orientation

PX Loading local with reference kN/ m2 n..

PY to the element area kN/ m2 n..
PZ kN/ m2 n..

PXX Loading global with reference to the kN/ m2 kN/ m3

PYY element area kN/ m2 kN/ m3
PZZ (e.g. self weight) kN/ m2 kN/ m3
PXP Loading global with reference to the kN/ m2 n..
PYP projection area kN/ m2 n..

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

Table 3.39: (continued)

TYPE Description Unit Unit

QUAD BRIC
PZP (e.g. snow) kN/ m2 n..
PXY Component loading in kN/ m2 n..
PYZ global directions kN/ m2 n..
PZX kN/ m2 n..
PXYS Component loading in kN/ m2 n..
PYZS global directions kN/ m2 n..
PZXS referred on the element area kN/ m2 n..
PXYP Component loading in kN/ m2 n..
PYZP global directions kN/ m2 n..
PZXP referred on the projection kN/ m2 n..

PGGl Load in local l derived from global PGG kN/ m2 n..

PGPl Load in local l derived from global PGP kN/ m2 n..
where G ∈ {X, Y, Z} and  ∈ {, y, z}
MXX Moments about global directions kNm/ m2 n..
MYY kNm/ m2 n..
MZZ kNm/ m2 n..

DTXY Temperature difference in the xy-plane K n..

DTZ Temperature difference in local z-direction K n..

EX Strain local x 0/ 00 0/ 00
EY Strain local y 0/ 00 0/ 00
EZ Strain local z n.. 0/ 00

For DOLFYN and HYDRA are the same load types available as specified for the records QUAD
and BRIC.

3.20.1 Loading in Silos and Tanks

For liquid tanks and silos, there is the load type PV. The reference line P-P1 has then to be
inside the volume and SOFiLOAD uses the orientation of the local coordinate system of the
QUAD relative to that axis to establish the correct sign of the load "outwards". Further the
thickness and the relative position to the nodes will then be accounted for when calculating the
load values.

For this special load type the load values have other meanings:

P Self weight of filling (γ)

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P1 Coefficient for bottom pressure Cb

P2 Coefficient for horizontal pressure Ks
P3 Coefficient horizontal pressure for discharge Ch
P4 Wall friction coefficient μ
P5 Coefficient wall friction C

Values for granular fillings are given in EC1-4 Table 7.1 or DIN 1055 part 6 Table 1. For the EC
lower (0.90) and upper (1.15) bounds have to be considered.

The definition of a value A/U activates the nonlinear distribution along the height caused by the
wall friction. zo defines the values in infinite depth as limit value.
A
z0 = (EC5.6/ DN5) (3.13)
Ks μU
p (z) = γ · z0 · 1 − e(−z/ z0 )
” —
(EC5.4/ DN3) (3.14)
phƒ (z) = Ch · Ks · γ · z0 · 1 − e(−z/ z0 )
” —
(EC5.3/ DN2) (3.15)
pƒ (z) = C · μ · Ks · γ · z0 · 1 − e(−z/ z0 )
” —
(EC5.2/ DN1) (3.16)

Further this definition will apply the factor Cb 1.2 for all flat base plates (< 20 degree) according
to equation EC-5.14/DIN-14. For hoppers (> 20 and < 70 degree) the transition from the walls
to the hopper will be detected automatically and the load distribution according to equations
EC (5.15) to (5.18) will be established. Here DIN has slightly different formulas (16) to (23).

Loading for discharge has to be accounted for either by spot pressures to be defined indepen-
dently or by correction factors according to be selected by the user individually.

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3.21 GUID – Globally Unique Identifier

See also: POIN, LINE, AREA, VOLU

GUID

Item Description Unit Default

ID Identifier of load LT32 -

TAG Marker LT32 -

The command GUID allows assigning Globally Unique Identifier (GUID) to a load.

A Globally Unique Identifier (GUID) is a worldwide unique reference number, usually stored
as a 128-bit integer, which is primarily used for the identifcation of objects, when data is ex-
changed between computer systems.

The GUID is a property record and must be given directly after the load (e.g. POIN, LINE,
etc.). When describing the model using the CADiNP language in text mode, it is usually not
necessary to set a GUID.

ID With ID, any GUID can be specified to label the load.

TAG TAG can be used to additionally mark a load. This marker can be used to summarize
loads in a table (see ECHO TAG).

Example:

+prog sofiload
head Generate and Grouping of loads with markers

lc 1
!*! Loads with tag "Column"
poin p 10 x 0 0 0 bez "S_0,20m"
guid id "8c2bf94d-378d-4276-aa4c-c292dbc30270-0038303b" tag "Column"
poin p 10 x 0 2 0 bez "S_0,20m"
guid id "8c2bf94d-378d-4276-aa4c-c292dbc30270-0038303c" tag "Column"

!*! Loads with tag "Wall"

line p1 20 x1 0 2 0 p2 10 x2 7.5 2 0 bez "W_0,25m"
guid id "8c2bf94d-378d-4276-aa4c-c292dbc30270-0038308g" tag "Wall"
line p1 20 x1 0 3 0 p2 10 x2 7.5 2 0 bez "W_0,25m"
guid id "8c2bf94d-378d-4276-aa4c-c292dbc30270-0038308g" tag "Wall"

lc 2
!*! Loads with tag "Wall"
line p1 20 x1 0 4 0 p2 10 x2 7.5 4 0 bez "W_0,25m"
guid id "8c2bf94d-378d-4276-aa4c-c292dbc30270-0038309q" tag "Wall"

echo tag yes val1 "Column" $Write table with all loads with tag "Column"

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

echo tag yes val1 "Wall" $Write table with all loads with tag "Wall"

end

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3.22 EXPO – Export of Load Cases

EXPO

Item Description Unit Default

NO Number of a load case ( 0 = all) − -

TO Name of a file to write to LT96 *
PASS Password of CDB data base LT16 -
OPT Options − -

With the command EXPO you may write the loads form load cases in the database to a input
file for SOFiLOAD. This may be useful in special cases, but you have to keep in mind that during
the input processing always some information gets lost (e.g. local to global transformations),
so the user should check the resulting data to be sure that nothing is missing.

If the file name is not specified the data will be appended to the most lately defined file or set
to project_LFD.DAT.

If no load case is specified, all load cases including actions and load areas will be exported.

OPT allows some extra options to be activated:

ACT Only the actions will be also exported

LAR Only the load distribution areas will be exported
1 only nodal and elemental loads will be exported, but including all generated loads.
1024 only those free loadings are exported which have not been applied with 100 %.

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3.23 EVAL – Evaluations

See also: BEAM

EVAL

Item Description Unit Default

TYPE Type of evaluation LT RU

RR norm of load vector
RU scalar product R with U
RUU scalar product R with U2
RV,RVV with velocities V
RA,RAA with accelerations A
RP,RPP with support forces P
RI,RII with displacement increments
TEQV equivalent linear temperature load
TEIG TEQV + eigen stress
WCOH coherent spectral density
WCOU coherent spectral density u-component
WCOV coherent spectral density v-component
WCOW coherent spectral density w-component
NO Second load case number (U,V,A ...) − !
NAME Name of a CADINP-Variable (without #) LT8 -
IND Index for array-variable − 0
LEIG load case number of first eigenform − 0
NEIG number of eigenforms − 0

With command EVAL one may evaluate expressions with the actual load vector of defined or
generated nodal forces with displacements of other load cases in the database and supply
these values to CADINP for the next input block (after the END-record) as a variable. This is
an evaluation of an influence area or an integral over a given displacement function and is very
helpful for some special loading.

If for example a constant area load with value 1.0 is specified, the result of RU will be the
integral of that area within the loaded area. EVAL may be also helpful for a fast evaluation of
different loads on a calculated influence line.

3.23.1 Eigen Stress and Equivalent Linear Temperature Load

An input of a temperature profile along the sectional local z-axis followed by the EVAL TEQV
will result in a computation of the equivalent linear temperature distributions - an equivalent
uniform temperature change DT (ΔTeq ) and an equivalent temperature difference in local z-
direction DTZ (ΔTz,eq ).

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

With a definition of EVAL TEIG the uniaxial residual eigen stress will be evaluated.

BEAM ... TYPE T EZA #z1 PA #dTz1 ...

BEAM ... TYPE T EZA #z2 PA #dTz2 ...
. . .
BEAM ... TYPE T EZA #zn PA #dTzn ...
EVAL TYPE TEQV or TEIG

This load is saved in the database and can be used for the computation of the beam reactions.
The residual eigen stress is also saved in the database and can be used in AQB.

The temperature induced axial strain (thermal strain) of the beam cross section along the beam
at the position  and the sectional ordinates y,z can be described by the following expression:

εt (, y, z) = αt (, y, z) · ΔT(, z) , (3.17)

where αt (, y, z) is the thermal expansion coefficient and ΔT(, z) is the temperature change
distribution.

The temperature distribution is always uni-axial defined only in z-direction. For more complex
problems a thermal analysis with HYDRA for a FE-section should be done.

The temperature induced strains will cause corresponding axial constraint stresses, which are
not in equilibrium in general.

σt (, y, z) = −E(, y, z) · εt (, y, z) = −E(, y, z) · αt (, y, z) · ΔT(, z) . (3.18)

The resulting axial force of the beam under the constrained conditions due to thermal strains
can now be determined as
Z Z
t
N () = σt (, y, z) · dA =− E(, y, z) · εt (, z) · dA
A A
Z
=− [E(, y, z) · αt (, z) · ΔT(, z)] · dA . (3.19)
A

Similarly, bending moment about cross-sectional y- resp z-axis due to thermal strains can be
computed as
Z Z
Mty () = σt (, y, z) · z · dA = − [E(, y, z) · αt (, z) · ΔT(, z)] · z · dA (3.20)
A A

Z Z
Mtz () =− σt (, y, z) · y · dA = [E(, y, z) · αt (, z) · ΔT(, z)] · y · dA . (3.21)
A A

To fulfill the internal equilibrium and to obtain no forces in an unconstrained system, these
forces and moments will be set equal to external forces obtained from equivalent central strain
and curvatures according to Swain’s formula. With EA, E as the elastic axial and bending
stiffness and αT as the reference coefficient of thermal expansion of the gross cross-section:

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

z
ΔT(z) ΔTcons = ΔTeq ΔTne (z) = ΔTz,eq · ΔTnon (z)
h
ΔT(z1 )

ΔT(z2 )

neutral axis
ΔT(z ) h

z
ΔT(zn )

ΔTeq ΔTz,eq

Figure 3.12: Temperature distribution decomposition into constant ΔTcons , linear ΔTne (z) and
remaining non-linear part ΔTnon (z)

Nt () = −EA() · εteq () = −EA() · αT () · ΔTeq () , (3.22)

Mty () = −Ey () · κy,eq

t t
() − Eyz () · κz,eq () , (3.23)

Mtz () = −Ez () · κz,eq

t t
() − Eyz () · κy,eq () , (3.24)

If these total strains will be applied as loading on a flexible system, deformations are obtained
which will change the stresses. For a better understanding, these loadings are converted by a
reference thermal expansion factor to equivalent thermal loadings, The constant temperature
change ΔTcons will result in the axial force, while the linear temperature change ΔTne (y, z)
will cause bending moments to appear. Without any constraints all forces will become zero
and only the eigen-stresses which are self-equilibrating (i.e. they do not contribute to internal
reaction forces in the beam) will remain.

Thus any temperature distribution ΔT(z) can be decomposed into a constant (uniform), a linear
and a remaining non-linear part (see Fig. 3.12).

It has to be noticed however that for a composite section a unique reference value of the
thermal expansion coefficient is used and the residual stresses will have jumps at material
boundaries. Thus a simple addition of the temperatures is not possible in that case.

Hint
In order to list the determined equivalent linear temperature load in the SOFiSTiK Report
Browser, ECHO LOAD EXTR is required.

3.23.2 Spectral densities of loadings

For a spectral analysis some special integrals are needed to calculate the spectral density.
For a wind loading the coherence has to be considered which is dependent on the frequency

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

and the distance of two points. With the literals WCOU, WCOV and WCOW the coherence of
the turbulent components u, v and w will be evaluated. The coherence function will be taken
from load case NO and will be applied to NEIG eigen forms starting at number LEIG. For the
dynamic analysis of the current load case the obtained spectral densities will be taken directly.

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3.24 CTRL – Optional Control Values

CTRL

Item Description Unit Default

OPT Name of control option LT FULL

VAL Value of control option −/ LT !

V2 additional value for option − -
V3 additional value for option − -
V4 additional value for option − -

With CTRL you may specify some control options for the analysis. A definition for CTRL is
evaluated sequentially within the input. The control values have to be input therefore before
the load cases.

COMP Compatibility to older versions

0 current (from Version 20.00-99)
99 from Version 10.00-99
Default: 0
COPY Options for the COPY-Record
0 Create loads from load trains as point and area loads of reference kind
MOVE
1 Create loads from load trains always as point and line loads only (instead
of area loads)
2+4*N Create loads from load trains preferred as area loads with reference N
where: N=0 LAR N=4 EDG/NODE
N=1 SLN N=5 BGRP
N=2 SAR N=6 QGRP
N=3 GFA N=7 VGRP
N=8 AUTO N=9 MOVE
Hint: EDG, SLN and BEAM imply option 1
64 Clipping of load trains at train width
128 Clipping of load trains at lane width
196 No clipping of load trains
256 Loads copied will include a reference to the original load case, i.e. for a
restart changes of the original load case will be taken into account. This
option is not available for free loadings however.
Default: 0
DIST Distribution of loads for beam elements:

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

0 on single beam elements only

1 distributed between beam elements (AREA BGRP)
(explicit direction dx,dy,dz definable with V2,V3,V4)
2 distributed via influence areas only
+4 suppress torsional moments as much as possible
WIND Control pattern for Wind loads
1 Create wind loading even for static wind as wind velocities (ASE/DYNA
only)
Default: 0
SUML saves the sums of the generated nodal forces
PX, PY, PZ in CRI1, CRI2, CRI3 of the load case header (see LC) the three consec-
utive values are factors for the PX, Py and PZ, while the fourth value is an angle to
rotate the resultants PX, PY (useful for drag coefficients)
SUML fak1 fak2 fak3 alf genrates factorised and for 2D also rotated integrals of the
forces from WIND.
Default: 0
LAR Variation of LAR-support
> 1.0 rigid support
< 1.0 soft support
For example LAR 2.0 creates a stiffer elastic support for the load distribution areas.
LAR 0.0 will deactivate all LAR Areas for AUTO/MOVE loadings.
Default: 1.0
CFDL Selection of a load case of the HYDRA or CFD results
The selection of a reference load case of the pressure distribution is done indepen-
dently from the generated load cases. With W2 a minimum pressure is defined,
whioch should be zero or the capillar suction value for free surface flow problems.
With a CTRL CFDL NODE lc pmin nodal loads will be generated which are more
precise for the real pressure distribution.

The following options are intended only for internal purpose up to now.

TOLG Precision for geometric calculations

Default: *
TOLS Precision for load subdivision relative to system extension
This value controls which minimum value must be reached for nodal loads
Default: *

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 Input Description | SOFiLOAD

3.25 ECHO – Printout Options

ECHO

Item Description Unit Default

OPT A literal from the following list: LT FULL

FULL Set all options
LANE Lane geometries
ACT Actions
LOAD Loading
WIND Wind parameters
COPY Load case combinations
LTD Load take down
TAG Loading with tags from GUID record

VAL Volume of printout LT FULL

NO no printout at all
YES standard printout
FULL enhanced printout
EXTR extended printout

VAL1 Filter for tags from GUID record LT32 -

With ECHO you my control the volume of the printout.

LANE Table of traffic lanes

NO do not print table
FULL list of lanes
ACT Table of actions
NO do not print table
YES Only list of actions
FULL list of actions and their load cases
LOAD Table of loadings
NO do not print tables
YES Load case + general infos
FULL YES + defined loading
EXTR FULL + generated loads
COPY Overview of the load combinations with record COPY

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SOFiLOAD | Input Description

NO do not print table

YES load combinations
LTD Overview of the load take down with record LTD
NO do not print table
YES print table
TAG Overview of the loads for which a tag was assigned with the record GUID. Several
ECHO TAG records can be used to obtain tables for several tags. Not enabled with
the OPT FULL command.
NO do not print table
YES print table
VAL1 Filter for specific tag value from record GUID. If left empty, all loads with
a tag are printed.

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 Dynamic Loads | SOFiLOAD

4 Dynamic Loads

Dynamic loading may be accounted for among others with

• static equivalent loading

• response or power spectra
• via a transient analysis with time functions.

In all cases you need a loading, in many cases generated by some unit accelerations (ACCE).

A spectrum defines the response for a single degree of freedom system depending on the
eigenfrequency period and may be used for systems with multiple degrees of freedom with
statistical algorithms.

For a dynamic analysis one or more load cases will be combined via time functions to a com-
plete loading, which is then subdivided into discrete time steps. The tasks to do are:

• Definition of the spectra (RESP)

• Definition of time functions (FUNC)
• Creating of loads for the single time steps (STEP)

The last task is much more effective for linear dynamics (DYNA) within the time stepping al-
gorithm, but for more general cases, like nonlinear dynamics with non conservative loading it
will become necessary to save all the loading within the database for ASE with the command
STEP.

Hint
The options RESP, FUNC and STEP are only available with a special license for dynamic
effects.

4.1 Pushover Analysis - Theoretical Background

Seismic design of structures is a challenging and demanding task for a structural engineer
and the tools at his disposal range from a relatively simple multimodal response spectrum
analysis (RSA) which has been incorporated into almost all modern seismic design codes to
a rather complex and expensive direct nonlinear response history analysis (RHA). Despite its
accuracy and rigorousness in estimating the seismic response of structures, direct nonlinear
response history analysis still remains impractical for a wide range of problems encountered
in earthquake engineering practice. On the other hand, the multimodal response spectrum
analysis with its use of the estimated average ductility capacity based mostly on the type of
the structure often provides a too crude estimation of the nonlinear seismic demand. In recent
years, a turn from RSA towards performance-based seismic design based on the nonlinear
static procedure (NSP) or pushover analysis has been evident. This procedure recognizes the
fact that the capacity of the structure and a seismic demand are two inseparable parts of the
performance-based design.

Pushover analysis is a procedure whose purpose is to evaluate the performance of the struc-
ture under a specified earthquake hazard by comparing the available capacity and estimated

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SOFiLOAD | Dynamic Loads

AQUA + SOFIMSH SOFILOAD ASE SOFILOAD

Mat. / Hinges + System Push Load Push Analysis Performance

cnod

S
M

Sp
φ
P

Sdp Sd

Vb
M

Figure 4.1: Pushover analysis workflow

structural demands.

Pushover analysis procedure comprises of the following stages (Figure 4.1):

1. AQUA + SOFIMSHA/SOFIMSHC: First stage is the definition of the material properties,

or what is more common in the pushover analysis definition of non-linear link elements, or
plastic hinges (see AQUA: SMAT). Next the system is defined, with appropriate non-linear
links assigned to e.g. ends of the beams.
2. SOFILOAD: Next stage is the definition of the pushover lateral load case pattern. Choice
of the load case pattern is an important point in the pushover analysis since these lateral
forces should be able to represent the inertial forces that the structure will be experiencing
when subjected to earthquake ground motion as accurately as possible. The load pattern
is usually assumed to be proportional to some assumed displacement shape vector ϕ.
Most commonly, the chosen load pattern is proportional to the fundamental eigenmode
of the structure. However, any other reasonable displacement shape ϕ can also be used
(e.g. constant or linear distribution of forces, etc.). Instead of a load driven pushover
analysis, a displacement driven analysis might also be required (Figures 4.11 and 4.12).
For more details about the definition of the pushover load see ACCE: Pushover Load.
3. ASE: Pushover analysis is performed by subjecting the structure to a monotonically in-
creasing load pattern of lateral forces defined in stage 2. As aforementioned, these lateral
forces represent the inertial forces that the structure will be experiencing when subjected
to earthquake excitation. The goal of this incremental nonlinear static analysis is to obtain
the capacity of the structure.
4. SOFILOAD: Based on the previous stages the structural capacity can be analyzed to-
gether with the seismic demand and the structural seismic performance can be deter-
mined.
Hint
The capacity of structure can be defined as the maximal force, associated to the
maximal displacement, which a structure might exhibit during a series of seismic ex-

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cnod

Vb

cnod

Vb

Figure 4.2: Pushover curve (Vb-u diagram)

(Hint continued...)

citations with a growing intensity. The base-shear force Vb and control node displace-
ment cnod can be taken as a measure of these maximal forces and corresponding
maximal displacements of the structure, respectively. As noted in Reinhorn [2], it
can be shown that envelope of all force maxima and their associated displacements
are close to the curve obtained by monotonically increasing the inertial forces and
determining the associated displacements (pushover curve).

The procedure consists of the following steps:

(a) Choosing the characteristic force and displacement of the structure, a so called
pushover curve of the multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) system can be obtained. The
force, here denoted as Vb , is usually base-shear, while the displacement is a displace-
ment of the characteristic point on the structure cnod , also called the roof displace-
ment or the control node displacement (Fig. 4.2).
How to pass the pushover curve to SOFiLOAD is described in Subsection: VB-U: Base
Shear - Control Node Displacement Diagram.
(b) Next step in the pushover analysis is the transformation the original MDOF system,
whose nonlinear behavior is described by the pushover curve, into an equivalent
single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system. In doing so, we can also transform the
pushover curve into the so-called capacity diagram, plotted in the spectral displace-
ment - spectral acceleration coordinate system, also know as ADRS format.
Starting point is the equation of motion of the nonlinear MDOF system

M · ̈(t) + C · ̇(t) + ƒ s () = −M ·  · ̈g (t) , (4.1)

where (t), ̈(t) and ̈(t) are the relative displacement, relative velocity and relative
acceleration vectors, respectively, while M and C are mass and damping matrices of
the structure. ƒ s () denotes the nonlinear internal resistance force of the structure.
Right hand side represents the effective earthquake forces, where  is the unit direc-
tional vector and ̈g (t) is the ground acceleration.
First and basic assumption in the formulation of an equivalent SDOF system is that
the deflected shape remains constant during the entire structural response to ground
motion, regardless of the level of deformation (Krawinkler and Seneviratna [3] and
Fajfar [4]). In that case, the relative displacement vector of an MDOF system can be

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approximated as follows:

(t) ≈ ϕ · q(t) , (4.2)

where q(t) represents the modal coordinate, according to the terminology used in the
modal analysis.
Substituting Eq. 4.2 in Eq. 4.1 and premultiplying with ϕT yields

ϕT · M · ϕ · q̈(t) + ϕT · C · ϕ · q̇(t) + ϕT · ƒ s (q) = −ϕT · M ·  · ̈g (t) , (4.3)

or written in a more compact form

m · q̈(t) + c · q̇(t) + ƒs∗ (q(t)) = −m∗ · ̈g (t) . (4.4)

In modal analysis m = ϕT · M · ϕ and c = ϕT · C · ϕ are usually called generalized

modal mass and damping. This is general true only if the assumed displacement
shape ϕ corresponds to one of the natural modes, but for convenience sake the same
terminology will be used herein regardless of the chosen displacement shape. ƒs∗ =
ϕT · ƒ s and m∗ = ϕT · M ·  are the nonlinear resisting force and mass of the equivalent
SDOF system.
Introducing a new reference SDOF displacement D(t) as follows

q(t) =  · D(t) , (4.5)

we finally obtain the equation of motion of the equivalent inelastic SDOF system

m∗ · D̈(t) + c∗ · Ḋ(t) + ƒs∗ (D(t)) = −m∗ · ̈g (t) , (4.6)

where c∗ =  · c denotes the damping of the equivalent SDOF system.

The transformation constant  controls the transformation from the MDOF to the SDOF
system and vice versa (Fajfar [4]). It is also called the modal participation factor, but
again this is only true if ϕ corresponds to the natural mode. It is defined as

T · M · ϕ m∗
= = . (4.7)
ϕT · M · ϕ m

It is common to represent the structural resisting force ƒs∗ (D(t) as a product of the
equivalent mass m∗ and pseudo-acceleration A(D(t)) 1

ƒs∗ (D(t)) = m∗ · A(D(t)) . (4.8)

Introducing equivalent damping ratio ξ∗ and equivalent circular frequency ω∗ = 2πT ∗

(T ∗ - equivalent period of the structure) and substituting Eq. 4.8 in Eq. 4.6 results in a
inelastic differential equation of motion of the SDOF system in a common acceleration
form:

D̈(t) + 2ξ∗ ω∗ · Ḋ(t) + A(D(t)) = − ̈g (t) . (4.9)

1 Forthe undamped structures the pseudo-acceleration is equal to the total acceleration, i.e. A(t) = D̈(t) +
̈g (t). In reality all structures posses some damping, but this structural damping is usually very small so that the
pseudo-acceleration can be approximated with the total accelerations. The internal resistance structural forces are
proportional to the pseudo-accelerations.

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If the earthquake ground acceleration ̈g (t) is know, the solution of this equation can
be obtained by the numerical integration. However, in most practical applications the
seismic excitation is usually represented by the earthquake (elastic or inelastic) re-
sponse spectrum. The maximal response of the SDOF Eq. 4.9 is then given by

m |D(t)| = Sd (T ∗ , ξ∗ ) , (4.10a)

∗ ∗
m |A(D(t))| = Sp (T , ξ ) , (4.10b)

where Sd (T ∗ , ξ∗ ) is the spectral relative displacement response and Sp (T ∗ , ξ∗ ) is

the pseudo-acceleration spectral response 2 .
Similar to MDOF system, the capacity of the equivalent inelastic SDOF system can be
∗
defined as the maximal force ƒs,m (D) = ƒs∗ (Sd ), associated to the maximal displace-
ment Dm (t) = Sd , which a SDOF system might exhibit during a series of seismic
excitations with a growing intensity. As noted in Reinhorn [2], it can be shown that
an envelope of all force maxima and their associated displacements is close to the
monotonic curve represented by the capacity diagram 3 . This implies that the time-
dependent nonlinear resisting force - displacement behavior, ƒs∗ (D(t)), of the SDOF
system can be described by the time-independent monotonic maximal nonlinear force
- maximal deformation relationship ƒs∗ (Sd ) of the SDOF system (capacity diagram, Fig.
4.3) used in the response spectrum solution, i.e.

ƒs∗ (D(t)) = m∗ · A(D(t)) ⇔ ƒs∗ (Sd ) = m∗ · S (Sd ) . (4.11)

Now we can transform the Vb − cnod pushover curve of the MDOF system to the
Sp − Sd capacity diagram of the equivalent SDOF system (Fig. 4.3).

S = Vb / (2 · m) D(t)

Vb
m∗

c∗

ƒs∗ (D)

cnod
Sd = cnod / ( · ϕcnod ) ̈g (t)

Figure 4.3: Conversion of the pushover curve to capacity diagram (A-D format)

Considering the Eqs. 4.2, 4.5 and 4.10a the absolute maximal displacement of the
control node of the MDOF system cnod can be related to the spectral relative dis-
placement response Sd (T ∗ , ξ∗ )

cnod = ϕcnod · m |q(t)| = ϕcnod ·  · Sd (T ∗ , ξ∗ ) , (4.12)

2 Where there is no possibility for confusion, the notation S will also be used to denote the pseudo-acceleration
spectral response Sp .
3 As further noted by Reinhorn [2], for a SDOF system with bi-linear resisting force - deformation characteristics,

the envelope of the force maxima and associated maximal displacements will exactly follow the bi-linear relationship.

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and vice versa

cnod
Sd (T ∗ , ξ∗ ) = . (4.13)
ϕcnod · 

To complete the transformation the base shear Vb needs to be related to the pseudo-
acceleration spectral response Sp (T ∗ , ξ∗ ). This can be done by first recollecting that
the vector of pushover loads p is defined by (see ACCE: Pushover Load)

p=M·ψ· , (4.14)

where  is a parameter which controls the magnitude of the pushover loads. The
distribution of the pushover loads is governed by the vector ψ. It is reasonable to
assume that the vector ψ can be approximated by the assumed displacement shape
ϕ. Consequently, the assumed pushover load and displacement shapes are mutually
dependent, which is the assumption which is used in the majority of the pushover
analysis approaches (Fajfar [4]).
Base shear Vb of the MDOF system is
n
X
Vb = p =  T · M · ϕ ·  = m∗ ·  . (4.15)
=1

From statics it follows that the internal forces ƒ s are equal to the applied external loads
p, i.e.

ƒs = p . (4.16)

Taking the Eqs. 4.14, 4.15 and 4.16 into consideration, the maximal nonlinear resisting
force of the equivalent SDOF system ƒs∗ can be written as

m∗ Vb (cnod )
ƒs∗ (Sd ) = ϕT · ƒ s = ϕT · M · ϕ ·  = m ·  = ·= . (4.17)
 

Substituting Eqs. 4.8 and 4.10b into 4.17 yields

ƒ ∗ (Sd ) Vb (cnod ) Vb (cnod )

Sp (T ∗ , ξ∗ ) = s ∗ = ∗
= . (4.18)
m ·m 2 · m

Equations 4.13 and 4.18 are used to convert the Vb − cnod pushover curve from
the stage 4a to the SDOF system spectral acceleration Sp - spectral displacement
Sd coordinate system to obtain the capacity diagram (Fig. 4.3). The corresponding
SOFiLOAD input is described in A-D: Spectral Acceleration - Spectral Displacement
Diagram.
Hint
Two main assumptions used for the conversion of the MDOF into an equivalent
SDOF system are:
• Displacement shape remains constant during the entire structural response
to ground motion, regardless of the level of deformation

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(Hint continued...)

• The distribution of the pushover loads is proportional to the product of the

mass and the displacement shape (pushover load and displacement shapes
are mutually not independent)

(c) Elastic response spectrum can also be transformed from the traditional spectral ac-
celeration S versus period T format to the spectral acceleration S versus spectral
displacement format Sd (a.k.a. A-D format or ADRS format) to obtain the elastic de-
mand diagram by utilizing the well known relation
2
S T

Sd = = S · . (4.19)
ω2 2π

Figure 4.4 shows the conversion of the elastic response spectrum from traditional to
A-D format. In A-D format the lines radiating from the origin have constant periods.

T = cons S
T = cons
S

T Sd = S · (T/ 2π)2

Figure 4.4: Conversion of elastic response spectrum to A-D format (elastic demand diagram)

How to pass the the elastic demand response spectrum to SOFiLOAD is described in
Subsection: A-D: Spectral Acceleration - Spectral Displacement Diagram.
(d) Next step in the structural seismic performance analysis is the determination of the
performance point (a.k.a. target displacement, demand point, etc.). The performance
point defines the internal state (internal forces, displacements, rotations, interstory
drifts, etc.) of the structural system under an earthquake demand. To determine the
performance point, the capacity and elastic demand diagram in A-D format are plot-
ted in the same graph. Then based on the available capacity the elastic demand is
reduced to obtain inelastic seismic demand for the equivalent SDOF system. The
intersection between the capacity and the inelastic demand diagram represents the
performance point (Sdp , Sp ) (Fig. 4.5). In other words, the performance point corre-
sponds to the structural state.

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S
El. Demand Diagram

Performance Point

Capacity Diagram

Sp

Demand Diagram

Sdp Sd

Figure 4.5: Determination of the performance point

In formulating and solving the equivalent inelastic SDOF system (Eq. 4.6 or 4.9) and
determining the inelastic from the elastic seismic demand, two methods are most com-
monly used:
i. Method based on the elastic highly damped demand spectrum and an elastic
SDOF system with equivalent damping and period. This method is also know
as the capacity spectrum method (ATC-40 [5], Freeman, Nicoletti, and Tyrell [6],
and Freeman [7]). Underlying principle behind this method is described in ATC:
ATC-40 Procedure.
ii. Method based on the inelastic demand spectrum and an inelastic SDOF system
(EN1998-1:2004 [8], Fajfar [9], and Chopra and Goel [10, 11]). Underlying princi-
ple behind this method is described in EC8: Eurocode 8 Procedure.
5. ASE + WINGRAF: Once the performance point is computed the structural demand of the
original MDOF system can easily be established. Back transformation of the inelastic
seismic demand of the SDOF system represented by the performance point (Sdp , Sp ) to
the MDOF system (cnod,p , Vb,p ) is performed with the help of the Eqs. 4.12 and 4.18,
i.e.

cnod,p = ϕcnod ·  · Sdp , (4.20a)

Vb,p = 2 · m · Sp . (4.20b)

Now the performance of the original MDOF system at maximum control node displace-
ment cnod,p can be evaluated on the global and local level. In other words the MDOF
structure is pushed up to the target displacement level of the the control node cnod,p
(displacement demand).

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cnod,p = ϕcnod ·  · Sdp

Sdp

ƒs∗ = m∗ · Sp =  · m · Sp

Vb,p =  · ƒs∗ = 2 · m · Sp

Figure 4.6: Transformation of the seismic demand of the SDOF system to the seismic demand of
the MDOF system

Pushing the structure until reaching the target displacement level of the control node
cnod,p is performed with ASE analog to the stage 3. If the pushover analysis in the
stage 3 is performed with the reasonably small load increments then the user could take
one of the two load cases in between which the control node displacement level cnod,p
is located as the final performance (demand) load case.
Finally the global structural performance can be assessed by performing checks that the
structural and nonstructural components are not damaged beyond the acceptable limits
of the performance objective for the level of forces and deformations corresponding to the
displacement demand cnod,p (ATC-40 [5]).

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4.2 RESP – Response Spectrum

See also: FUNC, ACCE, STEP, Eurocode, DIN, OENORM/SIA, NTC,

EAK, SNIP, UBC/IBC, GB, IS, JRA, Windspectra
RESP

Item Description Unit Default

TYPE Type of spectra LT *

see remarks
(i.e. follow links on top of the page)

CLAS Soil class or similar (see comments) −/ LT *

MOD Damping or behaviour factor −
modal damping ξ or 0.05
behaviour factor q (EC8 Design 1.5
spectra)

SA Rigid acceleration (T = 0) − *
SB Constant acceleration − *
S · η · β0 for elastic Spectra
S · β0 / q for design spectra
SMIN Minimum acceleration threshold − *
TB Time value sec *
TC Time value sec *
TD Time value sec *
TE Cut-Off Time value sec *
K1 Exponent TC < T < TD − *
K2 Exponent T > TD − *

ZONE Seismic Zone LT (NORM)

m/ sec2
 
AG Free field basic acceleration (NORM)
AH Horizontal acceleration factor − 1.0
AV Vertical acceleration factor − -

TITL Title of response spectrum LT32 *

Earthquake loading is defined in most design codes as a basic acceleration dependant on the
importance of the building and the seismic zone. The response of the structure is then defined
as a response spectra depending on soil classes and the magnitude. RESP allows not only
the selection of the standard spectra, but also variants with explicit parameters. For special
cases even an individual curve may be defined with succeeding FUNC records.

For the complete loading definition you need the direction of the acceleration specified with the

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record ACCE. Please note that the spectra may be defined in absolute accelerations or as a
fraction of the gravity acceleration g or a base acceleration g . The second approach is more
straight, as we have the theoretical value of 1.0 for T = 0 (perfect rigid structure). Thus this
approach is chosen for all spectra beside the UBC and the Chinese and Japanese spectra. It
might happen that SA is less than 1.0 for some design codes due to soft soils.

In general you are using only one spectra, but it is possible to define multiple spectras with
different modal damping ratios. The response is then interpolated between the adjacent curves
for any eigenmode.

For those design codes using different spectra for vertical and horizontal response (Eurocode),
two factors AH and AV are provided. However only one of these factors should be defined, but
a definition of AH 0.0 will preset the value AV to the default of the design code.

In general there are two cases to be distinguished for the design:

• Limit state of serviceability

This is normally a request for deformations and constructional rules.
• Ultimate Limit design
This requires the stability of the structure. The most severe case would be the elastic
response, but in general it is justified to use reduced design spectras taking into account the
ductility of the structure with a reduction behaviour factor q. The selection of an appropriate
behaviour factor is within the responsibility of the designing engineer.

All values will be preset according to the selected type and Parameter CLAS, but may be
changed as desired. Thus the total spectra has the following shape:

Figure 4.7: Shape of the response spectrum

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T
 
0 < T < TB : S = SA + · (SB − SA ) (4.21)
TB
TB < T < TC : S = SB (4.22)
k 1
TC

TC < T < TD : S = SB · ≥ Smn (4.23)
T
TC k1 TD k2
  
TD < T < TE : S = SB · · ≥ Smn (4.24)
TD T
TE < T : S=0 (4.25)

If the value TD = 0, the parameter k2 is not used as above, but for the first segment as follows
(e.g. JRA):
( k 2 )
T

0 < T < TB : S = m SA , · SB (4.26)
TB

The values of the spectra depend also from the damping ξ or the behaviour factor q. The
plateau of the spectra is modified in general with one of the following factors on the modal
damping or behaviour factor:

With damping ξ:
v
u 1.0
η=
t
≥ 0.55 (4.27)
0.5 + 10 · ξ

With behaviour factor q:

1.0
η= (4.28)
q

If no definitions are made for MOD, the modal damping of the eigenforms will be used to factor-
ize the response with the factor η of formula 4.27. If values are specified it is possible to interpo-
late the response between various spectra depening on the specified damping.

Hint
The following remarks do not allow to skip the study of the design codes for earthquake.
Some remarks below will necessarily make no sense if one has not read the correspond-
ing paragraphs of the design code. Further it has to be stated, that we can not claim that
our readings of the design codes are always complete or correct.

4.2.1 Eurocode EC 8
While the original version had only three different types of spectras, still available with TYPE
EC-0, the manifold of the later versions requires now more parameters do be defined. For
TYPE one may select between EC-1 (Type 1) or EC-2 (Type 2, for M < 5.5) and for CLAS the
soil classes A to E accounting for the following soils:

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• Soil class A
Rock or other stiff formations with shear wave velocities above 800 m/sec with at most 5 m
soft strata on top as well as stiff soils of several ten meters with an increase of soil values
with depth reaching a shear wave velocity of 400 m/sec in a depth of 10 m.
• Soil class B
Stiff deposits with mean shear wave velocities above 360 m/sec (former 200 m/sec in 10 m
depth and above 350 m/sec in 50 m depth).
• Soil class C
Medium dense or medium stiff soils with shear wave velocities above 180 m/sec (former
below 200 m/sec in the uppermost 20 m)
• Soil class D (since 2001, former C)
Loose cohesionless soil deposits or deposits with predominant soft-to-medium stiff cohe-
sive soils with shear wave velocities below 180 m/sec.
• Soil class E (since 2001)
Soil made up of superficial alluvial layer (C and D) 5 to 20 m covering stiffer deposits (A).

The acceleration g is ruled by the local site and has to be specified with the record ACCE. An
explicit definition of MOD>1.0 will automatically select the design spectra. A direct or indirect
definition of AV will switch to the vertical spectra parameters.

4.2.2 Uniform/International Building Code UBC/IBC

UBC and IBC distinguish the soil classes A to E and the special class F with individual param-
eters.

A Soil Profile Type A (Hard Rock)

B Soil Profile Type B (Rock)
C Soil Profile Type C (Very Dense Soil and Soft Rock)
D Soil Profile Type D (Stiff Soil Profile)
E Soil Profile Type E (Soft Soil Profile)
F Soil Requiring Site-specific evaluation

The IBC defines in detailed maps the basic acceleration for a short period Ss and at 1 sec S1 .
From these and the soil class all parameters of the spectra are defined according to equations
16-38 to 16.43. The user specifies this by the soil class and a literal of the form s.ss/t.tt for the
seismic zone, where s.ss and t.tt are the values for Ss and S1 .

For the UBC the Zone-Factor is derived from table 16-I according to the seismic zone value 1,
2A, 2B, 3 or 4. From that table 16-Q and 16-R yield the values C and C. The near source
factor of table 16-S and 16-T as well as the modifications for isolated systems in zone 4 have
to be specified with parameters explicitly.

The acceleration you have to specify at ACCE is then for both cases required to be given as
g = 10.0.

Hint

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(Hint continued...)

Modification of the UBC/IBC spectra with a factor η based on the modal damping ξ (Eq.
4.27) or the behaviour factor q (Eq. 4.28) is not supported.

4.2.3 DIN EN 1998-1/NA:2023-11 and DIN 4149 (2005 and 1981)

The response spectra acc. DIN EN 1998-1/NA:2023-11 are available with the input TYPE
DIN, which requires the definition of the refrence peak ground acceleration agR for AG and
the selection of the geological underground ratio (A-R, B-R, C-R, B-T, C-T, B-S or C-S) with
the CLAS input. Spectral acceleration SP,R in the plateau region of the response spectrum
for the underground ratio A-R will be calculated then from the peak ground acceleration by
multiplying it with the factor 2.5. Subsequently, the values of the periods TB , TC and TD and
the soil factor S will be determined for the return period of 475 years.

Hint
The relevant parameter acc. DIN EN 1998-1/NA:2023-11 is the spectral acceleration
SP,R in the plateau region of the response spectrum for the underground ratio A-R. The
refrence peak ground acceleration agR for the input AG should be calculated by dividing
SP,R with the factor of 2.5.

DIN 4149 (2005) (TYPE DIN4) has three earthquake zones with g = 0.4, 0.6 and 0.8m/ sec2
and the spectra follows closely the EC, but with a much more narrow shape. Due to the
separation of the soil in the upper soil classes (A,B,C) and a geological underground class
(R,T,S) the possible values for CLAS are A-R, B-R, C-R, B-T, C-T or C-S.

The old DIN 4149 (TYPE RDIN) however has a rather simple spectra for the seismic zones 1
to 4 with acceleration values of 0.25, 0.40, 0.65 und 1.0m/ sec2 . Those values however have
to be multiplied with a soil factor between 1.0 and 1.4 and thus should be explicitly given via
ACCE.

4.2.4 SIA 260 and ÖNORM B 4015

SIA (TYPE SIA) knows about elastic and inelastic spectra similar to EC. The base accelerations
for the seismic zones 1a, 1b, 2, 3a and 3b acc. SIA 261-2020 have the values of 0.60, 0.80,
1.00, 1.30 and 1.60m/ sec2 . The seismic zones and the soil classes acc. SIA 261-2003 are
available with the TYPE SIA3.

An explicit definition of D> 1.0 will select the design spectra. The importance factor γr may be
accounted for either by a modified SA-value or as safety factor within the superposition.

TYPE SIA3 without a soil class specification defines the spectrum of the old SIA 160 for
medium stiff soils, where we have the value of TC = 0.5sec, which should be changed for
stiff soils to 0.33sec.

For the ÖNORM B 4015 (TYPE OEN) the default is the spectra for medium stiff soil. You have
to specify the corresponding accelerations with ACCE.

4.2.5 Italian NTC according DM-2008

The Italian design code defines in an appendix (Allegato B) for every individual location the
following values: A base acceleration ag , a peak factor F0 and a reference time value Tc *. The

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spectras are classified according the soil class and the topological situation. Thus we have to
specify:

• Topografic situation: TYPE NTC1, NTC2, NTC3 und NTC4

• Soil class: CLAS A,B,C,D und E
• Zone: Values for F0 and T∗
c
separated by "/"
(e.g. 2.50/ 0.21)
• AG: Basevalue of acceleration
(in g/ 10 ≈ m/ sec2 )

All time values and spectral response values are then established based on these values. If
AH is specified as 0.0, the vertical spectra will be generated.

4.2.6 Greek Code EAK (1999)

In Greece (TYPE EAK) there are the seismic zones I to IV with basic accelerations of 1.2,
1.6, 2.4 and 3.6 m/sec2 . The acceleration ah you have to specify at ACCE is then this value
multiplied with the importance factor γ1 of table 2.3. Soil classes are defined as A, B, (= C)
and Δ(= D) and a special category X. For the first four the time values from table 2.4 are preset
by the program. Behaviour and other factors have to be incorporated for SB by the user.

4.2.7 Russian Code SNiP II-7-81 (1995/2000)

In Russia there were soil classes I to III which lead dependant on the layer thickness to
response spectras (eq. 3 to 5) numbered CLAS 1, 2 or 3, in 2000 these formulas have
been changed , addressable with CLAS I or II. The acceleration to be defined via record
ACCE, is given by formulas 1 and 2 dependant on the type and importance of the building
as h = K1 · K2 · A · Kψ · η k . Values of 1.0, 2.0 or 4.0 for AG will be preset according to Zone 7,
8 or 9.

4.2.8 Indian Standard IS 1893-2002

According to this Code Table 2 gives Zone Factors Z, addressed as ag within this section.

Building Site Class

Seismic Zone
II III IV V
Zone Factor, ag 0.10 0.16 0.24 0.36

As soil classes CLAS we have (I=hard, II=medium and III=soft, without = specification accord-
ing to old code from 1984).

In Fig. 2 elastic spectra for several soil classes are given and reduction factors for damping
ratios in Table 3, which may be selected by several RESP records. They are the same for all
seismic zones (ag ), Importance (I, Table 6: 1.5 for important buildings, 1.0 for all other) and
Response reduction (R, Table 7, values between 1.5 and 5.0). The acceleration you have to
specify at ACCE is then given by:
g · 
Ah = ·g (4.29)
2R

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Damping is accounted for by multiplication with a factor according to table 7. SMIN is then to
be specified as R/  · g to match the condition Ah > g / 2.

4.2.9 Japan Road Association-2002

According to this code there are two levels of earthquake, Level 1 (JRA) with high probability
and Level 2 for low probability. The latter has two subtypes, I (JRA1) for plate boundary types
and II (JRA2) for inland direct strike types. There are further the soil classes I, II and III as well
as the earthquake zones A, B and C. These spectra already include the soil acceleration.

S = cZ · cD · S0 (4.30)
1.5
cD = 0.5 + (4.31)
1 + 40d

4.2.10 Chinese Code GB

According to appendix A of the GB 50011-2010 we have intensities and groups of design earth
quakes (1,2,3) specified for all locations in China. Then we have to distinguish between a
frequently and a rarely earthquake. So we have the following types:

GBF1 Frequently Earthquake of 1st group

GBF2 Frequently Earthquake of 2nd group
GBF3 Frequently Earthquake of 3rd group

GBR1 Rarely Earthquake of 1st group

GBR2 Rarely Earthquake of 2nd group
GBR3 Rarely Earthquake of 3rd group

According to Table 3.2.2. the basic accelerations are given according to the seismic intensity
6, 7, 8 or 9 with two subclasses as factors of g as follows:

Intensity 6 7, 7a 8, 8a 9
a/g 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40
αm (frequently) 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.24 0.32
αm (rarely) 0.28 0.50 0.72 0.90 1.20 1.40

The spectra maximum value αm according Table 5.1.4-1 follows the same scheme. The
spectra is referenced to the maximum value SB=η2 · αm . The shape of the spectra is given
in picture 5.1.5 with the damping ξ and the values of TG=TC according to table 5.1.4.-2 for the
corresponding Site Class (I0, I1, II, III or IV): (Characteristic natural period values (s))

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Building Site Class

Design Seismic Group
I0 I1 II III IV
1 0.20 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.65
2 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.55 0.75
3 0.30 0.35 0.45 0.65 0.90

The characteristic period will be increased by 0.05s to calculate the rare earthquake action
according to 5.1.4.
0.05 − ξ
η2 = 1.00 + ≥ 0.55 (4.32)
0.08 + 1.6ξ
0.05 − ξ
K1 = γ = 0.9 + (4.33)
0.3 + 6ξ
0.05 − ξ
 
K2 = −η1 = − 0.02 + (4.34)
4 + 32ξ

It is mandatory to define K2 with a negative value to distinguish the linear decay from the
general approach of the Eurocode spectra. The end value of the spectra may be changed by
the SMIN value.

According to old GBJ 11-89 (TYPE GBJ) Table 4.1.4-1 there are the earthquake influence
factors preset for the earthquake intensities 6, 7, 8 and 9 with values of 0.04, 0.08, 0.16 and
0.32 . Thus the spectra is referenced to the maximum value SB=αm . The shape of the
spectra is given in picture 4.1.4 (SA=0.45SB, K1=0.9, TD=3.0) and the value of Tg = TC has
to be selected by the user according to table 4.1.4.-2:

Proximity of Building Site Class

the earthquake I II III IV
Near 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.65
Far 0.25 0.40 0.55 0.85

4.2.11 Wind spectra

With RESP it is also possible to define wind spectra. These spectra define the turbulence
dependent from a scalar frequency (e.g. Monin coordinate). While the generic type WIND
allows to define a spectrum individually with FUNC, it is possible to select the well known
spectra with an additional item at CLAS. (see also WSPE)

KARM Karman longitudinal (1948, ESDU 85920 A2.1)

KARL Karman lateral and vertical (1948, ESDU 85920 A2.2)
CEN Eurocode EN1991 (2005)
DAVE Davenport (1967)
HARR Harris (1970)
KAIM Kaimal (1972), Panofsky (1983), Simiu (1998)
KAIL Kaimal lateral (1972), Panofsky (1983), Simiu (1998)
KAIV Kaimal vertical (1972), Panofsky (1983), Simiu (1998)
OLES Olesen (1984)

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FMV Fichtl/McVehil neutral longitudinal (1970)

FMVL Fichtl/McVehil neutral lateral (1970)
FMU Fichtl/McVehil unstable longitudinal (1970)
FMUL Fichtl/McVehil unstable lateral (1970)

The coefficients may be explicitly overwritten with the values 1 to 3 at SA and b,c,d with
TB,TC,TD:

ƒ ·S 1 · X + 2 · X 2 + 3 · X 3
=
TD (4.35)
σ2 1 + TB · X TC

The spectra defined here may be imported in WSPE or may be used for an explicit evaluation.
The latter is done in DYNA by associating to a load case with a wind spectrum individual load
vectors to every eigen form with MODB in record LC. The load values should be specified
according to the coherence distribution with a pressure value of q0 · kp ·  , the product of the
mean pressure q0 with the peak factor kp and the turbulence intensity  , which can be done
with Record WGEN.

The eigen frequency will be multiplied with a reference time (e.g. L/v or z/v) specified with item
CRIT at record LF.

The spectrum will be evaluated in that way, that every frequency the background and resonance
repsonse will be evaluated and combined with the SRSS method. The peak factor may be
accounted for either by the load case factor or will be calculated based on the frequency and
the reference time specified with CTRL TMID.

4.2.12 Modal Coordinates

When evaluating spectra especially for wind it is possible that explicit modal displacements are
defined. The common procedure is then to establish a static loading based on the equivalent
modal loadings via the masses:
EQX EQX
ƒk (t) = M · ϕk · ω2
k
· qk (t) (4.36)

This deviation is not necessary in DYNA. With RESP EXMC the qk factors may be defined
directly with consecutive FUNC records where the number of the mode has to be defined
instead of the time value.

The scaling of the eigen forms has to be selected properly. If default (modal masses = 1.0)
has not been used, the definition of an appended character can select the direction where the
maximum component should be assumed to be 1.0.

EXMC:X scale to the maximum displacement in X

EXMC:Y scale to the maximum displacement in Y
EXMC:Z scale to the maximum displacement in Z
EXMC:* scale to the maximum displacement in any direction
EXMC:XX scale to the maximum rotation in X
EXMC:YY scale to the maximum rotation in Y
EXMC:ZZ scale to the maximum rotation in Z

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4.3 FUNC – Load Functions

See also: RESP, ACCE, STEP

FUNC

Item Description Unit Default

T Time value / type or mode number sec !

F Amplitude F1 −
T1 Phase for periodic function sec -
TMIN Start time for periodic function sec -
TMAX End time for periodic function sec -

S Function type / Impact factor pedestrians −/ LT 0.0

0.0 Fourier series
< 0.0 Pedestrian acc. Bachmann
> 0.0 Pedestrian acc. Seiler/Hüttner
WALK +0.4 = Walking with 2.0 Hz
RUN +1.6 = Running with 2.4 Hz
JUMP +3.0 = Jumping with 2 Hz
FRUN RUN as Fourier series
FJMP JUMP as Fourier series
COMP Compound intensity function
EXPO Exponential intensity function

F2 Amplitude for Timevalue T/2 − *

T2 phase of that harmonic sec *
F3 Amplitude for Timevalue T/3 − *
T3 phase of that harmonic sec *
F4 Amplitude for Timevalue T/4 − *
T4 phase of that harmonic sec *
TBLC time for base line correction sec -

TITL Title of function Lt32 -

Each load case may obtain free selectable time functions for dynamic response analysis. A
load function may be defined in different ways:

• As a discrete polygonal function given by several pairs of data values (T,F). The first time
value is the start time. The function will be zero before the first or after the last time value.
Between any two time values the function value will be interpolated linearly. For consecutive
input the default of the time value will be: T+1 = T + (T − T−1 ).

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• If a phase value or TMIN is defined the function becomes a periodic function with the
general period T. For time values less than TMIN or greater TMAX the function value is
zero.
2π
X  
F(t) = F · sin · (t − t ) (4.37a)
T
t = ϕ + tmn (4.37b)

If the basic period T is given negative, a triangular intensity function between TMIN and
TMAX will be applied to the function values.

Hint
Please note, that the phase is now relative to the start time TMIN and is defined as a time
value and not in degrees or fractions of ϕ, allowing to use the same CADINP-variable and
unit for T and T1 to T3.

If the series are given with cosinus functions, the phases have to be reduced by a quarter of
the cycle time.
π ‹    φ ‹ ‹‹
cos(ω · t − φ) = sin + (ω · t − φ) = sin ω · t − − 0.25 · T (4.38)
2 2π

If the user defines multiple functions for a load case, he should precede all the functions with
a record FUNC MULT or FUNC ADD to specify if the function values should be multiplied or
added. This headder allows also to specify the unit of that function with a value at F with a unit
sepcification, e.g. 1 [mm/ sec] .

4.3.1 Functions for Pedestrians

If an impact factor S is given, a periodic loading typical for pedestrians is applied. The load
value ”number of persons times 0.8 kN” must then be specified with the load itself:

If this factor s is defined within the range from 0.0 and +1.0 or as the literal WALK, the four
values and phases given by Seiler/Hüttner (Bauingenieur, 2004, S. 483-496) are preset, but
the coefficients (F1 etc.) may be specified explicitly. Values between -1.0 to 0.0 selects the
three coefficients and phases according to Bachmann (Vibrations in Structures, IABSE 1987).

2π
X  
F(t) = 1.0 + F · sin · (t − t ) (4.39)
T

If s is given with an absolute value greater than 1.0 an corresponding impulse function is
generated either according to Seiler/Hüttner:

 G · 1 + s · sin π t + rcsin −1
” € € ŠŠ—
t s t < tc
F(t) = G (4.40)
 0 tc < t ≤ T

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or (for values s < −1.5) according to Bachmann as pure half sine function:
 € Š
 |s| · G · sin π t t < tc = π2 · |s|
T
F(t) = tc (4.41)
 0 tc < t ≤ T

As these functions are only usable for a transient analysis it is possible to select the first case
with the Literals FRUN or FJMP also as Fourier series for a modal analysis.

4.3.2 Aperiodic Functions

For the generation of artificial earth quakes an intensity function is needed, which has to be
specified by an extra function. Three common shapes of functions may be selected explictly
by a literal for item S:

TM AX

T R AP - T2- - T1- - T3-

Figure 4.8: TRAP

TM AX

EXPO
(t) = F e−F2 ·t − e−F3 ·t


Figure 4.9: EXPO,

TM AX

COM P - T2- - T1 - - T3-

t3
t F2
€ Š
Figure 4.10: COMP,  (t) = T2
, e (t) = e−F3 · T3

The time T defines the total duration, while the time values T1, T2 and T3 define the duration
of the three phases (Plateau, Lead-In, Lead-Out). The factors F2 and F3 define the shape of
the lead-in and lead-out according to the above formulas.

4.3.3 Functions for Spectra

If FUNC is defined after a record RESP it will specify explicit parameters of the selected spec-
tra. T is then the period of the spectra, values from T1 on will not be used. If multiple functions

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for different damping values should be defined, multiple RESP records with a D value, each
followed by the FUNC values, have to be defined-

FUNC after a RESP EXCM require at T the number of the eigenform to be associated with the
modal coordinate F.

4.3.4 Ground accelerations

If FUNC is used to describe diskrete ground accelerations, it might be very usefull to apply
a so called "base line correction". Stochastically generated or measured accelerograms may
introduce a drift when beeing integrated, resulting in large displacements or velocities at the
end of the time integration. A definition of the time value TBLC will modify the function to get
rid of these deviations at that time value.

The output of that function will show six curves: The acceleration and the integrated velocities
and displacements of the original and the corrected function.

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4.4 FIMP – Import of Load Functions

See also: RESP, ACCE, STEP

FIMP

Item Description Unit Default

TYPE Type of Results LT !

U-X,U-Y,... U-RZ Displacements
V-X,V-Y,... V-RZ Velocities
A-X,A-Y,... A-RZ Accelerations
U,V,W Fluid velocities
and most literals definable at a HIST definition
NO Number of node or element LT/ − 1
or "FUNC" for values of an existing load function
LC Load case of results − 1
FACT Factor to be applied on function values [−] 1.0

TEFF Averaging time value [sec] -

TBLC Time for base line correction [sec] -

TITL Title of function Lt32 -

FIMP allows the definition of a function by an import of a transient result in the database (HIST).
This is especially usefull for response spectra evaluation for local components (see SIMR), but
may be usefull for other tasks as well.

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4.5 ACCE – Accelerations

See also: RESP, FUNC, STEP

ACCE

Item Description Unit Default

TYPE Type of result LT NODA

NO Number of a node (0 = base acceleration) − -

m/ sec2
 
AX Acceleration in global X-direction 0.0
m/ sec2
 
AY Acceleration in global Y-direction 0.0
m/ sec2
 
AZ Acceleration in global Z-direction 0.0
rd/ sec2
 
AXX Acceleration about global X-direction 0.0
rd/ sec2
 
AYY Acceleration about global Y-direction 0.0
rd/ sec2
 
AZZ Acceleration about global Z-direction 0.0
WXX Rotation about global X-direction [rd/ sec] 0.0
WYY Rotation about global Y-direction [rd/ sec] 0.0
WZZ Rotation about global Z-direction [rd/ sec] 0.0

REF Reference node of the rotations −/ LT *

REFX additional offset of rotation point [m] 1001 0.0
REFY [m] 1001 0.0
REFZ [m] 1001 0.0

GRP Group selection − -

XMIN Selection box [m] 1001 -

YMIN Only nodes within that box will have loads [m] 1001 -
ZMIN (only for NODE/DIRN) [m] 1001 -
XMAX [m] 1001 -
YMAX [m] 1001 -
ZMAX [m] 1001 -

ARED Reduction factor − -

AH Z-coordinate for reduction factor ∗ 30
GH Z-coordinate of ground surface ∗ 0.0
LINF Number of an influence line

Load type ACCE defines a translational and rotational acceleration and the centrifugal accel-
eration of a uniform rotation. This can be saved as nodal accelerations or as element loads to
all active element groups. The acceleration will act on all masses defined in the database and
will create nodal loads or loads on beam, cables and truss elements. This feature can be used

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not only for variant earthquake loading and loads on moving structural parts, but also just for
creating all the loads from self weight.

For TYPE it is possible to define:

NODA accelerations for DYNA

NODE pure nodal loads from mass × acceleration
NODC NODE including nodal moments
ELEM NODE including element loads (beams)
MBOD Rotation and acceleration in local axis directions
DIR NODA but AX,AY,AZ define the direction only
DIRN NODE but AX,AY,AZ define the direction only
DIRC NODC but AX,AY,AZ define the direction only
BASE Equivalent loadings form total force (Base Shear)
DISP Loading in form of the prescribed nodal displacements (only for Pushover Analy-
sis)

Hint
Additional masses calculated from loadings in ASE or DYNA must be defined before
ACCE is used with other options than NODA or DIR

Hint
Only NODA and DIR will add the ground accelerations to the relative accelerations within
DYNA HIST evaluations!

If the basic reference value of the acceleration has been defined with RESP already, ACCE
is only needed to define the direction. This may be selected with the literals DIR / DIRN /
DIRC / DIRE instead of NODA / NODE / NODC / ELEM. The defined values AX to AZ will be
multiplied then with the horizontal and vertical acceleration components defined with the last
RESP before.

The total acceleration consists either of three global components referred to the point selected
by REF (0 for origin), or for the case MBOD the three local components in the direction of the
local coordinate system of the beam with number REF:

• This is a translational acceleration with the values a , ay and az .

• A rotational acceleration with a value of a , ayy and azz .
• A uniform rotation with angular velocities (2ϕ/T) with a value of w , wyy and wzz .

If an eccentricity or any definition for the reference point is specified for a translational accelera-
tion, an additional torsional moment will be created by an additional variation of the acceleration
referenced to the center of mass:
P
∂ e ·  · m
= P (4.42)
∂r m · r2

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According to the regulations of EC8 for accidential torsional effects have to be calculated for
every storey individually if the storeys have different horizontal dimensions. The user may
therefor restrict the forces with a BOX (XMIN to ZMAX) to those nodes within that box.

For the analysis of earthquakes with soil-structure interaction the accelerations should be only
applied to the structure but not to the soil. This effect has to be taken into account by using the
group or box selection mechanism in SOFiLOAD.

An additional influence function LINF may be applied to account for special effects. Different
accelerations for different footings are described either by influence functions, which are es-
tablished by the deformations caused by a unit displacement in the appropriate supports or the
accleration is only applied to a single node NO.

For a structure with three supports aimed to get different accelerations a definition may be as
follows:

+PROG SOFILOAD
HEAD LC FOR Influence Lines
LC 101 TYPE NONE TITL 'ug1=1' ; NODE NO 1 TYPE WZZ P1 1.0[m]
LC 201 TYPE NONE TITL 'ug3=1' ; NODE NO 3 TYPE WZZ P1 1.0[m]
LC 301 TYPE NONE TITL 'ug5=1' ; NODE NO 5 TYPE WZZ P1 1.0[m]
END

+PROG ASE
HEAD COMPUTE iL'S
LC 101,102,103
END

Once the influence vectors are know, we can use them to define the effective forces by speci-
fying the load case of the corresponding influence vector in the LINF option-

+PROG SOFILOAD
HEAD p_eff(t)
$$
LC 1100 TYPE NONE TITL 'p_eff_X_1 = -M*i1*ag1(t)'
ACCE TYPE NODA NO 0 AX 1 LINF 101
FUNC T F
. . .
LC 1200 TYPE NONE TITL 'p_eff_X_2 = -M*i3*ag3(t)'
ACCE TYPE NODA NO 0 AX 1 LINF 201
FUNC T F
. . .
LC 1300 TYPE NONE TITL 'p_eff_X_3 = -M*i5*ag5(t)'
ACCE TYPE NODA NO 0 AX 1 LINF 301
FUNC T F
. . .
$$
END

For the static equivalent loading of an earthquake it is possible to calculate such total load value
with DYNA as so called "base shear" and save this data to the data base. Then an ACCE BASE
will distribute this force according to the masses and the unsclaed influence function LINF (e.g.

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mn ϕn pn = mn · ϕn n = ϕn
... ... ... ...

mk ϕk pk = mk · ϕk k = ϕk
... ... ... ...

m1 ϕ1 p1 = m1 · ϕ1 1 = ϕ1

(a) M (b) ϕ (c) p = M · ϕ (d)  = ϕ

Figure 4.11: Pushover load

the first eigen value) . The total force may be read from load case NO from the DYNA analysis
or specified explicitly with AX, AY und AZ.

With ARED and the values AH and GH a reduction of the acceleration with the depth may be
defined for underground structures as given in the Indian design code. The value ARED (e.g.
0.5) is the factor to be applied at a depth of AH, i.e. where the coordinate of the gravity direction
has this value. At the coordinate GH is the surface and the factor becomes 1.0, between those
two coordinates a linear interpolation is used. Discrete loadings should be selected for that
option.

In every case it is required to select the horizontal and vertical components of the excitation. In
general we have a response spectra (see RESP) and a base acceleration a (ACCE) defined in
the design codes for earthquake. Then one has to define at least three load cases with AX=a,
AY=a and AZ=a and the corresponding response spectra

Pushover Load
In order to perform the pushover analysis the pushover load must be defined first. Pushover
load case must contain additional information (e.g. participation factor, modal mass, displace-
ment shape vector, etc.) which needs to be saved in the database. This additional data is later
used in the pushover post-processing stage where the pushover performance is determined
(see PUSH). Therefore pushover load is defined and the necessary additional information are
saved in database by specifying negative value for LINF.

Depending on the type of the pushover analysis - force or displacement controlled - two possi-
bilities for the definition of the pushover load exist:

1. Forces - loads as external forces p. These loads are specified by selecting NODE as
TYPE in the ACCE-command (Figure 4.11c).
2. Displacements - loads as prescribed displacements of the nodes . These loads are
specified by selecting DISP as TYPE in the ACCE-command (Figure 4.11d).

The pushover static load should be able to represent the inertia forces that the structure will be
experiencing when subjected to earthquake ground motion as accurately as possible. The load
pattern is usually assumed to be proportional to some assumed displacement shape vector ϕ.
Most commonly, the chosen load pattern is proportional to the fundamental eigenmode of the
structure. However, any other reasonable displacement shape ϕ can also be used (Figure
4.12).

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(a) Eigenvector (b) Constant (c) Linear (d) Arbitrary

Figure 4.12: Pushover displacement shape ϕ

For the displacement based pushover analysis (TYPE DISP), the load as the prescribed dis-
placements  is directly taken from the specified displacement shape vector ϕ (Figure 4.11d),
that is

=ϕ. (4.43)

If the loads are in form of forces (TYPE NODE; force based pushover analysis), the displace-
ment shape vector is additionally weighted by the mass matrix M in order to simulate the inertia
forces (Figure 4.11c), i.e., the load pattern p is

p=M·ϕ . (4.44)

Hint
The mass matrix M is based on the masses which are currently active, i.e. which are
specified before the current SOFiLOAD block. It is therefore recommended to run one
ASE/DYNA eigenvalue analysis with all the necessary additional masses prior to the def-
inition of the pushover loads, in order to ensure that the correct mass matrix is taken into
consideration.

Displacement shape vector ϕ is defined by specifying negative number of the load case con-
taining displacements of the nodes for the LINF. For example, if the displacement shape vector
corresponds to some eigenvector which is previously computed and stored in e.g. LC 9001,
the input would read (Figure 4.12a)

LC NO 101 TITL 'Eigenvector'

ACCE TYPE NODE/DISP . . . LINF -9001

Constant and linear displacement shape vectors can be defined by specifying the negative
number of the running load case for LINF, e.g. (Figures 4.12b and 4.12c)

LC NO 102 TITL 'Constant'

ACCE TYPE NODE/DISP . . . LINF -102

LC NO 103 TITL 'Linear'

ACCE TYPE NODE/DISP . . . LINF -103 GH ... AH ... ARED

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As aforementioned any other displacement shape vector ϕ existing in the database can be
used. For example, if an arbitrary static load case LC 501 which has been computed and for
which the displacements of nodes are available in database is specified in LINF, then these dis-
placements will be taken as the displacement shape vector ϕ for the definition of the pushover
load pattern, e.g. (Figure 4.12d)

LC NO 104 TITL 'Arbitrary'

ACCE TYPE NODE/DISP . . . LINF -501

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4.6 STEP – Dynamic History

See also: RESP, FUNC, ACCE

STEP

Item Description Unit Default

N Number of time steps or divisor − 1

DT Time step or total time sec !

LCST First load case of explicit history − 1000

TITL Title of history Lt32 -

For a general dynamic analysis all selected load cases and time functions within an input block
may be combined to generate the transient loading for all time steps to be used then in a load
case loop for ASE and DYNA. Possibilities are:

• A time interval of N time steps of size DT with a total length of N·DT

• A total time interval of DT divided into time steps N·DT. This case is selected with a value
of N < 0.

All the load cases for a nonlinear dynamic analysis are created and saved to the database.

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4.7 SIMQ – Simulation of earthquake

See also: RESP, FUNC, ACCE, REVA

SIMQ

Item Description Unit Default

LSPE Case number of target spectrum − !

LINT Case number of intensity function − 0

DT Time step of resulting function sec 0.01

TMIN smallest period sec 0.01
TMAX largest period sec 10.0
NFRE number of frequencies − 100
ITER Number of iterations − 1

AG Base acceleration [m/ sec2] *

D Target damping for spectra − 0.05

TITL Title of history Lt32 -

The generation of artificial accelerograms for earthquakes follows the procedures published by
the NISEE in 1976 for the software SIMQKE. From a given target spectra, defined as:

Powerspectra in m2 / sec3
 
•
• Velocity spectra in [m/ sec]
Acceleration spectra in m/ sec2
 
•

random phase values (based on the load case number) will be generated and with the help
of an intensity function will yield an accelerogram, adjusted with a target damping D to the
response spectra with an iterative process. The base acceleration AG has to be selected
to match the spectra. The default is 9.81 m/ sec2 . However the most common case is
 

to switch off the scaling of the accelerogram altogether. This can be achieved by specifying
the negative value for AG (e.g. SIMQ ... AG -1) (see sofiload.dat/english/simq.dat). If
the value AG is specified as 0.0, the function of the power spectra is created instead of the
accelerations.

Hint
It is strongly recommended, as a way of checking the validity of the generated accelel-
ogram, to always calculate a response spectrum from a generated accelerogram and
compare it with a target spectrum (LSPE). This can be achieved with the help of the
command REVA (see sofiload.dat/english/simq.dat).

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4.8 REVA – Response spectra for acceleration function

See also: FUNC, RESP

REVA

Item Description Unit Default

TYPT Representation in dependence from LT TIME

TIME time
FREQ frequency
LOGT logarithmic time
LOGF logarithmic frequency
DFT Discrete Fourier transformation
LDFT DFT with logarithmic frequency
PDS logarithmic powerdensity spectra
PDSN normalized logarithmic powerdensity spec-
tra
TYPE Result to be presented: LT -
P Force
S Displacement
V Velocity
A Relative acceleration
AA Absolute acceleration
AS A as function of S
AAS AA as function of S
LFUN Number of the load function − 1
= load_case.function_number

TMIN Lowest natural period/frequency sec, 1/ sec 0

TMAX Highest natural period/frequency sec, 1/ sec !
TDIF Step size of the natural periods or frequencies, De- sec, 1/ sec *
fault: (TMIN-TMAX)/50

D1 Modal damping value 1, marked with . − 0.

D2 Modal damping value 2, marked with + − -
D3 Modal damping value 3, marked with * − -
D4 Modal damping value 4, marked with o − -
D5 Modal damping value 5, marked with x − -

REF1 Number of an optional reference curve − -

RID1 Colour and line type for REF1 − 2001
REF2 Number of an optional reference curve − -
RID2 Colour and line type for REF2 − 2001
REF3 Number of an optional reference curve − -
RID3 Colour and line type for REF3 − 2001

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REVA allows the calculation of a response spectra for a given load or acceleration function.
Any load case may contain more than one function. The input selection can be done for LFUN
or REF1 to REF3 with the syntax loadcase.sequencenumber.

This is done by the response analysis of a single mass oscillator within a given frequency
range. Then the maximum results depending on the frequency or period are visualized.

If the LFUN has been established by a transient analysis with DYNA, it is strongly suggested
to use the total accelerations. These can be only obtained if the loading is defined as accel-
eration. (see ACCE) A transient analysis with eqvivalent forces will not allow to add the base
accelerations to the results.

For TYPE one can also enter P+, S+, V+, A+, AA+ as well as P-, S-, V-, A-, AA-. Then
only the positive or negative components are evaluated. In the case of excitation through an
acceleration, TYPE AA can be used to plot the total acceleration (ground+oscillator). This is
usually the desired value. Without a specification for TYPE the original function is shown.

The duration of the evaluation is determined by the highest time value of the excitation value.
A somewhat longer time range with exciting function 0.0 should thus be defined in the case of
high frequency excitation.

For a FFT or PDS evaluation TDIF is required as constant time value for a genral time function.
The default is the first time step of the selected function. It can be also specified with a negative
number of the time steps. TMIN and TMAX will be the frequencies of visualized range of the
resulting spectrum.

Up to five different damping values can be examined simultaneously. The damping values D1
through D5 can be used arbitrarily according to the desired marking.

Three external reference curves may be shown. These functions have to be defined either via
FUNC or may be selected as a constant limit value specified by a number and an attached unit
specification.

For wind spectra two factors are needed. The first factor is to convert the natural frequency to
the spectral ordinate (x = f*L/U or similar). The second factor is to denormalize the spectra and
is obtained from the standard deviation σ . These values will be passed from WGEN over FIMP
to REVA, but may be specified also at D1 and D2 explicitly.

The use of the generated responsespectrum of type A and AA as a load is only possible if no
reference curve has been selected!

When TYPE FREQ is input, the values TMIN, TMAX and TDIF of the RESP input are inter-
preted as frequencies too.

If LOGT, LOGF or LDFT are defined, a TIME, FREQ or DFT with a logarithmic time or frequency
scale will be performed. If LLGT, LLGF or LLFT are defined, a TIME, FREQ or DFT with a
double logarithmic scale will be performed. TDIF defines then a subdivision factor relative to
1.0 for the number of intermediate values (e.g. TDIF 0.05 = 20 intermediate values). However
if PDS0 or PDS1 is defined, none or only the frequency axis will be selected as logarithmic for
a PDS:

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4.9 PUSH – Pushover Analysis

See also: ACCE, RESP

PUSH

Item Description Unit Default

TYPE Analysis Type LT VB-U

VB-U Base Shear - Control Node Displacement
Diagram
A-D Spectral Acceleration - Spectral Displace-
ment Diagram
ATC ATC-40 Procedure
EC8 Eurocode 8 Procedure
OPT Additional Option LT *
SBTA Structural Behavior Type A
SBTB Structural Behavior Type B
SBTC Structural Behavior Type C

LCC0 Basis load case for capacity curve − -

LCC1 First load case of the capacity curve − -
NLCC Number of load cases of the capacity curve − 1

CNOD Control node − -

DSTR Viscous structural damping − *

LCDM Demand load case − -

SPL1 Structural Performance Limit 1 [mm] 1003 -

SPL2 Structural Performance Limit 2 [mm] 1003 -
SPL3 Structural Performance Limit 3 [mm] 1003 -
SPL4 Structural Performance Limit 4 [mm] 1003 -
SPL5 Structural Performance Limit 5 [mm] 1003 -

General workflow and theoretical background behind the pushover analysis are described in
Section 4.1.

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4.9.1 TYPE - Analysis Type

VB-U: Base Shear - Control Node Displacement Diagram

PUSH Description Unit Default

TYPE VB-U Base Shear - Control Node Displacement Diagram LT VB-U
LCC0 Basis load case for capacity curve − -
LCC1 First load case of the capacity curve − -
NLCC Number of load cases of the capacity curve − 1
CNOD Control node − -
LCDM Control direction (optional) LT -
X Global X direction
Y Global Y direction
Z Global Z direction

The pushover curve is passed to SOFiLOAD by specifying the basis load case LCC0, first load
case LCC1 and the number of the load cases NLCC of the capacity as well as the number
of the control node CNOD. The optional control direction LCDM offers the component-wise
selection of the base shear and the displacement in the control node. Otherwise, these values
are calculated using the Euclidean norm of the dominant components (degrees of freedom),
which are determined based on the displacement of the basis load case in the control node.
E.g. the input

LC 5001
PUSH TYPE VB-U LCC0 301 LCC1 2301 NLCC 25 CNOD 4

will define a pushover curve with the base-shear and the displacement of the node 4 taken
from the calculated load cases 2301 to 2325 (Fig. 4.13). The displacement degree-of-freedom
of the node 4 is taken from the basis capacity load case LCC0 301, which is defined in the
Stage 2 with the help of the ACCE. The basis load case LCC0 contains necessary information
needed for the determination of the performance of the structure (participation factor, modal
mass, assumed displacement shape vector, etc.).

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Vb [kN]
80.0

Capacity

60.0

40.0

20.0

0.0
u-cnod [mm]
0.000

50.000

100.000

150.000

200.000

250.000

300.000

350.000

400.000

450.000
Figure 4.13: VB-U Diagram

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A-D: Spectral Acceleration - Spectral Displacement Diagram

PUSH Description Unit Default

TYPE A-D Spectral Acceleration - Spectral Displacement Di- LT A-D

agram
LCC0 Basis load case for capacity curve − -
LCC1 First load case of the capacity curve − -
NLCC Number of load cases of the capacity curve − 1
CNOD Control node − -
LCDM Demand load case − -

Equations 4.45a-4.45b are used to convert the Vb − cnod pushover curve from the Stage 4a
of the Subsection 4.1 to the SDOF system spectral acceleration Sp - spectral displacement
Sd coordinate system to obtain the capacity diagram.
cnod
Sd (T ∗ , ξ∗ ) = , (4.45a)
ϕcnod · 
ƒs∗ (Sd ) Vb (cnod ) Vb (cnod )
Sp (T ∗ , ξ∗ ) = = = . (4.45b)
m∗  · m∗ 2 · m
For example, the input

LC 5002
PUSH TYPE A-D LCC0 301 LCC1 2301 NLCC 22 CNOD 4 LCDM 11

will convert the pushover curve defined by the LCC0, LCC1, NLCC and CNOD into A-D format
(Fig. 4.14). Other analysis types TYPE (ATC or EC8) of the PUSH command will perform this
conversion as well.
Sa [m/sec2]
Tb = 0.2 Tc = 0.5
T = 1.0

10.00

Capacity T = 1.5

5.00

Td = 2.0

EC8-elastic
T = 3.0
T = 4.0
0.00
Sd [mm]
0.000

50.000

100.000

150.000

200.000

250.000

300.000

350.000

Figure 4.14: A-D Diagram

Similarly, the elastic demand diagram is obtained by transforming the elastic response spec-
trum from the traditional spectral acceleration S versus period T format to the spectral accel-

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eration S versus spectral displacement format Sd (a.k.a. A-D format or ADRS format) using
the relation:
2
S T

Sd = = S · . (4.46)
ω2 2π

The elastic demand response spectrum in traditional format can be defined using the RESP
command, e.g.

LC 11
RESP TYPE EC-1 CLAS B AG 4.0 TITL 'EC8-5%-elastic'
ACCE TYPE DIR AX 1.0

Passing the load case of the elastic demand response spectrum to the demand load case
LCDM of the PUSH command and selecting one of the adequate analysis types (A-D, ATC,
EC8) will convert this spectrum to A-D format, e.g.

LC 5002
PUSH ... LCDM 11

The direction of the elastic demand response spectrum will determine the global direction of
the base shear and displacement in the control node for the converted Vb − cnod pushover
curve.

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ATC: ATC-40 Procedure

PUSH Description Unit Default

TYPE ATC ATC-40 Procedure LT ATC

OPT Additional Option LT SBTA
SBTA Structural Behavior Type A
SBTB Structural Behavior Type B
SBTC Structural Behavior Type C
LCC0 Basis load case for capacity curve − -
LCC1 First load case of the capacity curve − -
NLCC Number of load cases of the capacity curve − 1
CNOD Control node − -
DSTR Viscous structural damping − 0.05
LCDM Demand load case − -

In this section the underlying principle behind the ATC-40 procedure for formulating and solving
the equivalent inelastic SDOF system (Eq. 4.9) and determining the inelastic from the elastic
seismic demand is described. This method is also know as the capacity spectrum method
(ATC-40 [5], Freeman, Nicoletti, and Tyrell [6], and Freeman [7]) 4 .

The method is based on the elastic highly damped demand spectrum and an elastic (linear)
SDOF system with equivalent (herein effective) damping (ξeƒ ƒ ) and period (Teƒ ƒ ). These equiv-
alent SDOF system properties are obtained from the properties of the original MDOF system,
whose nonlinear behavior is described by the pushover curve (Fig. 4.15).

cnod

Vb S = Vb / (2 · m) D(t)

ξeƒ ƒ
ωeƒ ƒ

cnod Sd = cnod / ( · ϕcnod )

Vb ̈g (t)

Figure 4.15: Idealization of the MDOF system with the equivalent inelastic SDOF system

The starting point is the modeling of the equivalent INELASTIC SDOF system, given by the
Eqs. 4.6 and 4.9, with the equivalent ELASTIC (linear) SDOF system, i.e.

D̈(t) + 2ξeƒ ƒ ωeƒ ƒ · Ḋ(t) + ω2

eƒ ƒ
· D(t) = − ̈g (t) . (4.47)

In doing so we have approximated the nonlinear force-displacement hysteretic behavior of

4 ATC-40 [5] ⇔ SOFiSTiK notation: β0 ⇔ ξ0 , βeƒ ƒ ⇔ ξeƒ ƒ , ESo ⇔ ES

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the inelastic SDOF system, ƒs∗ (D(t)), by the equivalent linear force-displacement behavior,
m∗ · ω2eƒ ƒ
· D(t), with the addition of the effective linear viscous damping ξeƒ ƒ .

The solution of Eq. 4.47 can be obtained from the elastic highly damped response spectrum
which represents the maximal response of the elastic SDOF system with period of vibration
Teƒ ƒ and viscous damping ξeƒ ƒ

m |D(t)| = Sde (Teƒ ƒ , ξeƒ ƒ ) = Sdp , (4.48a)

m |A(D, t)| = Se (Teƒ ƒ , ξeƒ ƒ ) = Sp , (4.48b)

where Sde (Teƒ ƒ , ξeƒ ƒ ) is the elastic spectral relative displacement response and Se (Teƒ ƒ , ξeƒ ƒ )
is the elastic pseudo-acceleration spectral response.

The values Sdp and Sp are the coordinates of the Performance Point PP in the A− D coordinate
system.

Hint
The performance point represents the solution of the Eq. 4.47 and the main outcome of
the analysis described herein. It defines the (probable) internal state (internal forces, dis-
placements, rotations, interstory drifts, etc.) of the structural system under an earthquake
demand. The performance point can be described in different coordinate systems:

• PP (Sdp , Sp ): SDOF Spectral Acceleration - Spectral Displacement coordinate sys-

tem (A − D)
• PP (Tp , Sp ): SDOF Spectral Acceleration - Period coordinate system (A − T )
• PP (cnod,p , Vb,p ): MDOF Base shear - Control Node Displacement coordinate sys-
tem (VB − U)

Formulas governing the transformation between these coordinate systems are described
in Section 4.1, Stage 4 and 5 of the pushover workflow.

In order to determine the performance point PP, the effective damping ξeƒ ƒ and the effective
period Teƒ ƒ of the equivalent elastic SDOF system need to be related to the performance point
coordinates Sdp and Sp .

Recalling that for the elastic SDOF systems, the following relation holds

Sde (T, ξ) = ω2 · Se (T, ξ) , (4.49)

for the effective (secant) period we can write (Fig. 4.16b)

v
2π uS
t dp
Teƒ ƒ = = 2π · . (4.50)
ωeƒ ƒ Sp

The total damping of the inelastic SDOF system is comprised of the viscous damping inherent
in the structure ξstr (PUSH ... DSTR) and the damping which is proportional to the energy
dissipation as a result of the inelastic force-displacement hysteretic behavior ƒs∗ (D(t)). In order
to linearize the equation of motion of the inelastic SDOF system this hysteretic damping needs
to be related to the equivalent viscous damping of the linear system ξ0 . Hence for the total

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effective damping of the linear SDOF system we can write ξeƒ ƒ

ξeƒ ƒ = ξstr + κ · ξ0 , (4.51)

in which, as aforementioned, ξstr is viscous damping inherent in the structure and ξ0 is equiv-
alent viscous damping representing the hysteretic damping. Factor κ is called the damping
modification factor whose meaning will be become apparent later.

Common way for determining the equivalent viscous damping of the linear system ξ0 from the
hysteretic damping is to equate the energy dissipated in one vibration cycle of the inelastic
system to that of the equivalent linear system. Hence, ξ0 can be calculated as (Chopra [12])
1 ED
ξ0 = , (4.52)
4π ES

where ED is the energy dissipated by damping of the inelastic SDOF system and ES is the
maximum strain energy of the system.

The hysteretic energy ED can be determined from the capacity diagram (Fig. 4.16). First the
bi-linear representation of the capacity diagram at the performance point PP can be established
by equating the area underneath the capacity curve Ec (Fig. 4.16a) and the area underneath
the bi-linear representation of the capacity curve Eb (Fig. 4.16b), i.e.
Z Sdp
Eb = Ec = S (Sd ) · dSd . (4.53)
0

The initial branch of the bi-linear representation is taken in the direction of the maximal tangent
to capacity diagram at point (0, 0).

The physical meaning of the energy ED is illustrated in Fig. 4.16c. It represents the energy
dissipated in a single cycle of motion associated with the maximum displacement of Sdp in the
inelastic SDOF system. In other words this energy is the energy enclosed by a single hysteresis
loop. As it turns out, the bi-linear idealization of the capacity diagram is not necessary for
the calculation of ED since it can be shown that ED depends solely on the area EC and the
coordinates of the performance point PP (Sdp , Sp ), i.e.

ED = 4 · 2EC − Sdp · Sp .

(4.54)

ES is the maximum strain energy of the system at the displacement Sdp and with effective
stiffness keƒ ƒ = ω2eƒ ƒ . From Fig. 4.16c it follows

keƒ ƒ · S2
dp, Sdp, · Sp,
ES = = . (4.55)
2 2

Once the values of the ED and ES are know, we can determine the ξ0 and ξeƒ ƒ from the Eqs.
4.52 and 4.51.

The damping modification factor κ is measure of the extent to which the actual hysteretic be-
havior of the structure can be represented by the parallelogram of Fig. 4.16c. It is intended to
take into an account the cyclic degradation effects such are the stiffness and strength degra-
dation and the pinching effects. It depends on the hysteretic behavior of the structure charac-
terized by three types (Table 4.12):

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S S
ω2eƒ ƒ
PP PP
Sp Sp
PY
Sy

Ec Eb

Sdp Sd Sdy Sdp Sd

(a) Capacity diagram (b) Bi-linear approximation of capacity

S
keƒ ƒ
PP
Sp
PY
Sy

ES

Sdy Sdp Sd

ED

(c) Hysteretic dissipation energy ED and maximum strain energy ES

Figure 4.16: Derivation of the effective viscous damping ξeƒ ƒ of the elastic SDOF system due to
hysteretic energy dissipation of the inelastic SDOF system

• Type A (SBTA) represents stable, reasonably full hysteresis loops.

• Type B (SBTB) represents a moderate reduction of the loop area.
• Type C (SBTC) represents poor hysteresis behavior with a substantial reduction of the
loop area (severely pinched and/or degraded loops).

For more about the structural behavior types reader is advised to consult the ATC-40 [5].

With the properties Teƒ ƒ and ξeƒ ƒ of the equivalent linear SDOF system know, the solution of
the Eqs. 4.48a and 4.48b can be obtained from the elastic highly damped response spectrum,
which is described next.

The elastic acceleration spectral response Se (T, ξeƒ ƒ ) can be obtained by reducing the elas-
tic 5% damped acceleration spectral response Se (T, 5%) using the spectral reduction factor
SR(T, ξeƒ ƒ , SBT), i.e.

Se (T, ξeƒ ƒ ) = SR(T, ξeƒ ƒ , SBT) · Se (T, 5%) . (4.56)

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Table 4.12: Values for damping modification factor, κ (ATC-40 [5], Table 8-1)

SBT ξ0 [%] κ
≤ 16.25 1.00
A
> 16.25 1.130 − 0.510 · (ξ0 π/ 2)
≤ 25.00 0.67
B
> 25.00 0.845 − 0.446 · (ξ0 π/ 2)
C Any value 0.33

Spectral reduction factor SR(T, ξeƒ ƒ , SBT) for different ranges of the response spectrum is de-
fined by
 v
u SR
 
SR (ξeƒ ƒ , SBT) for T ≤ Tc′ = Tc k1

 t
SR(T, ξeƒ ƒ , SBT) = SR , (4.57)

Tc′

SR (ξeƒ ƒ , SBT) for T≥


where SR is the spectral reduction value in constant acceleration range of spectrum (T ≤ Tc′ )
and SR is the spectral reduction value in constant velocity range of spectrum (T ≤ Tc′ ). Period
Tc′ marks the transition between the two ranges of spectrum.

Se (T) Se TC ′

TC

Se = SB
SB SB Elastic 5% response spectrum
TC k1
 
Se = SB ·
T
Se = S′B
S′B = SR · SB S′B

‚ ′ Œk1
TC Reduced response spectrum
Se = S′B ·
T

TC ′ T
TC Sde

(a) S − T format (b) S − Sd format

Figure 4.17: Reduced response spectrum

The spectral reduction factors can be estimated from the effective viscous damping ξeƒ ƒ using
relationships developed by Newmark and Hall (Newmark and Hall [13])
3.21 − 0.68 · ln (ξeƒ ƒ )
SR ≈ ≥ SR,mn , (4.58a)
2.12
2.31 − 0.41 · ln (ξeƒ ƒ )
SR ≈ ≥ SR,mn . (4.58b)
1.65

Minimum allowable values of the spectral reduction factors, SR,mn and SR,mn , depend on
the structural behavior type and are given in the Table 4.13.

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Table 4.13: Minimum allowable SR and SR values (ATC-40 [5], Table 8-2)

SBT SR,mn SR,mn

A 0.33 0.50
B 0.44 0.56
C 0.56 0.67

Intersection between the capacity diagram and the demand diagram represents the perfor-
mance point (4.18).

S
El. Demand Diagram

Performance Point

Capacity Diagram

Sp
Demand Diagram

Sdp Sd

Figure 4.18: Determination of the performance point PP

The workflow for the determination of the performance point can be summarized as follows:

1. Start from a trial performance point PPt (Sdp,t , Sp,t ).

2. Determine effective period Teƒ ƒ at PPt (Eq. 4.50).
3. Calculate EC at PPt (Eq. 4.53).
4. Calculate energy dissipated by histeretic damping ED and maximum strain energy ES
at PPt (Eqs. 4.54 and 4.55).
5. Determine equivalent viscous damping ξ0 (Eq. 4.52) and effective damping ξeƒ ƒ . (Eq.
4.51, Table 4.12).
6. Calculate the spectral reduction factors (Eqs. 4.57 and 4.58 and Table 4.13), and the
reduced demand response spectrum (demand diagram). (Eq. 4.56, Fig. 4.17).
7. Determine a new performance point PP (Sdp , Sp ) at the intersection between the
capacity and demand diagram (Fig. 4.18).
8. Check if the new performance point PP is within a tolerance of the trial performance
point PPt :
(a) If NO ⇒ Take the point PP as new trial performance point, i.e. PPt = PP and return
to step 1.
(b) If YES ⇒ Analysis is finished and the performance point is PP (Sdp , Sp ).

The following input will determine the performance point according to the ATC-40 procedure
(TYPE ATC) of the structure with the structural behavior type B (OPT SBTB) and the inherent

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damping ξstr = 3.5% (DSTR 3.5%):

LC 5003
PUSH TYPE ATC OPT SBTB LCC0 301 LCC1 2301 NLCC 25 CNOD 4 DSTR 3.5[%] LCDM 21

The pushover curve for the control node 4 (CNOD 4) previously obtained by incremental
pushover analysis with the basis load case 301 (LCC0 301) and the results saved in the load
cases 2301 to 2325 (LCC1 2301 NLCC 25) is transformed to the capacity diagram. The elastic
5% damped response spectrum, previously defined with the help of the RESP command in the
load case 21, is transformed to the elastic demand spectrum (LCDM 21). The outcome of the
analysis is illustrated in the Fig. 4.19.
Sa [m/sec2]
Tb = 0.1 T = 0.5 Tc = 0.6 T = 1.0
Ty Tp

10.00

T = 1.5

Capacity

PP
5.00 PY T = 2.0

UBC-elastic
Td = 3.0
Demand,
T = 4.0 ξ-eff = 16.56%
0.00
Sd [mm]
0.000

100.000

200.000

300.000

400.000

Figure 4.19: ATC: A-D Capacity-Demand-Diagram

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EC8: Eurocode 8 Procedure

PUSH Description Unit Default

TYPE EC8 Eurocode 8 Procedure LT EC8

LCC0 Basis load case for capacity curve − -
LCC1 First load case of the capacity curve − -
NLCC Number of load cases of the capacity curve − 1
CNOD Control node − -
LCDM Demand load case − -

In this section the underlying principle behind the Eurocode 8 procedure for formulating and
solving the equivalent inelastic SDOF system (Eq. 4.9) and determining the inelastic from the
elastic seismic demand is described (EN1998-1:2004 [8], Fajfar [9], and Chopra and Goel [10,
11]) 5 .

cnod

Vb S = Vb / (2 · m) D(t)

m∗

c∗
ƒs∗ (D)

cnod Sd = cnod / ( · ϕcnod )

Vb ̈g (t)

Figure 4.20: Idealization of the MDOF system with the equivalent inelastic SDOF system

The principle idea behind the method is the solution of the equivalent inelastic SDOF system
with the help of the inelastic demand spectrum. The equivalent SDOF system represents the
idealization of the MDOF system, whose nonlinear behavior under earthquake is characterized
by the pushover curve obtained in the incremental nonlinear static analysis (Fig. 4.20), as
described in Section 4.1.

As aforementioned, the method is based on the solution of the equation of motion of the equiv-
alent inelastic SDOF system which is derived in the Section 4.1 (Eq. 4.6) and repeated here
for the sake of completeness

m∗ · D̈(t) + c∗ · Ḋ(t) + ƒs∗ (D(t)) = −m∗ · ̈g (t) , (4.59)

or written in a acceleration form common for the SDOF systems

D̈(t) + 2ξ∗ ω∗ · Ḋ(t) + A(D(t)) = − ̈g (t) . (4.60)

Mass m∗ and damping c∗ of the equivalent SDOF system are obtained from the properties
5 EN1998-1:2004 [8] ⇔ SOFiSTiK notation: target displacement ⇔ performance point, F ⇔ V , d ⇔ 
b b n cnod ,
∗ , d∗ ⇔ S , d∗ ⇔ S ,  · ϕ =  · 1 ⇔  · ϕ
F ∗ ⇔ ƒs∗ , Fy∗ ⇔ ƒsy , E ∗ ⇔ E∗ / m∗ ,
d y dy n cnod m m

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of the MDOF system (Section 4.1, Stage 4b), whereas the nonlinear (inelastic) resisting force
ƒs∗ (D(t))

ƒs∗ (D(t)) = m∗ · A(D(t)) ≈ m∗ · D̈(t) + ̈g (t) ,

(4.61)

is obtained from the MDOF system’s pushover curve.

The solution of Eq. 4.60 can be found with the help of the inelastic (design) response spectrum
representing the maximal response of the inelastic SDOF system with elastic period of vibration
T ∗ = 2π/ ω∗ , viscous damping ξ∗ = 5% and nonlinear resisting force ƒs∗ as follows

m |D(t)| = Sdd (T ∗ ) = Sdp , (4.62a)

∗
m |A(D(t))| = Sd (T ) = Sp , (4.62b)

where:

Sdd (T) inelastic design pseudo spectral displacement,

Sd (T) inelastic design pseudo spectral acceleration,
Sdp , Sp coordinates of the Performance Point PP in the A − D coordinate system.

Hint
The performance point represents the solution of the Eq. 4.60 and the main outcome of
the analysis described herein. It can be described in different coordinate systems:

• PP (Sdp , Sp ): SDOF Spectral Acceleration - Spectral Displacement coordinate sys-

tem (A − D)
• PP (Tp , Sp ): SDOF Spectral Acceleration - Period coordinate system (A − T )
• PP (cnod,p , Vb,p ): MDOF Base shear - Control Node Displacement coordinate sys-
tem (VB − U)

Formulas governing the transformation between these coordinate systems are described
in Section 4.1, Stage 4 and 5 of the pushover workflow.

In order to determine the performance point PP, the period T ∗ and the nonlinear resisting
force ƒs∗ of the equivalent elastic SDOF system need to be related to the performance point
coordinates Sdp and Sp .

As shown in Section 4.1, Stage 4b, the time-dependent nonlinear resisting force - displace-
ment behavior, ƒs∗ (D(t)), of the SDOF system can be characterized by the time-independent
monotonic maximal nonlinear force - maximal deformation relationship ƒs∗ (Sd ) of the SDOF
system (capacity diagram, Fig. 4.21a) used in the response spectrum solution (Eq. 4.11).

The most common approach to solve the nonlinear Eq. 4.60 is to idealize the maximal nonlin-
ear resisting force - maximal displacement relationship ƒs∗ (Sd ) (capacity diagram) by a bi-linear
model with the initial stiffness, k ∗ = ω∗ 2 and a yield strength limit ƒsy
∗ . The bi-linear idealization

of the capacity diagram according to EN1998-1:2004 [8] is an elastic-perfectly plastic function

(Fig. 4.21b). The influence of moderate hardening is incorporated in the demand spectra
(Fajfar [4]).

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ƒs∗
S
m∗ k ∗ = ω∗ 2
∗
ƒsy PP PY PP
Sp
m∗ Sy

E∗
c
E∗
m

Sdp Sd Sdy Sdp Sd

(a) Capacity diagram (b) Bi-linear approximation of capacity

Figure 4.21: Elastic-perfectly plastic idealization of the capacity diagram

Equating the area (deformation energy) underneath the capacity curve E∗ c

and the bi-linear
∗
idealization of the capacity curve Em up to the performance point PP (Fig. 4.21), i.e.
Z Sdp ∗
ƒs (Sd )
E∗
m
= E∗
c
= · dSd , (4.63)
0 m∗

the displacement of the idealized equivalent SDOF system Sdy (and the yield point
PY (Sdy , Sdp )) can be determined as

E∗
‚ Œ
m
Sdy = 2 · Sdp − . (4.64)
Sp

The period of the idealized system T ∗ = Ty is also easily obtained by

v
∗2
Sy 2π uS
t dy
ω = ⇒ T ∗ = Ty = = 2π · . (4.65)
Sdy ω∗ Sy

The determination of the inelastic spectral response of the SDOF system with the bi-linear
force deformation relationship (PP (Sdp , Sp )) from the spectral response of the corresponding
linear elastic SDOF system (PE (Sde , Se )) is based on the well know concept involving two
additional parameters - the displacement ductility factor, μ, and the (yield) strength reduction
factor due to ductility, Ry (Fig. 4.22).

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S T ∗ = Ty

∗
ƒse PE
Se =
m∗

∗
ƒsy PY PP
Sy = Sp =
m∗

O Sdy Sde Sdp Sd

Figure 4.22: Elastic-ideal plastic system (O−PY −PP) and the corresponding linear system (O−PE)

The ductility factor μ is defined as the ratio of the maximal displacement of the inelastic SDOF
system Sdd = Sdp to its yield displacement Sdy

Sdd (T ∗ ) Sdp
μ= = . (4.66)
Sdy (T ∗ ) Sdy

The yield strength reduction factor (i.e. the reduction in strength demand due to nonlinear
hysteretic force-deformation behavior) Ry is defined as the ratio of the elastic strength demand
∗ to the inelastic strength demand ƒ ∗ 6
ƒse sy

ƒ∗ Se (T ∗ ) Sde (T ∗ )
Ry = se = = , (4.67)
∗
ƒsy Sy (T ∗ ) Sdy (T ∗ )

where Sde (T ∗ ) and Se (T ∗ ) represent the elastic spectral displacement and elastic spectral
acceleration responses of the equivalent SDOF system (Eq. 4.60) with the period T ∗ and
damping ξ∗ = 5%, respectively.

The strength reduction factor Ry and the displacement ductility μ are dependent on each other.
Several proposal have been made for the definition of the Ry − μ dependency. A comprehensive
overview can be found in Miranda and Bertero [14]. In Eurocode 8 the following relationship is
used
T∗

(μ − 1) · +1 for T ∗ < TC

Ry = TC , (4.68)

μ for T∗ ≥ TC


where TC represents the period which marks the transition between the constant acceleration
range (T ∗ ≤ TC ) and the constant velocity and constant displacement range of spectrum (T ∗ ≥
TC ). Eq. 4.68 defines a bi-linear Ry − μ − T spectrum (Fig. 4.25)7 .
6 For inelastic SDOF system with elastic-ideal plastic resisting force-displacement relationship the yield force
∗ (T ∗ ) represents also the ultimate strength.
ƒsy
7 Note that for μ = 1 the following holds: ƒ ∗ = ƒsy
∗.
se

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Inverting the Eq. 4.68, the ductility demand μ can be expressed in terms of Ry and T ∗

T
(Ry − 1) · C + 1

for T ∗ < TC
μ= T∗ . (4.69)
T∗

R
y for ≥ TC

Substituting Eqs. 4.67 and 4.66 into Eqs. 4.62b and 4.62a, we obtain:

∗ ∗
Sde (T ∗ )
Sdp = Sdd (T ) = μ · Sdy (T ) = μ · , (4.70a)
Ry
∗
Se (T ∗ )
Sp = Sd (T ) = . (4.70b)
Ry

The Eqs. 4.70a - 4.70b enable the determination of the inelastic spectral response of the
equivalent SDOF system (performance point, PP (Sdp , Sp )) from the elastic response of the
corresponding elastic system (PE (Sde , Se )). This procedure is illustrated in Fig. 4.23.

S T ∗ = Ty S
Tc Tc
Se T ∗ = Ty
PE

PE
Se
PY PP
Sp μ=1
μ=1
PY PP
Sp
Sy
μ>1
μ>1

Sdy Sde Sdp Sd Sdy Sdp = Sde Sd

(a) Short period range, T ∗ < TC (b) Medium and long range, T ∗ > TC

Figure 4.23: Determination of the performance point PP for the equivalent SDOF system

The workflow for the determination of the performance point can be summarized as follows:

1. Start from a trial performance point PPt (Sdp,t , Sp,t ).

2. Calculate deformation energy E∗
m
= E∗
c
at PPt (Eq. 4.63, Fig. 4.21a).
3. Determine bi-linear idealization of capacity (point PY ) by determining yield displace-
ment Sdy and period T ∗ = Ty of equivalent SDOF system at PPt (Eqs. 4.64 and 4.65,
Fig. 4.21b).
4. Calculate the elastic spectral response PE (Sde , Se of the equivalent SDOF system
with T ∗ = Ty from the elastic 5%-damped response spectrum (Fig. 4.23).
5. Calculate yield strength reduction factor Ry associated with PPt (Eq. 4.67, Fig. 4.22).
6. Calculate ductility μ associated with PPt (Eq. 4.69, Fig. 4.22).

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7. Determine a new performance point PP (Sdp , Sp ) from the inelastic design spectrum
(demand diagram) for the SDOF system with period T ∗ = Ty , yield strength reduction
factor Ry and ductility μ (Eqs. 4.70a and 4.70b, Fig. 4.23)8 .
8. Check if the new performance point PP is within a tolerance of the trial performance
point PPt :
(a) If NO ⇒ Take the point PP as new trial performance point, i.e. PPt = PP and return
to step 1.
(b) If YES ⇒ Analysis is finished and the performance point is PP (Sdp , Sp ).

The following input will determine the performance point according to the Eurocode 8 proce-
dure (TYPE EC8):

LC 5004
PUSH TYPE EC8 LCC0 301 LCC1 2301 NLCC 22 CNOD 4 LCDM 11

The pushover curve for the control node 4 (CNOD 4) previously obtained by incremental
pushover analysis with the basis load case 301 (LCC0 301) and the results saved in the load
cases 2301 to 2325 (LCC1 2301 NLCC 25) is transformed to the capacity diagram. The elastic
5% damped response spectrum, previously defined with the help of the RESP command in the
load case 11, is transformed to the inelastic demand spectrum (LCDM 11). The outcome of
the analysis is illustrated in the Figures 4.24 and 4.25.
Sa [m/sec2]
Tb = 0.2 Tc = 0.5
T = 1.0
Ty
Tp

10.00

Capacity T = 1.5
PY PP
5.00

Td = 2.0
EC8-elastic
Demand, μ = 1.44
T = 3.0
T = 4.0
0.00
Sd [mm]
0.000

50.000

100.000

150.000

200.000

250.000

300.000

350.000

Figure 4.24: EC8: A-D Capacity-Demand-Diagram

8 Note that in Eurocode 8 procedure there is no need to draw demand curve to find the performance point.

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Ry

6.00 μ = 6.0

μ = 5.0

4.00 μ = 4.0

μ = 3.0

2.00 μ = 2.0

μ
μ== 1.5
1.44

0.0 Tc = 0.5
T [sec]
0.0

2.00

4.00

6.00

8.00

10.0
Figure 4.25: EC8: Ry − μ − T Spectrum

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4.9.2 SPL - Structural Performance Limits

The performance point is used to compare the global response of structure and individual
component deformations to limit values in context of the specific performance objectives for
the building in question. The performance objective represents the desired building perfor-
mance level under a given seismic hazard (earthquake ground motion). The performance
levels are defined by the performance limits (ATC-40 [5]). The structural performance limits
can be categorized as:

• Local element and component acceptability limits. Each component (beam, column,
slab, connections, etc.) of the structural elements (frames, seismic walls, diaphragms,
foundations, etc.) should be checked to verify if its response under a given seismic
demand (level of forces and deformations corresponding to the performance point) is
within the acceptable limits (performance limits). Local performance limits for beam
plastic hinges can be defined in AQUA (see AQUA: SFLA).
• Global structural performance limits. Similar to local performance limits it is possible to
define the global performance limits. Up to five global (structural) performance limits
can be specified by the user (PUSH ... SPL1 ... SPL5).

The following input will set the global structural performance limits (SPL1-SPL5) as the cnod
displacements (VB-U coordinate system). If the analysis is of the type which works with the A-
D coordinate system (e.g. PUSH TYPE ATC, EC8, etc. ), then the performance levels specified
as the cnod displacements will be converted into the spectral displacements of the equivalent
SDOF system Sd (Fig. 4.26).

LC 5003
PUSH TYPE ATC ... SPL1 0.10[m] SPL2 0.18[m] SPL3 0.25[m] $$
SPL4 0.35[m] SPL5 0.45[m]

Sa [m/sec2]
Tb = 0.1 T = 0.5 Tc = 0.6 T = 1.0
Ty Tp
SPL 1 SPL 2 SPL 3 SPL4 SPL5

10.00

T = 1.5

Capacity

PP
5.00 PY T = 2.0

UBC-elastic
Td = 3.0
Demand,
T = 4.0 ξ-eff = 16.56%
0.00
Sd [mm]
0.000

100.000

200.000

300.000

400.000

Figure 4.26: Structural performance limits

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5 Train Loading

5.1 General
Train loads for bridges are ruled by the fact, that the most unfavourable position of the loading
is different for every single element and reaction and not known in advance.

The base of the moving load process is a lane geometry, described in the plan view by straight,
circular or clothoid segments and in the elevation as straight or quadratic parabola. This can be
taken from the database as defined by SOFiMSHB or explicitly input with the record GAX. Each
axis may have up to 99 separate lanes defined via LANE. For the dynamic impact coefficients
an effective length may be specified and the extra width of the traffic area may be defined.

Each lane has two coordinate systems. There is a local system (x) at the lane axis for real
distances. However, the inputs for the positions along the lanes are entered in a global system
of stations (s) which defines an alignment of the lanes to each other.

There are three principal approaches for the problem of finding the most unfavourable load
position:

• One can generate numerous load cases with the train load at distinct positions and search
for the maximum with the superposition tool MAXIMA. For some load definitions this ap-
proach is not possible with acceptable effort however.
• More general one can establish the influence lines for the forces and moments of all or
selected locations within the structure. In a second step these influence lines may be eval-
uated with the load trains. The result are direct extreme values of all forces and moments.
This is performed with the program module ELLA, highly optimized for this task.
• Last not least a transient analysis of the load coursing the structure with the program DYNA
is possible. For the animation of this process the record TREX is very helpful.

Depending on the system and the loading, the one or the other method will be better. Spe-
cial effects like a load which is not bound to the lane in transverse direction (EC) or having
independent wheels (DIN) may increase the number of needed load cases considerably.

The commands available for the load train definition are:

TRAI Specifying the load train

TRPL, TRBL Explicit loading of a load train

With this commands no loading will be applied to the structure yet. The load definitions are
saved under a load case number which should not be used otherwise. It is the SOFiLOAD
/ COPY command that will transform the train to individual loading. With a reference to a
geometric line (GAX) and an associated lane (LANE) the following transformations will take
place:

• The load train will be adopted to the geometry of the lane.

• Centrifugal loading will be created based on the speed of the train and the curvature of the
lane.
• Variable eccentricities will be applied automaticallly in an unfaourable way.

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Hint
This functionality require a license of ELLA or a special license SOFiLOAD-V (TRAI).

5.2 Load Groups

There are possibly different combination coefficients within one load train. Therefore we have
load groups within the EN 1991-2 or the DIN FB. For road bridges they are given in table 4.4,
for railway bridges in table 6.6. From these definitions the following table is deducted:

Traffic area
type vertical loads horizontal loads
model LM1(TS) LM1(UDL) LM4 braking centrifugal
gr0 Charact.
grU Charact.
gr1 Charact. Charact. (*) (*)
gr2 frequent frequent Charact. Charact.
gr2n frequent frequent non frequent non frequent
gr2f permanent permanent Frequent Frequent
gr3 Charact. on
sidewalks
gr4 Charact. UDL
on total area
gr5 LM 3 charact. LM 1 frequent
in main lane on other lanes
gr6 0.5 Charact. 0.5 Charact. 0.5 Charact. 0.5 Charact.

The selection of a group will select individual factors for the components from a complete load
train definition. gr6 is used for the exchange of supports according to DIN FB. For all combi-
nations with other than the characteristic values the PSI1-coefficients of EN 1991-2 resp. BS
EN 1990 are used. Other coefficients for the additional LM1 may be specified with coefficients
PSI1 (TS) and PSI2 (UDL) in the train’s LC record. But the loading of the special vehicle will
always be taken without those coefficients. All other deviations to this have to be build up with
the special groups and an explicit factor FACT.

Appendix C of DIN FB 101 states also for road bridges ("if not specified otherwise"):

• LM2 and the single loads on pathways should not combined with any other life load
• Neither snow nor wind should be combined with braking or load group gr2 or gr3.
• Snow or wind actions larger than ψo *FWk should not be combined with gr1 or LM1.
• Wind and temperature should not be applied together.

The life load groups for railway bridges 11 to 31 according to table 6.6. of DIN FB 101 should
be best evaluated with ELLA or MAXIMA and not with combined explicit loading. For those
bridges, wind and life load are bound together, thus should act only at the position where the

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train is, but only if the wind load does not exceed a certain threshold.

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SOFiLOAD | Train Loading

5.3 GAX – Geometry of an Axis

See also: Load-train, LANE

GAX

Item Description Unit Default

NO Axis identifier LT4 A1

S Total arc length (station) − 0
X Real world coordinates of point [m] 1001 0
Y [m] 1001 0
Z [m] 1001 0
R Radius of the lane axis [m] 1001 -
A Transition curve R·L=A2 [m] 1001 -

NX Direction vector for curves in 3D − *

NY not to be used for standard alignments − *
NZ − *

TYPE Type of axis LT AXIS

AXIS = general axis
LANE = traffic lane
BGEO = bridge geometry line
TITL Designation of lane LT32 -

A general geometric axis with all details may be now defined in SOFIMSHC. For SOFiLOAD /
ELLA / TENDON only a simplified definition is provided as follows.

• Definition with a length resp. station in the plan view For the first record of an axis the
start point (X,Y,Z) and the start direction (NX,NY,NZ), the length S of the first segment and
optional curvature and clothoidal parameter is specified. All consecutive records contain
only the next S-value and the curvature parameters.
If a radius is defined, a transition element from the last radius to the current value is gener-
ated. Positive values for R cause a curvature to the right-hand side, whilst negative values a
curvature to the left-hand side. If A is defined, a clothoidal spiral transition curve is created
where the curvature increases for the positive values of A and decreases for the negative
values. If the radius R is not given it will be calculated automatically based on the length, if
it is given together with A the curvature of the start point will be calculated instead. Basket
arches with piecewice constant curvatures may be defined with A=0.0 and the selected
radius.

GAX 'B1' S 8.0 A 10 X -1.000 NX 1.0 TITL 'SPIRAL AND CIRCLE'

S 16.0
GAX 'B2' S 8.0 R 25.0 A 0.0 Y -1.000 NY 1.0 TITL 'THREE CENTER CURVE'
S 16.0 R 14.0 A 0.0

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 Train Loading | SOFiLOAD

Figure 5.1: Lane axis

• Definition about 3D points at a curve The coordinates have to be input for all records. The
given direction (NX,NY,NZ) is the local z-axis and thus a defined circular arc turns around
this vector.

GAX A1-X S 0.0 X -1.000 TITL 'CENTER GEOMETRY'

S 16.0 X 30.000 R 150.0 NZ 1.0

The described elements will be automatically adopted from WinGRAF as dynamic axis. A
graphical check is recommended with the programs WING or WinGRAF.

The options to define the elevation or cross falls are now only available in SOFiMSHC.

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5.4 LANE – Width of Traffic Lanes

See also: Load-train, GAX

LANE

Item Description Unit Default

NO Lane number (lane_ident.nummer) LT *

e.g. A1.3 = third lane of axis A1
lane_ident only = all/total lanes
TYPE Predefined type (see remarks) LT *
WR Ordinate of right curbstone [m] 1001 -
WL Ordinate of left curbstone [m] 1001 -WR

SA Coordinate along lane axis for start − !

SE Coordinate along lane axis for end − !
YCA Offset of centre of lane at start (SA) [m] 1001 *
YCE Offset of centre of lane at the end (SE) [m] 1001 YCA
YRA Right value at start (SA) [m] 1001 *
YLA Left value at start (SA) [m] 1001 *
YRE Right value at end (SE) [m] 1001 YRA
YLE Left value at end (SE) [m] 1001 YLA
L Effective length of segment for impact coefficients and [m] 1001 *
loaded length dependencies
CONT add to last segment

HSA Height of deck or rail above lane at SA [m] 1001 0.0

HSE Height of deck or rail above lane at SE [m] 1001 HSA
INCA Cross fall dz/dy or Δh[mm] at SA [mm] 0.0
INCE Cross fall dz/dy or Δh[mm] at SE [mm] INCA
HEFF Effective height of rail and sleeper [m] 1001 -
BEFF Effective length of sleeper [m] 1001 -
DEFF Effective width of sleeper [m] 1001 -
INCD Spread angle for stresses − 0.25
ASL Distance between mounting points [m] 1001 -
WREF Gauge to convert inclinations [m] 1001 1.435

The total loading area will be subdivided in up to 99 individual traffic lanes relative to a given
geometrical axis. These may be created automatically by a predefined standard section or
with explicit coordinates. One may subdivide each segment with different widths and dynamic
impact factors. All lanes have to be defined together to an existing axis, any new definition will
delete all previously defined lane definitions.

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Figure 5.2: Single lane loaded and residual area

The width of the lane is defined through the left and the right boundaries. The lane can be
widened or narrowed by different input data at different stations. If the lane edges happen to
intersect the lane, this should be defined only at distinct points to allow for correct treating of
torsional loading.

The width of the load train may be less than those of the lane. In that case additional basic
areas are established loaded by a constant load specified with the load train. If the load train
is larger than the lane width, reductions of the applied loading are possible.

The lane 0 has to be defined always, for the following procedures two cases have to be distin-
guished:

• There is only lane 0, the width of the moving loading is defined only by the load train. Only
then, the eccentricities of the load train are applied absolutely for all lanes.
• There are other lanes within the curb stone limits. Then lane 0 defines the total extend of
the traffic load including pathways. The width of the moving load is the maximum extend of
the other lanes.

Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó

Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó

AXIS.1
Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó

Y −4.00 −2.00
T 0.00
101 2.00 4.00 m

M 1 : 70

Figure 5.3: Two lanes loaded and residual area

Default constant sections are available via literals as follows. If such type (without blank
spaces) is given at the main lane, secondary lanes will be automatically created:

RQ7.5, RQ9.5, RQ10.5, RQ15.5,

RQ20, RQ26, RQ29.5
RQ33, RQ35.5 Setting total width automatically

For the following types the definition of the curbstone coordinates is always required, which is
constant along the total lane.

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EN EN 1991-2 / DIN-Fachbericht 101

BS even lanes according BS resp. BD 37-01
TMH7 even lanes according TMH7
CAN even lanes according Canadian Standards
IRC even lanes according Indian road congress
JRA Main and secondary lanes (Japan road congress)
AS Main and secondary lanes (Australian AS 5100)

If the lanes have all the same width or the number of lanes is exceeding 6, the lanes starting
with no. 1 will be aligned from the right edge (positive y-values). If this is not the case lane 1 is
always the central lane in the mid of the total traffic area, more lanes with numbers 2 to 7 will
be created on alternating sides aside to lane 1.

In all cases right adjusted lanes starting with number 10 and left adjusted lanes starting with
number 20 will be available. However they will be created as own elements only if the second
case is given and the eccentricity is larger than 0.30 m.

For TMH7 lanes 11,12,13 resp. 19,18,17 with extreme eccentricity will be created.

Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó

Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó

AXIS.11Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó

AXIS.10
Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó

Y −4.00
T 102
−2.00 0.00
T 2.00
101 4.00 m

M 1 : 70

Figure 5.4: Two lanes adjusted to the right loaded and residual area

Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó

Ó Ó Ó Ó

AXIS.20
Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó

AXIS.21
Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó

Y −4.00
T−2.00
101 0.00
T 1022.00 4.00 m

M 1 : 70

Figure 5.5: Two lanes adjusted to the left loaded and residual area

Residual areas are the areas between the edges defined by the width of the load train and the
edges of the lane itself. The pathways are thus only included in lane 0. Gaps between the
lanes are NOT treated as residual loading areas.

For the loading of the lane in SOFiLOAD it will be subdivided in the longitudinal direction
into segments (e.g. each span). If several lane-definitions should be combined to one single
segment, the definition of L is only possible for the first of the definitions, while specifying for
all the others the literal CONT at this position.

For railway bridges there are detailed tables available within EN 1991-2 or DIN FB 101 how
to select the governing length. Further there are detailed descriptions how to calculate the

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 Train Loading | SOFiLOAD

effective pressures below the ballast. For the latter the input values HEFF to ASL are needed,
however applicable and definable in SOFiLOAD only.

+ INC
s

BEFF HEFF HS
INCD INCD y
YL z YR
Figure 5.6: Ballast and sleepers

The height HSA of the tracks or road above the lane and the cross fall INCA/INCE of the lane
will create additional moments within SOFILOAD and ELLA (INT<3).

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5.5 TRAI – Load Train Definition

See also: COPY, TRPL, TRBL, LANE, TREX

TRAI

Item Description Unit Default

TYPE Type of a load train LT CONS

P1 class of load train or load value kN, m *

P2 second value for load train kN, m *
P3 Third value for load train kN, m *
P4 fourth value for load train kN, m *
P5 loading on spare areas kN/ m2 *
P6 Wind loading ∗ *
P7 Height of wind attack area / Height of wind load [m] 1001 *
P8 Parameter for brake load ∗ *
P9 Height of mass center (centrifugal load and cross fall) [m] 1001 *
PFAC Factor for loading of total train − 1.0
PFAV Factor for favorable effects within load trains − *
WIDT Width of load train [m] 1001 *

PHI explicit impact factor for bending − *

PHIS explicit impact factor for shear − *
V Speed of load train [km/ h] 1203 *
FUGA Factor for the masses of total train for the centrifugal − 1.0
forces

XCON Minimum distance for repeated load train (convoy) [m] 1001 0
YEX possible eccentricity of train (+/-) [m] 1001 0.0
DIR Direction of train LT B
B = in both directions
R = only to the right (positive)
L = only to the left (negative)
N = do not apply
DIRT Direction of transverse loading LT B
B = in both directions
R = only to the right (positive)
L = only to the left (negative)
N = suppress this loading

Parameters for multibody dynamics:

FRB Frequency for body Spring Cb 1/ sec ∞

Table continued on next page.

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Item Description Unit Default

DAB Modal Damping of body support − 0.0

BOGI Load value of bogie −/ kN 0.0
FRBO Frequency for bogie Spring Cbo 1/ sec ∞
DABO Modal Damping of bogie support − 0.0
WHEE Load value of wheel −/ kN 0.0
FRWH Frequency for wheel spring Cwh 1/ sec ∞
DAWH Modal Damping of wheel support − 0.0

The description of all available load trains can be found within the next pages. If a value for
the convoy distance is given (XCON), the specified train will be applied multiple times with
that given minimum distance between the last load ordinate and the reference point of the
consecutive load train.

The the residual area loading P5 is applied without dynamic impact factors and without cen-
trifugal forces. It is applied only for:

• Areas between the constant width of the load train and the polygonal bounds of the lane.
If the load train has no width (WIDT 0) there won’t be a residual area either (Railways)
• Areas between the borders of lane 0 and all other lanes (e.g. pathways)
• The total lane area for the load group GR4 (e.g. pedestrian bridges)

The factor PFAC is a multiplier in general for all load elements of the load train, it may be used
for classified LM71 or SW/0 loadings. (e.g. a value from the list 0.75 - 0.83 - 0.91 - 1.00 - 1.10
- 1.21 - 1.33 - 1.46 from EN 1991-2 6.3.2(3)).

The factor PFAV specifies the factor for favorable loadings (see e.g. EN 1990-2 GRP 13/14
and 23/24). For road train loadings this factor will be applied only for the wheel loadings. The
default for railway load trains is 0.0 for the LM71 and 1.0 for all other load trains. The default
for the majority for most other road trains is 0.0. For load trains for roads, those factors may be
specified only with individual load train definitions.

The eccentricity of the load train within the lane should only be defined when applying the load-
ing. Only for the wide heavy load trains (LM3, HB etc.) an explicit eccentricity of that loading
may be defined a priori. The definition of YEX in TRAI is intended to describe the eccentricity
for railway loadings according EN 1991-2 6.3.5., predefined with r/18 in any direction.

The load trains have a moving direction which is not only important for some of the train loads
but also for the direction of the braking load. Positive load values are considered to be braking
loads in traveling direction, negative load values are accelerating loads in reverse direction. If
DIR N is specified, no impact factor will be applied and the brake and velocity and wind load
will be preset to zero. Also in this case some filters are available in ELLA.

DIR controlls the sequence of generated loads for a standard train, but it cannot be used to flip
the sequence of a user defined load train.

Wind loading may be defined in general by a wind attack area with the section definition. If there

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will be no traffic for strong winds, this is the maximum wind load on the structure itself. But a
combined variabel wind and traffic loading an area load P6 may be defined, acting horizontally
upon a traffic band with height P7. However, AASHTO uses a line load P6 at the height P7
which have to be defined instead. The sign of the wind load is defined as positive if coming from
the right in the moving direction, but option DIRT allows a more specific definition. ELLA has
the possibility in record POSL via OPT to apply the wind load in the most unfavourable direction
at its own, if DIRT has allowed this. Both options are combined with a logical ”and”-operation.

The meaning of value P8 is different for each loading type. The sign of the braking load will be
taken from the moving direction. A changing sign (DIR B) will be only possible for ELLA to take
care of. ELLA and SOFILOAD allow to change the direction or deactivate the loading.

For an analysis with multi-body-dynamics it is possible to generate masses, beams, springs

and dampers via the record TREX. The mass of bogie and wheel may be specified either as a
positive absolute load value or as a negative fraction of the total mass. For more information
see record TREX.

Table of most important Standard Load Trains:

USER constant Area Loading P5 / user defined Load Train

LM1 double axle load model 1 according Eurocode 1 part 3

LM2 single axle load model 2 according Eurocode 1 part 3
LM3 special case load model 3 according Eurocode 1 part 3
SV,SOV Special vehicles according BS EN1991-2
LM4 pedestrian load model 4 according Eurocode 1 part 3

FLM1 Fatigue load model 1 according Eurocode 1 part 3

FLM2 Fatigue load model 1 according Eurocode 1 part 3
FLM3 Fatigue load model 1 according Eurocode 1 part 3
FLM4 Fatigue load model 1 according Eurocode 1 part 3

SLW Heavy load truck according to DIN / OENORM / IAP

LKW Standard truck (according to country code)
LKWD German truck (in Austria)
LKWA Austrian truck
NBR Brasilian load trains NBR 7188 / NB6 similar to SLW/LKW

HS Highway Load according AASHTO

HT Highway Truck according AASHTO

CAN Highway Load according Canadian Standard CSA

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CANP Pedestrian load according Canadian Standard CSA

HA HA according BS 5400 / BD 37-01

HB HB according BS 5400 / BD 37-01
HFUG Centrifugal loading according BS 5400 / BD 37-01

IRC Loading Class AA, A, B and Appendix I of

Indian Road Congress 6-2000

JRA Load trains T and L of the Japan Road Association

BRO1 3 axle load train of the Swedish BRO type 1

BRO2 Single axle load train of the Swedish BRO type 2/3/4
BRO3 2 x 3 axle load train of the Swedish BRO type 5
BROF Fatigue relevant load train of the Swedish BRO

NFA Area loading according French Fascicule No 61

NFBC Lorry according French Fascicule No 61
NFBT Tandemaccording French Fascicule No 61
NFC Heavy load trains according French Cerema / Leclerc

AS_A Single wheel / axle according australian AS 5100

AS_M Load train M 1600 according AS 5100
AS_S Load train S 1600 according AS 5100
HLP Heavy load platform according AS 5100.7

LM71 Loading according LM 71

resp. UIC 71 resp. RU of BS 5400
SW Heavy load trains SW/0 DS 804 / EC
SW/2 Heavy load trains SW/2 DS 804 / EC
RFAT Railway Fatigue loading EC and others
HSLM Load trains according EC 1 Annex 2
RL Railway Loading BS 5400
ASRT Railway Loading AS 5100

All load trains may be extended with TRPL and TRBL definitions. If none of the standard load
elements of the rain should be used, but other properties like impact factors should be retained,
the literal USER may be defined for P1. The user should take care of:

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• The default live load P5 should be deducted for the areas loaded by the defined loading.
• The distance to the last load of a standard train may be not as expected due to automatically
generated loads of those type and should be checked.

The loading may be applied with a variable eccentricity YEY. For a railway loading (default
±r/ 18) additional moments are created. For road loading the total train will have an offset
(default 0.0) to the right or left.

5.5.1 Impact Factor

Two different dynamic factors are provided for bending or shear effects. The values depend on
the dynamic properties of the structure, the type of loading and on an effective length, to be
defined in general for every individual element and result with record CALC. If that is not done,
the value defined with the lane geometry is used, but one can also specify an explicit value for
each of those four values. With the definition of PHI STEE, CONC, PRCO und COMP variants
of the formulas may be selected, if the design code supplies such variantst (e.g. IRC, JRA,
SNIP).

Default formulas are:

• DIN Impact factor according to DIN 1072

(Default for SLW and LKW)

PH = 1.4 − 0.008 · LPH (5.1)

• UIC Impact factor according to EN 1992 / DS 804

for extended maintenance
p
PH = 0.82 + 1.44/ ( LPH − 0.2) ≤ 1.67 (5.2)

• UICB Impact factor according to EN 1992 / DS 804

with standard maintenance
p
PH = 0.73 + 2.16/ ( LPH − 0.2) ≤ 2.0 (5.3)

• BS Impact factor according to BS 5400

p
PHB = 0.73 + 2.16/ ( LPH − 0.2) ≤ 2.0 (5.4a)
p
PHS = 0.82 + 1.44/ ( LPH − 0.2) ≤ 1.67 (5.4b)

• NA Impact factor according to TMH7

PH = 0.05 · (100 + LPH)/ (10 + LPH) (5.5)

• SW/0 Impact factor according to DS 804

between 1.48 and 1.08
• SW/2 Impact factor according to DS 804
between 1.18 and 1.03
• AASH Impact factor according to AASHTO

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 Train Loading | SOFiLOAD

general: 1.33
fatigue load models: 1.15
• CAN Impact factor according to CAN/CSA
between 1.25 and 1.40, depending on the available length for one, two or three
axles. (A depencency for the true number of applied axles is not available)
• IRC Impact factor according to Clause 211 Fig. 5. for Class A, B and AA loading
for concrete and steel bridges.

PH = 1.0 + 4.5/ (LPH + 6) (5.6a)

PH = 1.0 + 9.0/ (LPH + 13.5) (5.6b)

• JRA Impact factor according to JRA are only distinct for T-Loading, for L-loading
there are deviations for standard concrete and steel bridges.

PH = 1.0 + 20/ (50 + LPH) (T) (5.7a)

PH = 1.0 + 10/ (25 + LPH) (L) (5.7b)

• AS Impact factor according to AS 5100 are defined as (1+α ). For roads fixed val-
ues are given in Table 6.7.2, however as M1600 requires a greater allowance
if only a single three- axle component controls and there exists also a station-
ary loading S1600 without dynamic allowance, a user definition is required in
some cases.

AS_A PHB = 1.0 + 0.40 (5.8a)

AS_M PHB = 1.0 + 0.30(1.0 + 0.35) (5.8b)

Railway loading distinguishes between ballasted and direct fixing (input with
LANE) and account for the reference length as follows:
p
PHB = 1.0 + 2.16/ ( LPH − 0.20) − 0.27 ( > 3.6) (5.9a)
p
PHB = 1.0 + 2.16/ ( LPH − 0.20) − 0.17 ( > 2.0) (5.9b)

LPHI should be defined for the axis via LANE. However ELLA may also use the distance of the
zero values of the influence line as a good approach to the effective length. If no input for LPHI
is given, the dynamic factor will be set equal to the value with a minimum length and the width
of the lane will be set equal to 0.0.

Dynamic coefficients according to appendix E of DIN FB 101 are dependant on the frequency
of the structure and should be specified explicitly therefore.

Dynamic coefficients according to the French Fascicule No. 61 section 5.5 depend on the ratio
G/S of the permanent to the maximum loading. If this formula should be taken this ratio has to
be specified instead of the impact factor PHI.

5.5.2 Centrifugal Forces

In case of a curve, the mass of the loading, usually derived from the vertical load, is used
together with the speed of the train and the curvature of the lane to compute the centrifugal

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SOFiLOAD | Train Loading

load components.

The forces calculated according to the laws of physics with vin [ m/sec] are:

2
Pƒ = P · ; g = 9.80665 m/ sec2 (5.10)
Rg

Sometimes there is an equivalent formula in the design code for a speed in [ km/h] with a
factor of v2 /(127R).

These forces will be replaced for Eurocode and BRO as follows:

According to Eurocode EC 1-3 4.3 (independent from v)

Qtk = 0.2 · Q (r < 200m) (5.11a)

Qtk = 40 · Q / R (200m ≤ r ≤ 1500m) (5.11b)
Qtk = 0 (r > 1500m) (5.11c)

These forces will be replaced for BS as follows:

100
Qtk = Q · (5.12)
R + 150

These forces will be changed for railway loadings UIC as follows:

UIC Reduction according DS 804 / BS 5400 / EC 1-3 6.5

for v > 120 km/h and L > 2.88
 − 120 814 p
red = 1.0 − · + 1.75 · 1 − 2.88/ L (5.13)
1000 

For FUGA you may however specify an additional factor explicitly. Negative factors will enforce
the laws of physic to all type of load trains.

In those cases where a constant horizontal centrifugal loading or horizontal bumping has to be
considered a horizontal loading PW/HW may be specified with TRPL/TRBL.

5.5.3 Load Trains according to Eurocode

The position of the loading according to Eurocode along the traffic lanes is free. Thus a syn-
chronization with secondary lanes should not be applied. For the assessment of global effects
(EN 1991-2 4.3.2) each tandem system should be assumed to travel centrally along the axes
of notional lanes. With a definition of YEX, ELLA may apply this excentricity value in both di-
rections. But the minimum distance of 0.5 m between adjacent loading cannot be checked by
ELLA, but will be satisfied in almost all cases if the width of the lane is at least 2.5 m.

The double axle should be applied only in total. Thus all loads of the axles will be applied even
if one is favourable.

Load Model 1
There is one double axle with a spacing of 1.2 m. For the different lane classes it is generally

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 Train Loading | SOFiLOAD

αQ Qk αQ Qk αq qk

0.5∗
2.00 1
0.5∗

Figure 5.7: Load model 1

recommended to use three different load trains with individual adjustment factors αq. These
factors are specified in national annexes and are defined in the INI-files. (e.g. DIN Fachbericht
with a value of αQ = 0.8, SIA with a value of αQ = 0.9). Other values may be specified with a
direct load value if needed.

P1 = Class 300 200 100

P2 = Axle load [ kN] 300 200 100
P3 = reserved [ kN] 0 0 0
P4 = traffic lane [ kN/m2 ] 9.0 2.5 2.5
P5 = Residual area [ kN/m2 ] 2.5 2.5 2.5
P8 = Brake loading [ kN] * 0.0 0.0

The brake loading is calculated according to the length of the total lane if the item DIR is not
defined as N. It will be distributed as uniform load along the whole loaded lane if the axle load
exceeds 200 kN:

Qk = 1.2 · P2 + 0.10 · P4 · WDT · L ; 180αQ1 ≤ Qk ≤ 900kN (5.14)

The upper limit is defined by the requests of the STANAG, it may be redefined by a national
annex or other means. This may be specified via a global variable EN1991-2_QLMAX in the
INI-file or via TVAR in the section loading.

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SOFiLOAD | Train Loading

Load Model 2
This load model is a single axle taken from load model 1, but with a dynamic impact factor and
the wheels may act independently. As this load model is only for local elements it should not be
selected within ELLA, especially as it does not work with influence areas (INT>2). A possible
application is the accidential load case of a vehicle on the pathway:

1 2 1 2

0.40
2.00

3
2.00

αQ2 Q2k

0.40
3

0.50

Figure 5.8: Load model 2

P1 = Basic Value 400 300 200 100

P2 = Axle load [ kN] 320 240 160 80
P3 = Rotation [ ◦] 0 0 0 0
P5 = Residual area [ kN/m2 ] 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
P8 = Brake loading [ kN] 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

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Load Model 3

Figure 5.9: Load model 3

This load model is for special cases of heavy load vehicles. We have to distinguish between the
narrow version fitting within one lane (2 axles) and the broader version for P2=240 (3 axles).
For the latter case the loading of the same load train in two synchronized lanes with special
provisions of YEX should be used. Parts of the load train not within the lane imits will be clipped
automatically.

The three values of P1 to P3 define the loading as follows (Table A1):

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SOFiLOAD | Train Loading

600 / 150 4 × 150 kN

900 / 150 6 × 150 kN
1200 / 150 8 × 150 kN
1200 / 200 6 × 200 kN

1500 / 150 10 × 150 kN

1500 / 200 7 × 200 kN + 1 × 100 kN

1800 / 150 12 × 150 kN

1800 / 200 9 × 200 kN

2400 / 200 12 × 200 kN

2400 / 240 10 × 240 kN
2400 / 200 / 200 6 × 200 kN + 6 × 200 kN
2700 / 150 18 × 150 kN

3000 / 200 15 × 200 kN

3000 / 240 12 × 240 kN + 1 × 120 kN
3000 / 200 / 200 8 × 200 kN + 7 × 200 kN

3600 / 200 18 × 200 kN

3600 / 240 15 × 240 kN
3600 / 200 / 200 9 × 200 kN + 9 × 200 kN
4500 / 150 / 150 15 × 150 kN + 15 × 150 kN

1.50 1.50
X X
4.20
2.70

1.50 1.50

1.50 1.50

1 2 1 2
3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00

Figure 5.10: Loadmodell LM3

The variants with an axle loading of 240 kN are wider than the default lane. Thus, it is in

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general necessary to specify a transverse offset when applying this load. This will be +/- 0.75
m for the main lane, +2.25 for the left adjacent lane and -2.25 for the right adjacent lane.

The speed of the load train is a very important parameter, it does not only control front and rear
for some load trains, but it defines also if the load train is moving slowly (v = 5 km/h) or with a
regular speed (v = 70 km/h). This triggers if an impact factor is applied or not.

Further there will be no loading witin a distance of 25 m before and behind that vehicle, but then
a load train LM1 with ist frequent load values (ψ1 ) may be applied, by specifying the load case
number of a correspondig LM1 load train at P4. To select the relative position to the vehicle
before or behind the sign of the P4 definition will be taken. A positive value will select a vehicel
before, while a negative value will select a value behind. The implemented algorithm does not
allow to select this automatically.

As the coefficients ψ1 are different for UDL and TS, we use from this load case the value ψ1 for
TS, but for UDL and the residual loding the default value of 0.4 of the EN will be taken.

Load Model 3 (NA BS)

NA to BS EN 1991-2:2003 defines different types of this load model. The distance to the
residual loading in the lane has been reduced to 2.5 resp 5.0 m. As every axle has a different
dynamic amplification factor, these will be applied directly if V is larger than 5 km/h.

Load trains of the Special Types General Order (STGO) will be selected with TYPE SV, where
P1 defines the class (80, 100 or 196), P2 is not used and P3 defines the central distance
(values of 1.2, 5.0 and 9.0 m are common). All other remarks especially about P4 remain
valid:

165 165 165 165 165 165 165 165 165 180 180 180
kN kN kN kN kN kN kN kN kN kN kN kN

1.2m 1.2m 1.2m 1.2m 1.2m 1.2m 1.2m 4.0m 1.6m 4.4m

0.35 m 3
0.35 m
3.0 m

Figure 5.11: Load Model 3 (NA BS)

Load trains of the Special Order (SO) will be selected with TYPE SOV:

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SOFiLOAD | Train Loading

Figure 5.12: Loadmodell SO

P1 = Class 250 350 450 600

P2 = combination of tractors in gradients larger 1:25
= Number of pulling tractors * 10 + number of pushing tractors
P3 = explicit fixed distance between trailers (default is variable)

Load Model 4
This is a pedestrian load model with a basic load area with a maximum value of 5.0kN/ m2 .
For a loaded length greater 10 m the load value will be decreased:
120
qƒ k = 2.0 + > 2.50 kN/ m2 (5.15)
L + 30

Further we have the standard service vehicle according Eurocode:

QSV1 QSV2

3.00 m

0.20 m

0.20 m
1.30 m

Figure 5.13: Load Model 4

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P1 = Axle loading QSV1 80 kN

P2 = Axle loading QSV2 40 kN
P3 = Distance of axles 3.00 m

For the application of this load model the definition of the loadgroup is mandatory: GR3 or GR4
for the area loading and GR0 for the service vehicle.

Load Model FLM1

This model is identical to LM1, but the Axle loads will be reduced by a factor of 0.7, and the
distributed loading by 0.3.

P1 = Class 300 200 100

P2 = Axle load [ kN] 210 140 70
P3 = traffic lane [ kN/m2 ] 2.7 0.75 0.75
P5 = Residual area [ kN/m2 ] 0.75 0.75 0.75
P8 = Brake loading [ kN] * 0.30 0.30

Load Model FLM2

This selects via P1 the frequent truck models according Table 4.6 with the following axle load
values:

P1 = 1 90 / 190 kN
P1 = 2 80 / 140 / 140 kN
P1 = 3 90 / 180 / 120 / 120 / 120 kN
P1 = 4 90 / 190 / 140 / 140 kN
P1 = 5 90 / 180 / 120 / 110 / 110 kN

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Figure 5.14: Load Model FLM2

Load Model FLM3

1.20 m 6.00 m 1.20 m

0.40 m

2.00 m 0.40 m X 1

Figure 5.15: Load Model FLM3

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This is a complete truck with two double axles P1 with a distance of 6.0 m designed for the
fatigue design.

P1 = axle loading [ kN] 120

P5 = default life load [ kN/m2 ] 0.0

Load Model FLM4

This selects via P1 the heavy load trucks according to table 4.7 with the following axle loading:

P1 = 1 70 / 130 kN
P1 = 2 70 / 120 / 120 kN
P1 = 3 70 / 150 / 90 / 90 / 90 kN
P1 = 4 70 / 140 / 90 / 90 kN
P1 = 5 70 / 130 / 90 / 80 / 80 kN

Figure 5.16: Load Model FLM4

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SOFiLOAD | Train Loading

5.5.4 Load Trains SLW and LKW

Load Train SLW

Figure 5.17: Load Train SLW

Load Train LKW

Figure 5.18: Load Train LKW

Those classical load trains are used in several countries in Europe (DIN 1072, OENORM B
4002, Spanische IAP and Brasilian NBR). National variants may be selected with a country
code. The width of the moving loading is 3.0 m in general, for the OENORM it is 2.5 m and for
the Spanish IAP a minimum distance to the secondary truck suggests a width of 4.0 m. The
rest of the traffic band is loaded by P3, the remaining areas inside the lane are loaded with
the basic area loading P5. With DIR N one may select a secondary lane without any dynamic
factors.

The definition of a second load train beside with P2 und P4 can not be supported for some
of the recent features. It us strongly recommended to use synchronized lanes instead, it is
required to use two lanes with individual load trains instead. The loading in the second lane
requires the value of P5 defined for P3 and the impact factor to be deactivated with 1.0.

All loads are divided to portions to the right and to the left of the lane axis, which can act
independently.

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Axial Loads [kN] P3 kN/ m2 P5 kN/ m2

   

SLW 30 100 5.0 3.0

SLW 60 200 5.0 3.0 ∗
LKW 3 20+10 3.0 2.0
LKW 6 40+20 4.0 2.0
LKW 9 60+30 4.0 3.0
LKW 12 80+40 4.0 3.0
LKW 16 100+60 5.0 3.0
LKWA 16 110+50 4.0 3.0
LKWA 25 170+80 5.0 3.0
NBR 24 80(SLW) 4.0 3.0
NBR 30 100(SLW) 5.0 3.0
NBR 36 120(SLW) 5.0 3.0
NBR 45 150(SLW) 5.0 3.0
NBR 12 80/40(LKW) 4.0 3.0

∗ The IAP (Instruccin sobre las acciones a considerar en al proyecto de puentes de carretera,
Ministerio de fomento, 2000) has a constant value of 4.0 kN/m2 on the total area of the bridge,
but without any deduction for the SLW. For fatigue a SLW with 390 kN and an impact factor of
1.2 = 468 kN, to be obtained with PFAC 0.78.

Wind loading: P6 = 1.25 kN/m2

P7 = 3.50 m

Brake loading: P8 = 1.00 (Factor for horizontal force)

DIN 1072 defines a total brake loading with a maximum of 900 kN and a minimum of 30 % of
the heavy load trains within the principal and secondary lane or 25% of the total principal lane.
As the brake loading is an other load class than the standard life load it is not always possible
to apply both loads within one loadcase. IAP has a minimum of 140 kN and a maximum of 720
kN.

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5.5.5 Load trains BS 5400, TMH7

Load Train for HA, NA

Figure 5.19: Load Train for HA, NA

The loading HA and NA is described by a uniform load and an additional concentrated single
or tandem load with spacing P4.

The loading HA (Departmental Standard BD 37) is represented by a uniform load P3 · pu, with
the magnitude pu depending on the length of the loading, and either a concentrated load (KEL)
P1=120 kN or a tandem loading with P1=148 kN (with distance P2, default 1.2m). The value
of P4 defines the loaded length L. If P4 is not given, L will be calculated in ELLA based on the
sum of the distances of the null points of the influence line.

The value pu is calculated from the total loaded length L

• up to L = 50 m:

p = 336 · L−0.67 (5.16)

• from L = 50 m (and for the tandem loading):

p = 36 · L−0.1 (5.17)

It is then possible that shorter loaded lengths could lead to higher forces. As this can not be
treated easily, ELLA uses an approximation by evaluating an effective length according to BD
37/01 figure 11. “Base lengths for highly cusped influence lines”. In a first step the integral
of the total positive and negative contributions of the influence line will be evaluated, then the
effective length is caluclated:

(Area under IL)

Leƒ ƒ = 2 · ≤ (total length of IL) (5.18)
(value of maximum ordinate)

In Hong Kong (BS + Country code 852) the formulas are slightly different:

• up to L = 70 m:

p = 400 · L−0.67 (5.19)

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• from L = 70 m:

p = 44 · L−0.15 < 14.85 kN/ m (5.20)

the old definition of BS may be selected if P4 is specified explicitly negative or the country code
has been set for Israel (972). it is defined as:

p = 151 · L−0.475 ; 9 ≤ p ≤ 30 (5.21)

Wind loading: P6 = 1.25 kN/m

P7 = 2.50 m

The brake loading is also calculated according to the loaded length of the lane:

P8 = 200kN + 8.0 · L ≤ 700kN

The loading NA (Bridge Design Code TMH7, South Africa 1981) is represented by a uniform
load P3 · pu, with the magnitude depending on the length of the loading and a concentrated
p
load P1=144/ n kN (KEL). The value of P4 defines the loaded length L as with the HA loading
described above. P2 may be used as with HA to generate a tandem loading.

To accurately determine the loaded length according to Bridge Design Code TMH7, the control
setting CTRL AGRL in the ELLA module must be set to -1. This setting enables the evaluation
of each span within a lane individually. The influence of the loading sequence number n when
p
calculating the concentrated axial load P1=144/ n kN needs to be defined explicitly, using the
option Intermediate Combination of Evaluations in the ELLA module. For more information,
please see the record COMB in the ELLA module.

The value pu is calculated from the total loaded length L

• up to L = 36 m:

p = 36 (5.22)

• from L = 36 m:

p = 6 + 180/ L−0.5 (5.23)

Wind loading: P6 = 1.25 kN/m

P7 = 2.50 m

The brake loading is also calculated according to the loaded length of the lane:

P8 = 100kN + 3.0 · L ≤ 400kN

The loading HFUG allows centrifugal loading according BD 37-01 6.9, It contains a concen-
trated transverse load and a equal but distributed vertical loading P1. The load train may be
repeated every 50 m. It shall be applied for radii less than 1000 m.

The load value P1 defaults to 400 kN (300 kN for Israel’s IS 1227). The length of the distributed
loading is preset with P2 = 6.0 m.

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5.5.6 Heavy Load trains BS 5400, TMH7, IS 1227

Load Train HB, NB

Figure 5.20: Load Train HB, NB

The loading HB and NB consists of a heavy loading and a simultaneous traffic band load.

P1 = 30.0 (Default Axle loading class)

values between 24 and 45 are possible, axle loading is 10 times P1

In some countries very similar load trains are used (South Africa, Israel). These Variants will
be selected with type NB or the selected country code:

COUN = GB BS 5400 with distances 1.8 and x = 6.0, 11.0, 16.0, 21.0 or 26.0 m
COUN = ZA TMH7 NB with distances 2.0 and x = 6.0, 11.0, 16.0, 21.0 or 26.0 m
COUN = IL IS 1227 with distances 1.5 and x = 8.0, 13.0, 18.0 or 23.0 m

BS 5400 makes a distinction between four positions of the HB loading, which affect the magni-
tude of the traffic band load. These are controlled by the factor P3 and the eccentricity P2:

P3 = 1.000 ; P2 = 0.0 HA-UDL simply centred

P3 = 2.000 ; P2 = 0.0 HA-UDL doubly centred
P3 = 1.333 ; P2 = +a/4 HA-UDL full to the right, 1/3 to the left
a = nominal lane width
P3 = 1.333 ; P2 = -a/4 HA-UDL full to the left, 1/3 to the right
a = nominal lane width

The value P3 of the latter load varies with the length P4 according to the loading HA.

The Departmental Standard BD37/88 has other factors (Table 14). The default value for P3 will
be selected based on a nominal width bL of 3.048 m and the first lane.

TMH7 applies the NB vehicle not combined with other life loads. Values P2 to P4 will be
ignored.

Basic area loading: P5 = 0.00 kN/m2

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Wind loading: P6 = 1.25 kN/m2

P7 = 2.5 m

Brake loading are % of the total load. If the train has a unique traveling direction it is applied
between the first and second axle. If the train travels in both directions it is distributed in two
separate blocks at both ends.

P8 = 0.25 (HB)
P8 = 0.20 (NB)

Hint
The basic area loading P5 is not deducted in the case of HA and HB loading. It always
acts upon the full width of the lane.

Load Train HC, NC

TMH7 knows also a NC loading. This is defined by two blocks of varying width, length and
distance. If the variation of this loading becomes to complex a definition with individual block
loads with TRBL may be useful.

(Area loading kN/ m2 )

 
P1 = 30.0
P2 = 5.0 (Width of loading [m] )
P3 = 40.0 (Total loaded length [m] )

The IS 1227 has a load train HC, which is very similar to the HB. The axial load of the last two
axles is augmented by a factor of 2, the distance x is exactly 13.0 m.

5.5.7 Live Loads according to AASHTO

The Loadtrain HL-93 may be selected in a SI and an US Version, as the load values are not
completely equivalent. There is the one/two axle load train (HS) and a three axle load train
(HT) with a variant spacing. A uniform loading will be added if appropriate.

Old loading according AASHTO from 1944 may be selected with three loading classes 10, 15
and 20.

The width of the train is limited to 10’ = 3.048 m or for the SI version to 3.000 m. Thus, uniform
loading is modelled with two stripes with a fixed width.

Common parameters are:

Wind loading: P6 = 0.10 klf or 1.46 kN/m

Height P7 = 1.829 m (6ft) or 1.800 m
Brake loading: P8 = 0.05 (friction coefficient)
Mass center P9 = 1.829 m (6ft) or 1.800 m

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Load Train HS, Single and tandem axles

Figure 5.21: Load Train HS

The loading HS is described by a uniform load and an additional concentrated single or tandem
load with spacing P4. The value P1 specifies the load train class according to AASHTO. The
value P2 of the old load definitions should be selected for shear explicitly.

The following values are possible:

P1 Load train P2 (HS) P3 P4

10 HS10-44 (13.0,9.0) kip 0.32 klf 0
15 HS15-44 (19.5/13.5) kip 0.48 klf 0
20 HS20-44 (26.0/18.0) kip 0.64 klf 0
US HL-93 24.0 kip 0.64 klf 4 ft
SI HL-93 110 kN 9.3 kN/m 1.2 m

Load train HT (two and three axle truck, ed. 2002/2005)

32 kip 32 kip
(145 kN) (145 kN)
8 kip
(35 kN)

P3
14' 0" to 30' 0" 14' 0"
(4.3 to 9.0 m) (4.3 m)
Figure 5.22: Load train HL / HST (three axle truck, ed. 2002/2005)

The load train has a width of 10 ft (3.048 m), the variant distance can be between 14 and 30
ft (4.30 to 9.00 m). The special version US2 resp. SI2 selects the two compact vehicles with a

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mimim distance of 50 ft (15 m) with 90% of the loading for negative moments.

The total weight P2, the lane load P3 and the distance P4 are preset as follows:

P1 Load Train P2 P3 P4
10 H10-44 20 kip 0.32 klf -
15 H15-44 30 kip 0.48 klf -
20 H20-44 40 kip 0.64 klf -
US HL 93 72 kip 0.640 klf 14 ÷ 30 ft
SI HL 93 325 kN 9.3 kN/m 4.30 ÷ 9.00 m
US2 HL 93 72 kip 0.640 klf 14 ft
SI2 HL 93 325 kN 9.3 kN/m 4.30 m
USF HL 93 (fat) 72 kip 0.640 klf 4 ft
SIF HL 93 (fat) 325 kN 9.3 kN/m 1.20 m

Basic area loading: P5 = 0.00 kN/m2

The traffic band load P3 has been specified in the 2002 edition as an alternate loading, which
can be obtained by setting P3 equal to zero. With the load model HL 93 the loading P3 is active
on the full longitudinal length.

The variable distance between the two axles of the HL may be overwritten with a fixed value
by P4. The detailed load model for local and fatigue design may be selected with the load train
types USF and SIF switching the dynamic allowance impact factor to 1.15 and a fixed distance
of 30" (9.0 m). P4 is then the spacing of the double axis, thus P4 0.0 will create the simplified
modell.

5.5.8 Load trains according CAN/CSA

The Canadian standards define a truck load in several variants. The type CAN is used for the
default load train according chapter 14.9.

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Axle no. 1 2 3 4 5
0.04W 0.1W 0.1W 0.14W 0.12W Wheel loads
CL-W
0.08W 0.2W 0.2W 0.28W 0.24W Axle loads
25 62.5 62.5 87.5 75 Wheel loads, kN
CL-625
50 125 125 175 150 Axle loads, kN

3.6 m 1.2 m 6.6 m 6.6 m

18 m

0.25 m
(Typ.)

0.25 m 2.40 m 1.80 m 0.60 m

(Typ.) (Typ.)

Figure 5.23: Load trains according CAN/CSA

The value P1 defines the level of the load train (CL, CL4 = only 4 axles, CL3 = only 3 axles)
The definitions ON, ON4 and ON3 select the variants for Ontario according Annex A14.4.
The definitions BC, BC4 and BC3 select the variants for Britisch Columbia. The definition MV
selects the maintenace vehicle according 3.8.11.

The value P2 defines the class of the load train (default 625).

If the value P3 is defined ( 9.0, 8.0 or 7.0 for class A, B or C and D) a constant lane load will
be defined with reduced load values of the load train without any dynamic allowance. For this
loading a braking load P8 of min(700,180+0.1*L) will be applied. So P8 should become zero
for secondary lanes.

The height of the wind attack area P7 is 3.0[ m] , the zentrifugal force is acting at P9=2.0[ m]
aove the lane.

The value P4 defines the fixed distance to the 4th load of the vehicle, it is 6.6 in general, but
up to 18 m in British Columbia.

Further wit Literals EP1 and EP2 the special load trains EPLL1 and EPLL2 may be selected.

The value P8 defines a factor on the braking load which is applied as 180+0.1*P3*L but not
larger than 700 kN distributed along the total length. P8 0.0 deactivates this type of loading.

5.5.9 Load trains IRC 6-2000

The provisions of the Indian Roads Congress has load trains acting always in total. The type
of the load train is always IRC, the subtype is given via P1. There will be no other life load on
the bridge (P5=0.0). How many lanes should be loaded is given in table 2.

• IRC AA - Heavy Loading for certain areas or highways This is a bogie of two axles with a
total weight of P2 (40t). There is only one lane loaded with this train.

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• IRC AAT - Loading for certain areas or highways This is a tracked vehicle with a total weight
of P2 (70t). A convoy with a minimum distance of 90 m is foreseen. There is only one lane
loaded with this train.
• IRC A - Loading for all permanent bridges This is a train with two trailers, repeatable with a
minimum distance of 18.5 m. The axle loading is P2 (27 kN), P3 (114 kN) and P4 (68 kN).
• IRC B - Loading for timber bridges and temporary structures This is a train with two trailers,
repeatable with a minimum distance of 18.5 m. The axle loading is P2 (16 kN), P3 (68 kN)
and P4 (41 kN).
• IRC nnR
All numbers refer to the hypothetical vehicles of appendix 1. An appended R will select the
wheeled trains, an appended S the four wheelers (only 3 to 24) and an appended T will
select the tracked vehicle:
3, 5, 9, 12, 18, 24, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70
• IRC PD for loading on footways is just a selectable type. The reduction according to clause
209.4 dependant from width and length has to be done by the user explicitly via parameter
P5.

For the longitudinal effects of the loading the clause 208 establishes reduction factor for multiple
lanes. This effect should be taken into account during the superposition of load cases.

The brake load with P8 (0.2 = 20 %) is defined as the fraction for the first load train, while the
other trains have only half of this value. P8 = 0.05 should be applied in the case of more than
two lanes to the other ones.

Wind loading: P6 = 1.0 kN/m2

P7 = 3.0 m
(attack in height of 1.5 m with 3 kN/m)

The height of the mass centre is defined as P9 = 1.2 m.

5.5.10 Load trains of the Japan Road Association

JRAT JRAL
www.road.or.jp

Figure 5.24: Japanese Load Trains

The following load trains are available:

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JRAT A Mult. Single Axis Class A for L < 15.0 m

JRAT B Mult. Single Axis Class B for L < 15.0 m with Tab. 2.2.2.
P2 Value of axle load (200 kN)
P4 Effective span length L
k = L/32 + 7/8 < 1.5 (for JRAT B)
P5 Residual load for pedestrian areas (3.5 kN/m2 )
JRAL A Area loading Class A for L > 15.0 m with D= 6 m
JRAL B Area loading Class B for L > 15.0 m with D= 10 m
P2 basic lane load p2 (3.50, kN/m2 )
P3 extra lane load p1 (10 / 12 kN/m2 )
P4 Effective span length L to reduce p2 if > 80 m.
P5 Residual area loading is enforeced to p2 or p2/2 depending on
PFAC.

Loads for pedestrian lanes according to Tab. 2.2.4. have to be defined with type JRAL and
P3=0.0.

5.5.11 Load trains AS 5100

The provisions of the Australian AS 5100 may be subdivided in two basic load trains.

AS_A 160 A single axle, including the special case of a single wheel W 80 for local ef-
fects.

and further a system with 12 axles and a variant length to be used with influence lines.

360 kN 360 kN 360 kN 360 kN

6 kN/m

ELEVATION

1.25 1.25 3.75 1.25 1.25 Varies 6.25 min. 1.25 1.25 5.0 1.25 1.25

0.6

0.2 2.0

0.4 3.2 m standard design 0.6

PLAN

Figure 5.25: Load trains AS 5100

AS_M the moving load M 1600

AS_S the stationary load S 1600
P1 = Total load (1600)
P2 = Load of an axle group (360/240)

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P3 = uniform distributed load (6 / 24 kN/m)

P4 = fixed distance ( > 6.25 m)
P8 = Brake coefficient acc. 6.8.2.
0.45 for single lane (200 < FBS < 720)
0.15 for multi lane

If more than one lane is loaded, the second lane shall be loaded with a lane factor of 0.8 all
subsequent lanes with 0.4. For fatigue 70 percent of the A160 or M1600 load without uniform
load value P3 should be used.

The "heavy load platform" is given in AS 5100.7. It is a load with 16 axles with 200 kN each for
the HLP 320 and 250 kN for the HLP 400. To obtain the variable distance between 6 and 15 m
between two groups of 8 axles each of the old design code, speciy P2 -1.0.

HLP P1 = total weight in tons (320/400)

P2 = distance between groups (default = 6 to 15 m)

5.5.12 Swedish Load Trains (BRO 2004)

Figure 5.26: Swedish Load Trains (BRO 2004)

The Swedish load trains have the special feature of variant distances between the loads which
are best treated using influence lines. However the short distance of 1.5m will be fixed to that
minimum value, as there are hardly cases to be expected not yielding the most unfavourable
value with that short distance.

Most train types have different load values for primary and secondary lanes. The parameter
P1 is used to specify an enumeration for the most important lane, the secondary lane etc.

BRO1 3 axle load train of the Swedish BRO type 1/4

P1 Lane index 1 2 3 4
P2 Axle load [ kN] 250 170 0 325
P3 Line loading [ kN/m] 12 9 6 0
P4 explicit distance (minimum 6.0 m)
P5 area loading [ kN/m2 ] 4 3 2 0
BRO2 Single axle load train of the Swedish BRO type 2/3

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P1 Lane index 1 2 3
P2 Axle load [ kN] 310 210 155
BRO5 2 x 3 axle load train of the Swedish BRO type 5

Figure 5.27: BRO5

P1 Lane index 1 2 3
P2 Axle load [ kN] 250 170 0
P3 Line loading [ kN/m] 12 9 6
P4 explicit distance (minimum 6.0 m)
P5 area loading [ kN/m2 ] 4 3 2
The second train has a distance with minimum of 50 m, the individual loads with
a minimum of 10 m
BROF Fatigue relevant load train of the Swedish BRO

Figure 5.28: BROF

5.5.13 French Load Trains

The old French load trains (FASCICULE No. 61) define the loadings as mass values. According
to all other loadings they will be now defined in kN based on a conversion factor of 10.

There are two variants available:

First there is an area load of type NFA, where the load value is dependant on the loaded length.

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360 ” —
A = 2.3 + ≥ 4.0 − 0.002 · L kN/ m2 (5.24)
12 + L

While this equation is used with this loading, no action will be taken to check if a shorter loaded
length has a more severe effect.

The lane factors according paragraph 4.2 of the document can be specified with the global load
factor PFAC.

The second load train NFB describes the load trains Bc and Bt, applicable for local checks.

Type of load train NFBC NFBT

P1 Total load [ kN] 300 320
P2 Number of vehicles 1 -

According to the document only one vehicle should be loaded with braking loads, this will be
the first vehicle.

Figure 5.29: French Load Trains (FASCICULE No. 61)

The third load train NFC describes exceptional heay load trains.

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Type of loadtrain P1 P2
P.E.B. Leclerc (1999) L 96
CEREMA Semi-Remorque (2016) R 72
CEREMA Semi-Remorque (2016) R 94
CEREMA Semi-Remorque (2016) R 120
CEREMA Grue Automotive (2016) G 72
CEREMA Grue Automotive (2016) G 94
CEREMA Grue Automotive (2016) G 108

Figure 5.30: French Load Trains (CEREMA)

5.5.14 Railway train loads

Load trains of the railway are defined as axle loading in general. To get distributed loads
more data is required, this is the dimension of the ballast with the lane definition and here the
distance of the sleepers and the gauge width. There are different gauge widths, dependent on
the country code the default is:

• 1520 mm (Russian gauge) Russia, Ukraine, Finland

• 1668 mm (Iberic gauge) Spain, Portugal
• 1676 mm (Indian gauge) India, Pakistan, Argentina, Chile
• 1435 mm (Standard gauge) all others

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Load train LM71 = UIC 71 = RU (BS5400)

Figure 5.31: Load train LM 71 = UIC 71 = RU (BS5400)

Defaults: P1 = Sleeper distance / block length

0 with four single loads (Default)
>0 with distributed single loads
6.4 with simplified block load
P2 = Axle loading (250 kN)
P3 = Lane loading (80 kN/m)
P4 = Nosing force (100 kN)
PFAC = coefficient α (0.75, 0.83, 0.91, 1.00, 1.10, 1.21, 1.33, 1.46)

The type LM71 is considered for a train within a excellent maintained track. If that is not the
case, it is possible to select with type UICB a variant with impact factors for the standard
maintenance.

Loadings are defined with a possible eccentricity of 1/18 of the gauge according to EC/DIN-
Fachbericht. The direction of this eccentricity is selected according to the centrifugal force. An
explicit definition with YEX 0 deactivates this feature allowing to specify explicit values in COPY
YEX.

For a sleeper distance up to 0.8 m each load is converted to 3 single loads equal to 0.25 · PA,
0.50 · PA and 0.25 · PA at distances of P1 from each other. A value greater 0.8 will yield a
constant block load as follows:

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Figure 5.32: Load train UIC = LM 71 = UIC 71 = RU (BS5400) - Constant Block Load

Wind loading: P6 = 1.25 kN/m2

P7 = 4.00 m

Brake loading: P8 = 20.0 kN/m (constant brake load, but in total less than 6000 kN)
(-33.0 kN/m for traction, but in total less than 1000 kN)
Centre of mass: P9 = 1.8 m

Aerodynamic loading due to trains passing and derailing loading are not available.

Load train SW Schwerlastzug

Figure 5.33: Load train SW Schwerlastzug

Load train SW/2 Schwerlastzug

Figure 5.34: Load train SW/2 Schwerlastzug

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Defaults: P2 = Block load 133 kN/m / 150 kN/m

P4 = Nosing force (100 kN)

Wind loading: P6 = 1.25 kN/m2

P7 = 4.00 m

Brake loading: P8 = 20.0 kN/m (constant brake load)

P8 = 35.0 kN/m (constant brake load)

Hint
load trains SW will act also if their contributions have favourable effects.

Load train RFAT Real Load trains of EC / DIN Fachbericht etc.

Defaults: P1 = Class of load train
1 = Passenger train with engine (663 t)
2 = Passenger train with engine (530 t)
3 = High speed passenger train (940 t)
4 = High speed passenger train (510 t)
5 = freight train with engine (2160 t)
6 = freight train with engine (1431 t)
7 = freight train with engine (1035 t)
8 = freight train with engine (1035 t)
9 = suburban multiple unit train (296 t)
10 = subway - multiple unit train (360 t)
11 = freight train with engine (1135 t)
12 = freight train with engine (1135 t)
IC = German Intercity (549 t)
ICE1 = German Intercity 1 (BR401 = 780 t)
ICE2 = German Intercity 2 (BR402 = 964.68 t)
ICE3 = German Intercity 3 (BR403/406-408 = 1056.6 t)
ICE4 = German Intercity 4 (Br412 = 1092 t)
ICT2 = German Intercity T (2xBR411= 814t)
ICT3 = German Intercity T (3xBR415= 902t)
ICD2 = German Intercity 2 Version 2003 (693.6 t)
ICD3 = German Intercity 3 Version 2003 (992.6 t)
THAL = French ( 878.4 t)
TGV = French TGV (1020 t)
VIRG = British Virgin (748 t)
EURO = eurostar 373/1 (816 t)
TALG = Spanish TALGO AV 2 (680 t)
AVE = Spanish TALGO 350 (842.9 t)
ETRY = Italian ETR-Y 500 (629.6 t)

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P2 = Total load (kN)

P3 = Total length (m)
P4 = equivalent block load (kN/m)

Load values P2 to P3 are informative values only. These load trains will be applied as con-
stant block load in general, but if you specify P4 = 0.0, all individual axles (up to 96!) will be
generated. The speed of the trains will default to the values specified in the EC.

Load trains HSLM of EN1991-2 (Annex E)

Specification: P1 = characterist. Length L-lamda of HSLM-B
or Class of load train (A1 to A10)

Defaults: P2 = Axle loading (kN)

P3 = Number of inner coaches (HSLM-A)
Number of loads (HSLM-B)
P4 = Coach length (D) [ m] for HSLM-A
Distance of loads for HSLM-B [ m]

Load train RL = Railway Loading BS 5400

Figure 5.35: Load train RL = Railway Loading BS 5400

Defaults: P1 = 200 kN
P2 = 50 kN/m
P3 = 25 kN/m

Wind loading: P6 = 1.00 kN/m2

P7 = 3.7 m

Brake loading: P8 = 8.0 kN/m (constant load)

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Load train ASRT = Railway Loading 300LA according AS 5100

SIMULATED
VEHICLE COUPLER
LOCOMOTIVE
300 kN 300 kN 300 kN 300 kN 360 kN

1.7 1.1 1.7 2.0

300LA RAILWAY TRAFFIC LOADS-AXES LOADS

SIMULATED
VEHICLE LOCOMOTIVE

12 to 20 12 to 20 12 to 20 12 to 20
Repeat number (Varies) (Varies) (Varies) (Varies)
of vehicles as
necessary

Figure 5.36: Load train ASRT = Railway Loading 300LA according AS 5100

The load train 300LA of the AS 5100 consists of a locomotive and as many vehicles as nec-
essary, each of them with a variant length between 12 and 20 m. Unfortunately even with
influence line it is hardly possible to deal with an infinite number of variables, thus the load train
has always a finite number of vehicles.

Defaults: P1 = 300 kN (Axle load)

P2 = 360 kN (leading axle load)
P3 = number of vehicles (12)
P4 = fixed length of vehicles (-)

Brake loading: P8 = 100.0 + 15*(L-50) kN (continuous track)

For more than tow tracks, the loading in the third track is applied with a factor of 0.85, the fourth
track with 0.70 and all other with 0.60.

For this load train different coefficients for dynamic allowances are specified, depending on
the type of the rail fixing. (Ballast or direct fixing). These information is taken from the LANE
definition.

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5.5.15 Military NATO Load Trains (Stanag 2021)

Figure 5.37: Military NATO Load Trains (Stanag 2021)

MLC Load trains of the STANAG are given in the sixth edition in appendix A. There are the
classes P1 = 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 30 up to 150. For every class we have available:

P2 = 1 Values from column 4 (Single Axles)

P2 = 2 Values from column 2 (tracked vehicles)
P2 = 3 Values from column 3 (Wheeled vehicles)

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5.6 TRPL – Point Load of load train

See also: TRAI, TRBL, LANE, TREX

TRPL

Item Description Unit Default

P Load value of vertical load [kN] 1190 0.0

PB Load value for braking [kN] 1190 0.0
PW Load value transverse (bumping, wind) [kN] 1190 0.0
PF Value of vertical load for centrifugal load [kN] 1190 P
PFAC Factor for favourable components − 0.0
DIST A is Minimum (MIN) / absolute (ABS) distance LT ABS
A Distance to last load of train [m] 1001 0.0
DPOS Minimum distance to load refer. point [m] 1001 0.0
DMIN Influence area before [m] 1001 0.0
DMAX Influence area behind [m] 1001 0.0
Y Eccentricity to lane axis ( > 0 = to the right) [m] 1001 0.0
HW Total height of wind attack area [m] 1001 0.0
ZW Height of horizontal force [m] 1001 HW/2
HF Height of mass center [m] 1001 0.0
PHI Impact and special options (see remarks) − 1

NW Number of wheels on axle (0-7) − *

B Distance of wheels across the lane [m] 1001 0.0
BW Width of Wheel contact area [m] 1001 0.0
LW Length of wheeel contact area [m] 1001 0.0

SNO Section number for Animation − -

Parameters for multibody dynamics:
FRB Frequency for body Spring Cb 1/ sec *
DAB Modal Damping of body support − *
BOGI Load value of bogie −/ kN *
FRBO Frequency for bogie Spring Cbo 1/ sec *
DABO Modal Damping of bogie support − *
WHEE Load value of wheel −/ kN *
FRWH Frequency for wheel spring Cwh 1/ sec *
DAWH Modal Damping of wheel support − *
CONT Contact node − -

A freely defined loading by the user comprises an arbitrary number of loads defined relative to

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SOFiLOAD | Train Loading

each other. The first load determines the load reference point (x=0.0). Each further loading
is defined with a distance to the previous one.The distance of the point load to the last load
point may be either constant or variable with a minimum value. In the latter case and additional
minimum distance to the load reference point may be defined with DPOS. For the evaluation
in ELLA two additional values DMIN and DMAX may be specified for special cases describing
an influence region before and behind the load.

For the evaluation of the load trains in ELLA symmetric load trains are expected. Thus, any
definition of Y should be complemented with a second definition at the same position (A 0) with
a negative Y-value. Thus, a second value of Y2 is no longer supported. An eccentricity may be
specified with YEX with the load train. NW allows to specify directly a number of wheels with
a distance B for that load element. They loads with the same load value will then add up to a
total axle distributing the loading on all wheels of that axle.

If NW = 0 the load values will be converted to a distributed load based on the width of the load
train WIDT. (120kN distributed on 3m yield 40kN/m) and will be then clipped at the boundary
of the the current lane width. But there are also cases (KEL of HA in BS), where the load is
distributed over the lane width, which is controlled via PHI.

A definition of BW and LW will allow to create also area loadings for every wheel.
x > DPOS(4)
A1

A2 A3 A4 A5
Figure 5.38: Freely defined load train

The loading has a vertical component P, a longitudinal component PB and two components in
transverse direction. The load may be defined either as single point load, as a pair of wheels
(Definition of B < WIDT) or as distributed load (Definition of BW only or B equal to WIDT) The
true dimension of the wheel contact area is only used for COPY within SOFiLOAD, ELLA uses
only the resultant forces for the evaluation of the influence lines.

Positive loadings of PB are braking loads acting in travelling direction, negative values are
intended as accelerating loads in the reverse direction. Loads are applied at the height of the
lane.

The centrifugal loading acts in the height hs, the constant horizontal force in the height zw,
thus creating torsional moments. If the load has a width B, this moment will be applied as a
pair of forces on the lane surface, a torsional moment along the lane axis will be generated
otherwise.

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PW hw
PFSv2/gR

hs

Figure 5.39: Single load and its components

With the item OPT several options are controlled:

1 Apply impact factor

2 Multiply vertical load value with UDL-value of design code (eg.BS)
4 Multiply longitudinal load value with value of design code (eg. EN),
8 split load in transverse direction if unfavourable,
16 the load is an area load, the total load value will be adopted to the lane width
32 load is always centric, YEX is not applied

For an analysis with multi-body-dynamics it is possible to generate masses, beams, springs

and dampers via the record TREX. The mass of bogie and wheel may be specified either as a
positive absolute load value or as a negative fraction of the total mass. The default values are
specified with the record TRAI. For more information see record TREX.

As an alternate method, it is possible to associate a load train to a user defined structural model
of the load train. In that case CONT specifies the number of a node of the structural system,
which is located at the current position of the load train. If CONT is specified with a positive
number, the node will get the deformations of the structure at this point. If defined negative,
the node will get only the offset of the current position for the visualization however. This has
to be done for all nodes of the train model having no direct contact to the bridge.

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5.7 TRBL – Block Load of Load Train

See also: TRAI, TRPL, LANE, TREX

TRBL

Item Description Unit Default

P Loadvalue of vertical load [kN/ m] 1191 0.0

PB Loadvalue for braking [kN/ m] 1191 0.0
PW Loadvalue in transverse direction [kN/ m] 1191 0.0
PF Value of vertical load for centrifugal load [kN/ m] 1191 P
PFAC Factor for favourable components − 0.0
DIST A is taken as Minimum (MIN) / absolut (ABS) LT ABS
A Distance to last load of train [m] 1001 0.0
L fixed or minimum length of load [m] 1001 0.0
(positive or negative, 0 = unlimited) -
LMAX maximum length of load [m] 1001
LDEL discrete variable length: L + n · LDEL [m] 1001 0.0
Y Excentricity to lane axis ( > 0 = to the right) [m] 1001 0.0
HW Total height of wind attack area [m] 1001 0.0
ZW Height of resulting force PW [m] 1001 HW/2
HF Height of mass centre [m] 1001 0.0
PHI Impact and special options (see remarks) − 1

NW Number of tracks on axle (0-2) − *

B Distance of tracks across the lane [m] 1001 0.0
BW Width of track contact area [m] 1001 0.0

SNO Section number for Animation − -

Parameters for multibody dynamics:
FRB Frequency for body Spring Cb 1/ sec *
DAB Modal Damping of body support − *
BOGI Load value of bogie −/ kN *
FRBO Frequency for bogie Spring Cbo 1/ sec *
DABO Modal Damping of bogie support − *
WHEE Load value of wheel −/ kN *
FRWH Frequency for wheel spring Cwh 1/ sec *
DAWH Modal Damping of wheel support − *

A freely defined loading by the user comprises an arbitrary number of loads defined relative to
each other. The general parameters and remarks are given at record TRPL .

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Figure 5.40: Block loading

All load values will be treated as line loads in general. If NW = 0 the load values will be
converted to a distributed load based on the width of the load train WIDT. (12kN/m distributed
on 3m yield 4kN/m2) and will be then clipped at the boundary of the the current lane width. For
standard load trains, the definition of the code is often in that format. But there are also cases,
where the load is distributed over the lane width, which is controlled via PHI.

For NW>0 one or more line loads of the wheels or tracks will be created with the distance B. If
BW is defined, an area load may be created instead of the line load.

If only HW is specified a value for PW will be evaluated from the wind load given with the load
train wind definition.

Input values for multi-body-dynamics of line loads TRBL for record TREX will not be used
currently.

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5.8 TREX – Load Train Visualisation

See also: TRAI, TRPL, LANE

TREX

Item Description Unit Default

NO Load case number of a load train − !

GRP group number − 900
SNO Section number − 900
NODE Smallest node number − *
OPT Bitpattern for options − 3
1 Real Run / Stargate Run
2 Beam elements with hinges
4 Generate Bogies and wheels
8 without artificial rigidities

A load train may be used within DYNA as movable load (CONT). For a multibody dynamic
analysis it is possible to create beam elements from any load train including peoperties for
Boogie and wheels. The generated elements with separate nodes will be assigned to a special
group to be included in the analysis.

All nodes may be defined along the global x-axis with the real distances of the loads or col-
lapsed to the origin (0,0,0). In the latter case the load elements will appear and disappear near
the structure just before usage.

The properties of the bogie and the wheel are specified with a general model for each axis
based on the mass, the frequency and the modal damping as specified with the TRAI record.

Body
Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì

Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì

Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì Ì

Cb Db
Pbo Bogie
Cbo Dbo
Pwh Wheel
Cwh Dwh

Figure 5.41: Bogie and Wheel system of a coach

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 Train Loading | SOFiLOAD

Mb = (P − Ph − Pbo )/ g; Cb = (2πƒb )2 · Mb ; Db = 4πξb · ƒb · Mb (5.25a)

Mbo = (P − Ph )/ g; Cbo = (2πƒbo )2 · Mbo ; Dbo = 4πξbo · ƒbo · Mbo (5.25b)
2
Mh = P/ g; Ch = (2πƒh ) · Mh ; Dh = 4πξh · ƒh · Mh(5.25c)

All TREX-definitions are treated together at the very end of the program run, old definitions of
those elements will be removed for the same specified load case.

For more complex cases the load train may be modelled with finite elements in the classical
way (beams, springs, dampers, masses). Then TREX needs not to be used, but the train and
all its loads should be specified with a user defined TRAI and each single TRPL should have
its contact node properly assigned.

Hint
For a pure visualisation within the Animator the selected section should have no self
weight or stiffness, but may have any shape of the contour. Thus the group should be
selected with FACS 0.0 and FACM 0.0 in the GRP-record in DYNA

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6 Wind Loading

6.1 General
Wind is a randomly non deterministic dynamic loading. The flow of the air induces a velocity
pressure on the structure. Dynamic effects of natural wind are mainly introduced by a variance
of wind speed and thus wind pressure within time and space.

The complex action of wind is a combination of mutually influencing effects like:

• Wind climate (the global wind)

• Topology and roughness of terrain (the local wind)
• Aerodynamics, aeroeleasticity (drag coefficients and wind force derivativa)
• Structural dynamics (response of the structure)
• Design of the structure

The program SOFiLOAD allows to take into account and to simulate most of the above effects.
To use these features two extra licences are needed: SOFILOAD-W for the static wind loading
and SOFILOAD-WH for the dynamic wind loading (especially WGEN) and NONL-DYN for the
interaction analysis in DYNA.

As basic safety concept for the wind loaded structure it will be specified in the design codes or
especially for large projects in the submission that within a given time (e.g. 50 or 100 years) the
failure of the structure will be avoided with a given safety factor. The analysis itself will be based
on shorter interval - in Europe: 10 minutes - which includes the maximum wind speed of the
50-year-wind but is long enough to allow a considerable dynamic response for all resonance
frequencies. The wind speed within that interval may be described as the sum of

• a timely constant, but spatial variant basic mean wind speed (10-minute-wind) and
• a superimposed timely and spatial variant part of turbulence.

The treatment of dynamic wind effects is governed by the fact that turbulences may be only
described by statistical means: The real time-spatial wind speed is within the statistical limits
purely random. The usual analysis methods use probabilistic analysis with power spectras
(Ruscheweyh [15], Dyrbye and Hansen [16], Rosemeier [17], and Davenport [18]). As these
methods do not use the time but the energy content of the wind speeds, they yield clear and re-
liable basics for the analysis. Several steps then provide the power spectra of the deformations
and forces within the structure. The probabilistic peak value will be the result of an extremal
analysis of the spectras. At the time being, most of wind loaded structures will be analyzed
via this approach. And all modern design codes for wind use these methods to obtain wind
pressures.

National and international Design codes nowadays however use strongly simplified methods
(ECCS [19, 20]) [ 11, 12, 13] . The total map will be subdivided with 3 or 4 wind zones with
step-wise wind speeds. To facilitate the usage, several wind parameters will be set up on the
safe (unfavourable) side naturally. The complex structure is reduced to a simple single one
degree of freedom oscillator. Even then working with wind loads is still difficult. Compared to
the efforts, the results will be unsatisfactory in numerous cases: The total dynamic effects will

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SOFiLOAD | Wind Loading

be accounted for with a constant gust factor for the total structure which might be rather faulty
for individual elements. Structures with several sensible frequencies (skeletons, towers with
antennas, pedestrian and other types of bridges) are not applicable for this simplified approach.
The same holds for structures with tuned damping elements and many more cases.

The complete spectral design - the so called stochastic analysis - is rather complex and costly,
it is thus applied only for very sensitive structures (cable stayed bridges with large spans). On
the other side the stochastic analysis is still underestimating the ultimate load, because the
spectral methods are purely linear for the structure and especially for the wind loads and do
not account for any nonlinear effects. The linear relation between the angle of attack and the
wind force coefficients are seldom admissible. The stochastic analysis is further unprecise for
systems with close eigenfrequencies (e.g. tuned damper systems). Further more it has only
limited possibilities to account for interactivity (dynamic response of the structure and its effect
on the wind pressures or forces).

SOFiLOAD has been created to cope with more detailed and thus more economic wind loading
for the design of structures, overcoming the above limitations. Two of the benefits of the new
method to be stated are:

• SOFiLOAD uses the ESDU procedure to generate wind profiles accounting for the envi-
ronment of the structure - roughness, elevations - similar as but more precise than it is
foreseen partially in the most recent design codes like EN 1991-1-4.
• DYNA evaluates more precise forces and moments via transient analysis, accounting on
one side for nonlinear effects like changes of the wind forces when the cross section rotates
and on the other side for interactive behaviour like aerodynamic damping, potential flutter,
galloping and torsional galloping or discrete damping elements.

The second method is based on a mathematical turbulence generation which creates a se-
ries of random transient wind histories. The structure will be imposed via program DYNA to
that wind history and the development of deformations and forces will be recorded and su-
perimposed by statistical means to get the extreme values along the time interval. The total
methodology has been developed in the years 1992 to 1994 (Kovács, Svensson, and Jordet
[21], Kovács and Andrä [22], and Kovács [23]) and has been applied since then to many large
buildings, bridges and towers.

6.2 Wind Profiles

The wind in great heights is coherent and will be dominated only by global meteorological
conditions. Near the surface the roughness of the terrain will induce an atmospheric boundary
layer, where the wind speed is zero at the ground and will approach the limit asymptotically.
In SOFiLOAD this limit value is called "atmospheric wind" which is not in correspondence with
the general literature.

The basis is the boundary layer model from Deaves and Harris, which is also part of the ISO
4354:2009. It is combining a logarithmic profile with extra terms in larger heights accounting
for Coriollis effects. By the effect of the Coriollis forces we have a rotation of the wind direction
by 10 to 45 degrees over the height, which will be neglected here.

The SOFiLOAD-user may create the wind profile - as the first method - by defining the appro-
priate atmospheric wind speed. To facilitate this we have provided a a global wind map for

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 Wind Loading | SOFiLOAD

the 10 min wind with a return period of 50 years. This wind map has been established by us
using older wind maps and meteorological measurements. It allows a smooth interpolation of
the atmospheric wind and is therefore more elaborate than the rough subdivision of staggered
wind pressures of the older design codes.

As the newer design codes are based on a continuous wind profile, it is recommended to use
as a second method the reference mean wind profile to specify the wind profile.

For special applications like large and sensitive structures, bridges and towers it is also possible
to define explicit wind profiles.

The transformation of the atmospheric wind speed defined for a 50 year return period to an-
other time value - as it might needed for large bridges - has to be performed by the user if
needed. A rather good estimate is given by:

1 + 0.12 · ln N
VN ≈ V50 · (6.1)
1.47

The distribution of the wind speed over the height is depending on the terrain roughness and
topology. Within SOFiLOAD it is possible to define a distribution of roughness (WROU), along
the wind luv direction up to 200 km and geometric simplified elements like a hill, edge or ridge.
For the latter there are estimates given in the literature, especially in Eurocode 1991-1-4, and
in the newest EDIN 1055-4, having been implemented in SOFILOAD.

SOFiLOAD establishes from the wind definitions all other characteristic wind data which are
relevant for the description of the natural wind or the generation of the artificial wind histories
later on. The result of the wind profile thus has the following elements

• the profile of the mean wind velocities (Vmean, 10-Minutes-Wind), generally called the wind
profile;
• the profile of the 5 s - gust wind velocities;
• the profile of the longitudinal, lateral and vertical turbulence components, defined by

σk = k · Vmen , (6.2)

with k = Turbulence intensity; k = , , .

• the profile of the longitudinal, lateral and vertical integral measures of turbulence also called
the effective wave length. L is a scale measure for the turbulence spectra, it yields from the
physical meaning the effective frequency of the turbulence:

ƒk,eƒ ƒ = Vmen / Lk , (6.3)

with k = u, v, w

Input and results are also displayed graphically. For any wind definition via SOFiLOAD three
pictures will be created:

• Picture 1: Site overview and topology A plan view of the site with wind direction, coordinate
axis, roughness and topologic formations etc.;
• Picture 2: Wind speed in the boundary layer A side view of the site with roughness profile

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SOFiLOAD | Wind Loading

along the luv wind direction and the complete V mean - profile up to the atmospheric wind;
• Picture 3: Distribution of speed, turbulences and effective wave lengths A detailed side view
of the structure with all characteristic values along the structures height;

6.3 Windforce Coefficients

These are the static wind force values for a given shape of a body also called aerodynamic
coefficient (to be distinguished from the aeroelastic derivativa) yielding the forces for a uni-
form velocity field or the steady state equivalent value of the relative velocity of a structural
component to the wind field. The definition for a plane section is as follows:

F=C·q·A (6.4)

with:

F Wind force (Drag, uplift, Windmoment)

q velocity pressure
C = CD , CA , CM : Wind force coefficient
A Wind attack area or width for linear elements

For extended analysis it is also possible to define the Derivativa according to Scanlan. These
define frequency dependant forces on the structure induced from the movements of the struc-
ture in the air.
1 ξ′ Bα ′ ξ
 
L 2 2 2
Fm = + KH2
ρU B KH1 + K H3 α + K H4 (6.5)
2 U U B
1

ξ ′ Bα ′ ξ

M 2 2 2 2
Fm = ρU B KA1 + KA2 + K A3 α + K A4 (6.6)
2 U U B

The elements to be loaded with wind are selected via the GRP record. A purely steady loading
without any dynamic effects may be also created via SOFiLOAD.

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Figure 6.1: Wind force coefficients

The wind force coefficients for the element types beam, cable and truss may be defined within
AQUA for any section depending on the angle of attack. This definition is strongly recom-
mended for all dynamically sensitive structures or elements sensitive for galloping or flutter. To
obtain those values it is common practice to perform wind tunnel tests or use a CFD (Compu-
tational Fluid Dynamics) analysis.

For standard steel shapes or buildings there are values given in the literature or the design
codes. AQUA generates for steel shapes simple functions depending on the angle of attack
but without any information about galloping. SOFiLOAD has all values for rectangular and
circular sections available. The latter are dependent on the roughness and the Reynolds num-
ber. Without any specification an enclosing rectangle is assumed or in special cases only the
component in wind direction is considered with a coefficient of 2.0.

SOFiLOAD has also the possibility via records BEAM, TRUS and CABL to define additional
factors to the defined force coefficients selectively for for those type of elements individually.
Further there is the record GRP with additional factors available to define shadowing, influence
ordinates etc.

For areas it is possible to define in SOFiLOAD via AREA or QUAD explicit wind pressure or
uplift values perpendicular to the area. For cylindrical shapes according to many codes and
for planar standard roofs and walls according to DIN 1055 Teil 4 values may be selected. If no
such values are defined, all coefficients are taken to be 1.0.

If the pressures are defined in several data points from a wind tunnel test, the record WIPT
allows a comfortable method with an external FE-mesh of the data points to generate the
required loading data. Especially in case of transient loadings, this method is strongly recom-
mended.

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SOFiLOAD | Wind Loading

6.4 Turbulences and Aerodynamics

The natural wind is the sum of the mean wind velocity and the variances due to turbulence
which might be decomposed in three directions within the wind coordinate system:

• longitudinal (= parallel to the mean wind velocity)

• lateral (horizontal inclined to the wind direction) and
• vertical

The turbulence is then the sum of an infinite large number of small harmonic velocity frequen-
cies. Their distribution along the axis of frequencies is characterized by a power spectra.

The power spectra are the deterministic part of the wind load, the real kernel as the Fourier-
Integral of the turbulence time history. The power spectra of the natural wind may be described
by simple formulas according to the general pattern of the Karman spectra definition. If one
chooses then a random phase distribution for all the frequencies, it is possible to reconstruct
the Fourier-Integral of a clearly defined random time history and thus the time history itself.
This is exactly what SOFiLOAD does when generating a wind history.

The ratio between the turbulence in different locations in space are characterized by special
similarity or coherence functions. These functions define in a coarse sense the relation be-
tween gust wind velocity, the duration of the gust and the size of the gust. It is clear that
the spatial distribution of the gust has a large influence on the forces within the structure.
SOFiLOAD works with natural sizes of the gust which are otherwise overestimated in most
design codes considerably. (Davenport’s model with constant size of the gust in all heights).

The coherence algorithm of the wind history generation has to reflect that the similarity between
two natural wind histories in two points must become smaller with larger distances. This decay
of correlation is described in the literature in different ways depending on the author of the
publication, but may be generalized by the use of the half value distance (Kovács, Svensson,
and Jordet [21]), where the square root of the coherence of the stochastic process has reduced
from the full value of 1.0 ( full coherence with distance zero) to a value of 0.5. Each turbulence
along any of the axis has the same function of similarity. Thus the coherence of the natural
wind is described by a 3 by 3 matrix of the half value distances. For more details see notes for
the record WSPE.

6.5 Response Dynamics

SOFiLOAD generates from the wind profile, the turbulence spectra, the coherence and some
random numbers artificial random wind histories, based on the theoretical considerations in
Kovács, Svensson, and Jordet [21] , to be used then within the program DYNA with a transient
dynamic analysis of the structure. By applying a sufficiently large number of such histories it
is possible to establish a statistically based proof of the ultimate state limit or a serviceability
state limit including any material or geometric nonlinear effects available.

Such a design based on transient analysis facilitates the design process of a structural sys-
tem against wind loading to a great extent. Instead of a simple dynamic gust factor we have
dynamic forces and stresses available for all points of the structure which might be introduced
into the design process directly. By repeating the process for a reworked structure it is possible

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 Wind Loading | SOFiLOAD

to optimize it for the wind loading criteria.

The first step of a wind analysis is always a static wind load (basic load case), introducing all
values needed for the wind history generation. Based on this data the random time histories
will be generated in a second step within time and space.

The transient analysis in DYNA is nonlinear by using the nonlinear wind force coefficients de-
fined within AQUA. The analysis is interactive as it is considered that the structure will move
within the wind field and will thus modify the relative wind speed in all cases by a vectoral su-
perposition of the structural and the wind velocity. Only by this feature important aerodynamic
effects may be simulated like aerodynamic damping or the bending galloping excitation.

The aerodynamic damping is introduced into the simulation with the den-Hartog formulas, i.e.
as a stationary approach automatically. (It should be noted here, that despite the important
effect it is hardly accounted for in German design codes) Also the bending galloping excitation
is automatically introduced in the analysis if the wind force coefficients have been properly
defined in AQUA.

The more enhanced possibilities to check for torsional galloping and general flutter are only
available with the inclusion of the Scanlan derivativa.

Last not least it should be pointed out, that the treatment of critical wind effects is also a
complicate matter of safety definitions (see e.g. Kovács and Andrä [22]). This manual will not
state any rules for that, the user will need to find its own demands for that purpose.

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6.6 Atmospheric Wind Map

Figure 6.2: 50-Year-Wind / 10-Minute-Mean value of the atmospheric wind velocity in infinite height

The theoretical background of this map is the 2D wind profile from ESDU [24, 25]. The term
atmospheroc wind is the asymptotic value for the wind profile allowing to extrapolate from the
wind in low heights the velocity in the atmosphere. The same term will be addressed in ESDU
[24, 25] as gradient wind, UG . However for UG there are more contradictory definitions in the
literature (e.g. as the wind speed in a height of 300 - 500 m for a roughness of the surface of
0.05). The new name should allow to distinguish this meaning from the other definitions.

The sources (see Bibliography; meteorological measurements, maps within the design codes)
normally refer to a height of 10 m above ground and other reference parameters. The atmo-
spheric map has been extrapolated from these data.

There are differences between the data. We had to judge on the reliability of the data and will

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 Wind Loading | SOFiLOAD

give more details about our selection:

Germany
In the region of north and Baltic sea, there are sufficient meteorological measurements in
Schmidt [26]. The statistical evaluation by the "Deutsche Wetterdienst" have been slightly
modified (reduced Weibull coefficients)

In the region of the north sea there has been a good match between measurements in Schmidt
[26] and specifications in ECCS [19] , ECCS [20] and the regional values in [ 13] . The regional
values of Eurocode [ 12] /A however appeared much to high and have been ignored (numbers
from [ 12] /A are from the very first version of [ 13] .

Control calculations for the German costal regions have shown that the roughness for the
offshore region with strong winds may be chosen to 0.005 m. SOFiLOAD will use this value in
all cases. design codes however quite often use 0.01. So it might happen, that the program
will evaluate 6 to 8 % higher wind speeds for locations at the coast. This is also valid for all
other coastal regions. To get closer to the design codes it is recommended to add a region
with the roughness of 0.01 before the building.

For central Germany the ECCS iso lines ECCS [19], ECCS [20] are rather on the conservative
side. This is not only compared with french design codes (a high jump at the boarder) [ 12] /A)
but also compared to Caspar [27]. At Rhine and in the Pfalz the isolines have been adopted to
the regional values of France. For eastern parts of central Germany mainly the evaluations of
Caspar [27] have been taken into account. The values from Caspar however have a rather high
variation of the yearly maximum, as the author has accounted for some confidential corrections
due to insufficient measurement data. The isolines are based on a mean variation value of 12
% (Davenport suggests in general 10 %).

In Central Europe thus we have slower wind speeds than those of the design codes. On the
other side some values of the Caspar papers show that it is much more important to account
for the local topology.

South of the line Freiburg - Nuremberg the maps of ECCS [19], ECCS [20] have been used.
the values are rather close to the DIN assumptions.

France
Base was the regional map in [ 12] /A. Between the regions we have interpolated. Compared
to [ 12] /A the maps in ECCS [19], ECCS [20] show unrealistic high wind speeds. (20 %
deviations). [ 12] /A shows, that the wind speed at the Biscaya is considerably lower than that
of the North Sea.

Great Britain, Ireland

Derived form the map ESDU [24]. There is a good match with [ 12] /A. The regional map of
Great Britain assumes a typical roughness of 0.03 (instead of 0.05). For sites in Great Britain
the roughness should be specified explicitly with a default value of 0.03.

The wind speeds according to ECCS [19], ECCS [20] are up to 25 % higher than those of
ESDU [24]; the difference is assumed to be caused by a inconsequent usage of reference
roughness in ECCS [19], ECCS [20].

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Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Finland

The basics of the map are derived from [ 11] /A; some individual reports for tenders have been
incorporated (Great Belt, Öresund, Göteborg, Helgeland, Höga-Kusten).

Italy, Greece
According to [ 11] . As these are regional maps, the wind speeds will be on the conservative
side, especially for the isles of the Aegis.

Spain, Portugal
Mainly according to ECCS [19], ECCS [20]; for Portugal additional data from [ 12] /A) has
been taken into account.

Eastern Europe
According to ECCS [20] with a transition to the Scandinavian codes in the Baltic region.

Higher Altitudes
For the influence of the altitude ECCS [20] has a factor cALT , defined in the national contribu-
tions to ECCS [20]/A. In general cALT will become greater 1.0 in altitudes from 500 - 800 m.
For example in Germany we have (for altitudes 800 - 1100 m):

cALT = 1.0 − 1.14 (6.7)

An exception is in Great Britain where we have:

cALT = 1 + 0.001 · hg [m] (6.8)

This last increase has not been taken into account in the map. Thus it is recommended to
account for this effect in Great Britain via the topology.

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6.7 WIND – Windparameters

See also: WPRO, WROU, WTOP, WSPE, WGEN, WTST

WIND

Item Description Unit Default

CODE Wind according to LT ATMO

ATMO Atmospheric wind
EN Eurocode 1991-1-4
ISO ISO 4354 (2009)
DIN DIN 1055-4 (2006)
SIA SIA 216 (2003)
VGB VGB-BTR (1997/2005)
SP SP 20.13330.2011 (SNIP 2.01.07-85)
ZONE Windzone / Windspeed ∗ *
CLAS Category of terrain − *
I to IV depending on Design code
A to C depending on Design code
K mixed profile for coast (DIN)
B mixed profile for inland (DIN)
GH Groundlevel in system coordinates [m] 1006 0
kg/ m3 1236
 
RHO density of the air 1.25
LAT geografical lattitude (for ATMO) [◦] -
VB0 optional explicit reference wind speed [m/ sec] 1201 *
or factor for season and wind direction
VP0 optional explicit gust wind speed [m/ sec] 1201 *
kN/ m2 1192
 
QP0 optional explicit reference pressure *
Z0 optional explicit roughness [m] 1001 *
HMIN Height with constant wind speed [m] 1006 *

DX Direction of the wind − 0.0

DY (define one component at least!) − 0.0
DZ − 0.0

XREF Point in reference plane for dynamic [m] 1001 0.0

YREF wind generation [m] 1001 0.0
ZREF [m] 1001 0.0
DXR Direction of the reference plane − *
DYR (default: perpendicular to wind direction) − *
DZR − *

A wind profile will be generated defining the wind speed along the height. The type of the profile
is selected via the item NORM. For the distribution of the wind you may choose between:

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• the literal ATMO (the default), creating a profile based on the atmospheric wind speed,
which may be defined at item ZONE. The 50-year reference value for ATMO may be taken
from the wind map in paragraph 6.6 (Default: 60 m/sec for ZONE). The program generates
a theoretical logarithmic profile taking into account the roughness of the terrain based on
the flow models described in [ 8.1, 8.2] .
• one of the listed classical design codes. The program then generates wind profiles con-
forming to those design codes. Although the codes contain only a static wind profile, it is
possible for those standard wind profiles to perform a transient dynamic analysis. The pro-
gram will select the missing parameters (gust speed, turbulence, coherence) automatically
with a reasonable value.
• a reference velocity VB0 or a reference pressure QP0 resp. VP0 with a roughness.
• an explicit profile along the height. The detailed definition is done via the record WPRO.
NORM does not need to be specified in that case, some selected NORM data will be
ignored respectively.

Most design codes have a map and/or a table to let the user select a wind zone or base
mean velocity or a reference peak pressure. Some values have to be adjusted at greater alti-
tudes. Some design codes allow also a more detailed specification with topological formations
(WTOP). Some design codes use an exponential wind profile instead of the logarithmic one.

The second characteristic values to define the velocity over the height is the roughness of the
terrain. This is defined by a roughness height z0, definable explicitly or via a terrain categories
(CLAS). For changing terrain conditions, a more detailed definition with (WROU) is available.

The following table shows an overview of the possible Norm and class values.

Design code EN ISO DIN VGB SIA SNIP

1991-1-4 4354 1055 261 2.01.07
Wind zones 1-9(2) VG0 1-4 1-4 1-4 Ia-VII
(default)) country (2) (2) (2) II
Roughness classes 0,I-IV 1-4 I-IV I, II II,IIa A-C
terrain category etc. K, B III,IV (B)
No of edges/ridges 1 1 1 0 0 0

Some historic German design codes 1056, 4131, 4133 und 4228 are also still available. (Wind
zones definable with 0 to IV, default is II):

It has to be noted, that the Eurocode 1991 foresees the definition of the wind profiles within
the national annexes. The national annex is preselected from the global NORM definition, but
may be also appended with a colon at the EN (e.g. EN:NF for France) Thus it is not possible
to elect only EN if the country code does not allow to select the appropriate national annexe.
In any case it is possible to specify only the base wind speed with a value of the ZONE larger
than 10.

The following list is an noncommittal overview which can not replace the lecture of the relevant
documents.

OEN:Austria table of wind speeds 17.6 - 28.3 m/sec

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NBN:Belgium 1 2 3 4
b [m/ sec] d,s,p 26.0 25.0 24.0 23.0
BDS:Bulgaria map of contours of wind pressures 0.18 - 0.80 kN/m2
CSN:Czechia 1 2 3 4 5
b [m/ sec] 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0 36.0
HRN:Croatia 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
b [m/ sec] 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 48.0
DS:Denmark 1 2
b [m/ sec] d,s 24.0 27.0
EVS:Estonia unique wind speed of 21.0 m/sec
SFS:Finland 1 (main land) 2 (sea area) 3 (mountains)
b [m/ sec] 21.0 22.0 26.0
NF:France 1 2 3 4
b [m/ sec] d,s 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 in oversea up to 36.0
DIN:Germany 1 2 3 4
b [m/ sec] h,e 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0
BS:Great Britain map of contours of wind speeds 21.5 - 31.0 m/sec
Greece 1 (coastal area) 2 (main land)
b [m/ sec] 33.0 27.0
MSZ:Hungary unique wind speed of 23.6 m/sec
Island unique wind speed of 36.0 m/sec
Ireland map of contours of wind speeds 25.0 - 28.0 m/sec
UNI:Italy 1,2 3 4-6 7 8 9
b [m/ sec] 25.0 27.0 28.0 29.0 30.0 31.0
LVS:Latvia 1 2 3
b [m/ sec] 21.0 24.0 27.0
LST:Lithuania 1 2 3
b [m/ sec] 32.0 28.0 24.0
Luxembourg unique wind speed of 24.0 m/sec
NEN:Netherlands I II III
b [m/ sec] 29.5 27.0 24.5
NS:Norway map of contours of wind speeds 22.0 - 31.0 m/sec
tables for coefficients for altitude, wind direction and season
NP:Poland 1 2 3
b [m/ sec] h,d,e 22.0 26.0 22.0
NP:Portugal A B
b [m/ sec] 27.0 30.0
SR:Romania 1 2 3 4
b [m/ sec] 27.0 30.0 35.0 33.0
STN:Slovakia 1 2 3 4
b [m/ sec] h,e 24.0 26.0 30.0 33.0
SIST:Slovenia 1 2 3 4
b [m/ sec] h,e 20.0 25.0 30.0 40.0
UNE:Spain A B C (See DBSE-AE 2007)

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b [m/ sec] 26.0 27.0 29.0

SS:Sweden map of contours of wind speeds 21.0 - 26.0 m/sec

The Eurocode provides with equations 4.1 and 4.2 a modification of the base value with factors
for the wind directions, the season and other probabilities. This is (as far a known) marked with
an Index d,s,p. The product of these factors may be defined with VB0 and the unit − or the
total reduced wind speed with the unit m/ sec.

Implemented corrections depending on the altitude are marked with a superscript "‘h"’. Expo-
nential wind profiles are marked with a superscript "‘e"’.

The Swiss SIA 261 provides a map of contours of wind pressures at gradient heights.

The Indian design code IS 875 provides a map with basic wind velocities. between 33 and
55 m/sec. The mean velocity and the gust wind speeds are obtained from that value by three
factors k1, k2 and k3. While the coefficient k2 is evaluated by SOFiLOAD, the other two have
to be combined to a value VG0 = Vb·k1·k3 at this record. The specification of the wind zone I
to VI itself is of less importance. However for the categroy the structure class A (d < 20m), B
(20 < d < 50) or C (d > 50m) has to be combined with the terrain category 1 to 4 to a single
input data 1A to 4C. The density of the fluid defaults with that design code to 1.20 kg/m3 .

The coordinate values DX, DY, DZ will define the direction of the mean wind in the coordinate
system of the building. The reference point REF and the direction DR are only of relevance
for a dynamic wind history. The define a so called vertical reference plane which should fulfill
the coherence properties to the best degree according to the wishes of the user. More details
to this question are given at record WSPE. For the definition of the above points, all three
coordinates are available as the orientation of the coordinate system of the structure may have
any orientation.

GH specifies the height of the terrain in structural coordinates. This is the origin of the so
called wind coordinate system to be used for all input and output. The coordinates of the
heights within the picture 3 created by SOFiLOAD are thus measured not within the structural
system but the wind coordinate system.

The density of the air defines the conversion between velocities and pressures. It is depending
on the temperature, the moisture and the air pressure respective elevation. It is assumed to be
constant for the total structure.

The geographical latitude LAT defines via the Coriolis force (Ekmann-Spiral) the height of the
atmospheric boundary layer and the distribution of the mean wind speed along the height. The
default yields f=0.0001.

HMIN defines the height above ground which contains the constant part of the wind profile.
Below HMIN the profile is extended as constant and no special turbulence properties will be
developed. If the design code does not specify such a value, 10.0 m will be the default.

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6.8 WPRO – Wind profils

See also: WIND, WPRO, WROU, WTOP, WSPE, WGEN

WPRO

Item Description Unit Default

H Height above ground [m] 1006 !

V Mean value of wind speed (10-min-wind) [m/ sec] 1201 *
VBOE Gust wind peak value (5-sec-wind) [m/ sec] 1201 *
TLON longitudinal turbulence [m/ sec] 1201 *
TLAT lateral turbulence [m/ sec] 1201 *
TVER vertical turbulence [m/ sec] 1201 *
LLON effective longitudinal wave length L [m] 1001 *
LLAT effective lateral wave length L [m] 1001 *
LVER effective vertical wave length L [m] 1001 *

Enables the definition of individual wind profiles by up to 9 WPRO records. The value of the
height H must be specified for all WPRO-record and the list must be sorted by increasing H
values.

Any single WPRO-definition will invalidate all recent NORM or ATMO definitions. Only the
explicit WPRO definitions will be used from then.

The input of the values does not need to be complete or consist of uniform types of values. A
simple value of H, V or VBOE will be sufficient. Gaps will be filled by SOFiLOAD on its own as
reasonable as possible. Physically contradictions will be corrected as far as possible. Thus the
following input definitions are possible:

LC 100
WIND DY 1
WPRO 50 V 52.5

defines a logarithmic profile with a prescribed wind velocity at a height of 50 m for a terrain
roughness of 0.050 m (farmland); or

LC 8200
WIND DY 1
WPRO 15 V 30
WPRO 30 VBOE 58
WPRO 45 TLON 5.55 TVER 2.22 LLON 250

enforces a not really sound or even matching set of all characteristic parameters.

In such a case with not really clear definitions, which might be a real case if only sparse data is
available for the site of the structure, it is strongly recommended to check the diagrams created
by SOFiLOAD (especially picture No 3.) and modify the input in such a way until a reasonable

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smooth wind profile is obtained. According to Karman, the value VBOE should be equal to
V + ψ · TLON, where ψ is 2.65 – 0.433 * 1-0.5772*ln(LLON/V)**2.

The lateral and vertical turbulences as well as the corresponding wave length will be needed
only in case of a dynamic wind generation. Their input is of no importance therefore for purely
static wind design.

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6.9 WROU – Roughness for wind

See also: WIND, WPRO, WTOP, WSPE, WGEN

WROU

Item Description Unit Default

SEA Distance to the Sea [km] 1000 -200

(only distances nearer than -200 km will have an ef-
fect)
A1 Distance of 1st section to structure [km] 1000 !
R1 Roughness of section [m] 1001 0.05
A2 Distance of 2nd section to structure [km] 1000 -
R2 Roughness of section [m] 1001 0.05
A3 Distance of 3rd section to structure [km] 1000 -
R3 Roughness of section [m] 1001 0.05
A4 Distance of 4th section to structure [km] 1000 -
R4 Roughness of section [m] 1001 0.05
A5 Distance of 5th section to structure [km] 1000 -
R5 Roughness of section [m] 1001 0.05
A6 Distance of 6th section to structure [km] 1000 -
R6 Roughness of section [m] 1001 0.05
A7 Distance of 7th section to structure [km] 1000 -
R7 Roughness of section [m] 1001 0.05
A8 Distance of 8th section to structure [km] 1000 -
R8 Roughness of section [m] 1001 0.05
A9 Distance of 9th section to structure [km] 1000 -
R9 Roughness of section [m] 1001 0.05

The wind profile is influenced by the distribution of the roughness of the terrain on the luv side
of the structure, called the roughness profile. A change of the roughness in a distinct distance
from the site will create a bench in the wind velocity profile in a certain height and a jump in the
profile of the gust wind velocity, visible in the pictures created by SOFiLOAD (pict. 2):

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Figure 6.3: Roughness profile (WIND ATMO 75 DX 1 ; WROU A1 -25 0.01[m] -3 0.30[m])

The roughness profile may be specified with the record WROU against the luv side of the struc-
ture up to a distance of -200 km. However a maximum of 9 sections with different roughness
are allowed. The input for every section i has a (negative) distance of the start of the section
to the structure and the roughness Ri = within that section. To specify the correct mean value
for the effective roughness an influence width should be taken into account within an aperture
angle of 60◦ respective to the structure.

The roughness value itself is equivalent to the roughness measure in the literature defining an
integration constant for the differential equation of the fluid flow, usually called z0 [ m] , but
with no direct physical meaning. Values taken from the literature for various terrain conditions
are:

Type of terrain z0[m]

broad free water surfaces 0.005
shallow sand areas 0.020
Meadows with hedges and single houses 0.050
(is the effective roughness in Germany) (default)
Suburbans and forests 0.300
Towns with buildings higher than 15 m 1.000

Roughness values larger than 1.0 m can not be treated by SOFiLOAD. The default is a homo-
geneous roughness of z0 = 0.050 m.

The treatment of costal regions via SEA has the following background: the atmospheric wind
is influenced only by the global roughness which is uniform for sea and landside. At a coast

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like the northern sea there is a rather smooth transition. The wind from the seas side, which
is the only important case will create two boundary layers. The lower one is influenced by the
land, while the upper is governed by the sea. The limit between those layers is increasing in
the height when going to the interior of the landside. The limit will me manifested by a bend in
the wind profile. This point may be within the height of a structure. This special case will be
modelled by defining the SEA and prevent the over estimation of the wind speed.

The definition of SEA will create a steadily increasing roughness profile derived from measure-
ments and statistical analysis of the German Weather Service (DWD) in the North Sea region.
Thus SEA is only usable to model the German North or Baltic Sea or a similar flat coast region.
For a steep or rocky coast SEA should not be specified.

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6.10 WTOP – Topology for Wind

See also: WIND, WPRO, WROU, WSPE, WGEN

WTOP

Item Description Unit Default

TYPE Type of topological element LT !

HILL a hill
EDGE an edg
RIDG a ridge
XM Position of epi-centrum (Summit or low [m] 1001 0.0
YM point in global coordinates) [m] 1001 0.0
ZM [m] 1001 0.0
DX Direction of main extension = − 0.0
DY local x-axis of a hill or edge or ridge − 0.0
DZ − 0.0
H Height of summit above ground [m] 1006 !
B Width (lokal y-direction) [m] 1001 1000
L Length (lokal x-direction) [m] 1001 -

For wind profiles created from the atmospheric wind or from individual wind profiles, there
are possibilities for geometric elements like hills, edges (sometimes called steps) or ridges in
the vicinity of the structure as well as on the luv as on the lee-side. They influence the wind
speed distribution which is accounted for approximately based on the wind tunnel tests and
evaluations given in Maier-Erbacher [28].

For a hill the epi-centrum is at the top of the hill, for an edge or ridge it might be chosen
arbitrarily along the top line. The longitudinal axis of the hill or the top line of an edge or a ridge
is oriented in direction DX,DY,DZ. For an edge it is also important to know about the sign of
the direction. According to the next picture, the foot line of the elevation is always on the right
hand side of the direction vector.

DX,DY
DX,DY

DX,DY

Figure 6.4: Topology: a) WTOP HILL XM 1000 500 DX 2 4.4 H 300 1400 2600, b) WTOP RIDG YM 1000
DX -1 2 H 400 2500, c) WTOP EDGE 1000 0 DX 1.9 -1 H 500 2100

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H is intended as the height at the epi-centrum relative to the base. H may be defined either
as positive or negative. A value H > 0 will raise the wind velocities in general, while a value
H > 0 will smooth the flow such that in the lower part of the boundary layer the mean velocity
will become higher and the turbulence lower. With H < 0 the influence is opposite, but the
favourable effect of this formation is applied only with 50 % on the save side.

The influence of the topology is nonlinear and thus should not be superimposed in general.
To be more precise, the superposition will yield reliable results only if the effect within the plan
view is considerably different, i.e. the dimensions of the elements are considerably different.
Topology effects with more than 50 to 60 km extensions are already included in the atmospheric
wind map, the definition of such elements would thus double the effects. Proper definitions do
not contain more than two elements, one of which has an extension of about 10- 30 km, while
the other (rather local) has not more than 1 to 2 km.

Wind definitions according to standard design codes will not allow for such provisions in gen-
eral. An exception is the EC, resp the ’1991’ and ’1055’, but even then only a single edge or
a ridge. Both codes use the same approach which is implemented in SOFiLOAD. Both codes
allow only one single formation and the correction of the wind velocities is in general surely on
the save side. H is allowed only with a positive value if combined with a standard code. An
improper definition (number of elements, type and size of elements etc.) will always yield an
error message.

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6.11 WSPE – Wind Spectra

See also: WIND, WPRO, WROU, WTOP, WGEN, WTST

WSPE

Item Description Unit Default

TYPE General type of wind spectra LT KARM

KARM Karman (1948)
CEN Eurocode EN 1991 (2005)
DAVE Davenport (1967)
HARR Harris (1970)
KAIM Kaimal (1970)/Simiu/Scanlan
FMV Fichtl/McVehil (neutral)
FMU Fichtl/McVehil (unstable)
LON explicit longitudinal spectrum −/ LT -
LAT explicit lateral spectrum −/ LT -
VER explicit vertical spectrum −/ LT -
C3D Longitudinal factor − 1.0

CTYP Type of coherence function LT ESDU

ESDU ESDU/Karman
DAV1 Davenport Wurzel
DAV2 Davenport Quadrat
KREN Krenk
KUU coherency for ESDU − 0.2206
KUV coefficients of half value distance − 0.1136
KUW Distance defined where the value of the − 0.1136
KVU root of the coherences has diminished − 0.1103
KVV by a factor of 2. − 0.1672
KVW − 0.1672
KWU coherency for Davenport/Krenk − 0.1103
KWV the coefficients Cij in the equation − 0.1672
KWW (no defaults so far) − 0.1672

With WSPE the power spectra of the turbulence components of the wind and the coherence for
a dynamic wind generation are defined. The definition of TYPE will select appropriate functions
for all three directions. However it is possible to select for any direction (LON, LAT, VER) an
explicit typed spectra or a modified spectrum defined with RESP.

6.11.1 Spectra
Spectra are defined in the scaled form introduced by Karman along the frequency axis as

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follows:
ƒ ·S 1 · X + 2 · X 2 + 3 · X 3
= (6.9)
σ2 (1 + b · X c )d

ƒ ƒ ·L
X= = (6.10)
ƒm V

where L is the effective wave length defined with the wind profile and thus fm is the effective
frequency of the turbulence. Spectra from Kaimal and Panofsky use for X the Monin coordi-
nates, replacing L by the height z. The spectra from Fichtl/McVehil will be used with coefficients
scaled to the Monin-coordinates as well.

The shape of the spectra are different for different directions, therefore the six
coefficients a1, a2, a3, b1, b2, c are defined for three components. There
are other deviations dependent on the author or the type of spectra taken from
the literature. The most important are available and may be selected directly.
a1 a2 a3 b c d X
Karman longitudinal 4.000 0.0 0.0 70.8 2 5/6 ƒ · L/ 
Karman lateral 4.000 0.0 3021 283.0 2 11/6 ƒ · L/ 
CEN 6.800 0.0 0.0 10.2 1 5/3 ƒ · L/ 
CENL 9.400 0.0 0.0 14.1 1 5/3 ƒ · L/ 
1200·ƒ
Davenport 0.0 0.667 0.0 1.0 2 4/3 (10)
1800·ƒ
Harris 0.374 0.0 0.0 0.5 2 5/6 (10)

Kaimal 33.33 0.0 0.0 50.0 1 5/3 ƒ · z/ 

Kaimal lateral 2.50 0.0 0.0 9.5 1 5/3 ƒ · z/ 
Panofsky Lumely 0.56 0.0 0.0 10.0 5/3 1 ƒ · z/ 
Fichtl/McVehil 54.38 0.0 0.0 36.5 0.845 5/3c ƒ · z/ 
Fichtl/McVehil lat 66.17 0.0 0.0 30.5 0.781 5/3c ƒ · z/ 

The defaults for the longitudinal / lateral / vertical coefficients from type KARM follow the ap-
proach introduced by Karman, which describes the reality in the best way according to common
practice. A deviation from that should be made only in special cases. A second common ap-
proach is the Eurocode-Spectra (part 2-4 Appendix B.11, Type CEN), a simplified form of the
Karman spectra to become more important with the application of Eurocodes. There are two
classical spectra available, the spectra from Davenport (DAVE), which is very popular in the
above form in Germany and Central Europe. Dave is not mathematical correct in its asymp-
totic behaviour, and has been corrected therefore multiple times, however it is mostly used in
its original form. DAVE describes as well as Harris (HARR) spectra only the longitudinal com-
ponent. The missing two other directions are calculated with the Karman formulas therefore.
DAVE and HARR use a simplified scaling with small deviations from the Karman approach.

An other possible choice are the formulas published by Fichtl/McVehil (NASA TN D 5584,

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1970).
ƒ ·S C · (ƒ / ƒm )
= 5 (6.11)
β · σ2 r
1 + 1.5 · (ƒ / ƒm ) 3r

C β r fm
neutral longitudinal 6.198 (z/18)−0.63 0.845 0.03(z/18)
neutral lateral 3.954 (z/18)−0.35 0.781 0.1(z/18)0.58
unstable longitudinal 2.905 (z/18)−0.14 1.235 0.04(z/18)0.87
unstable lateral 4.599 (z/18)−0.04 1.144 0.033(z/18)0.72

ƒ · SLongtdn 200 · ƒz
= (6.12)
∗2 (1 + 50 · ƒz )5/ 3

ƒ · SLter 15 · ƒz
= (6.13)
∗2 (1 + 9.5 · ƒz )5/ 3

ƒ · SVertc 3.36 · ƒz
= (6.14)
∗2 1 + 10 · ƒz5/ 3

ƒ ·z
ƒz = (6.15)
U(z)

To compare the different formulas, the next picture shows the longitudinal components of the
implemented spectras: the relative displacement of the maximum from DAVE, HARR and
NASA compared to the Karman spectrum is a consequence of the different scaling.

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 Wind Loading | SOFiLOAD

Figure 6.5: Spectras in comparison

There is sometimes the need to change individual spectral components. This can be done with
a definition of a special preselected type or a number of a load function with a RESP WIND.
There it is possible to define coefficients explicitly for a specific tender or a foreign design
code. Only formulas matching the general definitions are allowed. It should be also taken care
of the correct definition of all six values in those cases. The correct definition for a longitudinal
spectrum with a higher value of the constant a1 (5.0 instead of 4.0) is then:

LC nn ; RESP WIND KARM SA 5.0

LC mm ; WIND WSPE KARM LO nn

Any spectrum including the individual defined spectra have to fulfill as all other implemented
spectra the normalization condition:
Z∞
S(ƒ )dƒ
Ψ= = 1.0 (6.16)
0 ƒ

SOFiLOAD will check for any use of WGEN the normalization in the highest and lowest point
of the structure and will flag any deviation with more than +/- 5% for Ψ. In those cases the
simplest remedy is to scale the coefficients a1, a2, a3 within a new definition of WSPE by 1/Ψ.
For larger deviations a check of the function definition is strongly recommended.

6.11.2 Coherence
The coherence function implemented in SOFiLOAD are according ESDU 86010 (ESDU [25],
chapter 7, appendix A2).

ƒ · Δ
 
p
coherence = γ (Δ) = exp − (6.17)
V

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SOFiLOAD | Wind Loading

p € Š
coherence = γ (Δr) = exp −1.15η1.5
1
(6.18)

p € Š
coherence = γ (Δr) = exp −0.65η1.3
1
(6.19)

These ESDU functions are a good approximation to the function given by Karman analytically.
The matrix of coherence defines an isotropic coherence, which is distorted however near the
surface due to roughness effects (ESDU [25]). The function is corrected near the surface
automatically and does not need to be corrected for that case. Only these functions are allowed
for the generation of a transient wind field.

However, for a spectral analysis all types of coherence function may be used. The most com-
mon formula is that of Davenport from 1962:
ƒ
γk ≈ ep(−C · r · ) (6.20)
V

A general conversion of the coefficients of these functions is not possible. For the Davenport
formulation care should be taken, as there are also coefficients in use which are defined for
the coherence γ2k itself. These coefficients are larger by a factor of 2.

A better approach are the modified exponential functions of Krenk Dyrbye and Hansen [16],
which account for negative coherence as well as for the decay of the coherence for zero fre-
quencies for larger separation distances. A comparison can be done with the record WTST.

 n ‹  n

‹
Ψ (r , ry , rz , n) = 1 − · rc exp − · rc (6.21)
2U U

r

2
rc = (C r )2 + Cy ry + (Cz rz )2 (6.22)

v
2
U
u 
n = +
t
n2 (6.23)
2πL

The coherence γ(η) will thus be controlled via the half value distance factor η1 , thus the dis-
tance where the square root γ of the coherence diminishes by a factor of 2. This factors η1
have to be defined for the coherence factor kk . For high frequencies and large heights we
have:
V
HWDk = kk · (6.24)
ƒ

Δr
η1 ≈ 2π · ƒ · (6.25)
Vm

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 Wind Loading | SOFiLOAD

with:

 first Index , , = Turbulence component

k second Index , , = Separation direction (axis along which the coherence is
checked)

If for example in picture A2 of the ESDU for the root of coherence γ = 0.5 a value η = 0.7
is taken. Then an approximate value of k = 0.7/ (2π) = 0.11 is obtained. The default of
the elements of the Kj -Matrix is slightly conservative taking into account measurements of
the last 30 years. It is possible to change single elements individually. The values define a
homogenous coherence which is stretched at the surface depending on the roughness.(ESDU
[25]) The values thus are larger than the original values from Davenport.

6.11.3 Turbulence Field

The turbulence field generated by SOFiLOAD is mainly the result of a 2D-turbulence generation
within the reference plane defined within the WIND-record:

Y Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ

WX Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ

Õ Õ Õ

WY
Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ

Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ

Referenzebene
Ò Ò Ò Ò Ò Ò
Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ

Ò Ò Ò Ò Ò Ò
Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ

Referenzpunkt
Ò Ò Ò Ò Ò Ò
Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ Õ

X
Ò Ò Ò Ò Ò Ò

Ò Ò Ò Ò Ò Ò

Windrichtung
Figure 6.6: wind reference systems

The axis WX, WY and the vertical gravity direction WZ define a skewed coordinate system
where the longitudinal, lateral and vertical turbulence is calculated along the reference plane
defined by WY and WZ following the coherence within that plane. This pattern of turbulence
moves than along the wind direction in a frozen form passing the structure, ie. the coherence in
wind direction is always 1.0, the history is identical only with a different phase. This approach
may be in rare cases to much on the safe side. Examples for this are structures repeating
itself along the wind direction showing a resonance with the frequency of the excitement not
observed in nature. In those cases a correction with a slightly change of value C3D ̸= 1.0 may
help.

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6.12 WTST – Test of coherency

See also: WIND, WPRO, WROU, WTOP, WSPE

WTST

Item Description Unit Default

TYPE Component to be tested LT !

KUU, KUV, KUW
KVU, KVV, KVW
KWU, KWV, KWW
NEIG Number of frequencies − 0
LC Loadcase number of first eigen value − 1
XREF coordinate of reference point [m] 1001 0.0
YREF coordinate of reference point [m] 1001 0.0
ZREF coordinate of reference point [m] 1001 0.0
RX Extension in global X-direction [m] 1001 0.0
RY Extension in global Y-direction [m] 1001 0.0
RZ Extension in global Z-direction [m] 1001 0.0
COMP Comparison curve LT KREN
DAV1 Davenport, 1977
DAV2 Davenport, 1968
KREN Krenk, 1995
CU coefficient according Krenk/Davenport [] -
CV coefficient according Krenk/Davenport [] -
CW coefficient according Krenk/Davenport [] -

If no frequencies are selected, the coherence between point (XREF,YREF,ZREF) and

(XREF+RX,YREF+RY,ZREF+RZ) are shown as a function of the frequency n · r/ U.

If frequencies are selected, the coherence from (XREF,YREF,ZREF) along the direction
(RX,RY,RZ) for all selected frequencies will be calculated and presented.

As comparison a curve with the Krenk/Davenport formulation will be shown if parameters CU

to CW are specified. For the Davenport formula there are two versions around, either the
coherence itself is the target other sources use coefficients for the root of the coherence.

(Davenport, 1968)

2
 n ‹
Ψ (r , r , r , n) = exp − · rc
U
Ç
rc = (C r )2 + (C r )2 + (C r )2

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(Davenport, 1977)
 n ‹
Ψ (r , r , r , n) = exp − · rc
U
Ç
rc = (C r )2 + (C r )2 + (C r )2

(Krenk, 1995)
 n ‹  n

‹
Ψ (r , r , r , n) = 1 − · rc exp − · rc
2U U
Ç
rc = (C r )2 + (C r )2 + (C r )2
v
U 2
u  
n = n +
t
2
2πL

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6.13 WGEN – Generation of Wind Spectra and Histories

See also: WIND, WPRO, WROU, WTOP, WSPE

WGEN

Item Description Unit Default

LCG Load case number of basic wind − !

SPEC Generate wind load or transient wind fields LT MEAN
GUST Static wind load of peak pressures
MEAN Static wind load of reference mean wind b
TLON longitudinal turbulent unit loading
TLAT lateral turbulent unit loading
TVER vertical turbulent unit loading
U only longitudinal wind field
V only lateral component wind field
W only vertical component wind field
or combinations UV, UW, VW, UVW
LCOH account for local coherency LT ON
ON/OFF

T Total time of wind loading [sec] 600

DT time step of wind loading [sec] 0.2
FMIN minimum frequency of spectra Hertz 0.0
FMAX maximum frequency of spectra Hertz 1.0
FDEL Resolution of spectra Hertz 0.001
FLON explicit time function longitudinal − -
FLAT explicit time function lateral − -
FVER explicit time function vertical − -

HTYP Selection for wind history visualisation LT -

NR0 BEAM | TRUS | CABL | QUAD | NODE − -
NR1 for up to 10 numbers saved to the − -
... database to be shown with
NR9 DYNR HIST V-X, V-Y and V-Z − -
SHOW Interval to save visualisations − 10

FROM Name of a database with existing history Lt∗ -

TO Name of a database to receive history Lt∗ -

Based on the wind profile and parameters including, turbulence and integral length distribu-
tions, defined with the basic load case LFG a transient sequence of loadings will be generated
with measured or random wind loading.

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The random properties are assured by the load case number, which is also used as the ini-
tialization value for the random sequence. The required number of wind histories has to be
derived from the safety concept of the building. For the common design codes and safety
factors for wind a number of 11 histories should be adequate in most cases.

The wind definition thus starts with the basic wind load case, e.g..

LC 300 W TITL 'Wind basic load case'

WIND DY 1 XREF 0 0 0 DXR 0.1 1.0 GH 5.0
WROU 0.02 ; WPRO H 100 VBOE 65 ; WTOP ...
WSPE EN:DIN

For a spectral analysis the options TLON, TLAT and TVER create the quasi-static loading
based on the turbulence intensity. If the base case has been analyzed, the obtained mean
rotations of the sections will be accounted for. The background response may be specified
with PSI0 at the load case.

Selecting components with SPEC, the generation of the individual spectra and wind histories
ist triggered. As this is somehow time consuming, it is highly recommended to check first the
base load case thoroughly in all details. With the above defined base load case 300 we have:

LC 301 W TITL 'Dynamic Wind' ; WGEN 300 SPEK UVW T 620 0.1
LC 302 W TITL 'Dynamic Wind' ; WGEN 300 SPEK UVW T 620 0.1
LC 303 W TITL 'Dynamic Wind' ; WGEN 300 SPEK UVW T 620 0.1
....

It is possible to change the spectra individually for some histories. In that case WSPE has to be
defined with all parameters between the LC and the WGEN definition again. It is also possible
to import wind spectra or even complete histories from a secondary data base FROM.

The generation of the wind history has two steps. The first step (spectra generation) will create
form the energy spectra based on the theory given inKovács and Andrä [22] and Kovács [23]
an individual Fourier-spectrum for this load case (a discrete Fourier-Integral) for all turbulence
components of all nodal points of the structure. The second step (history generation) will then
create the discrete wind history via a discrete Fourier-transformation. The spectra generated
once may be used for different wind histories: e.g. variant durations of wind, variant time steps
or the selection of lower or higher frequencies of turbulence etc..

The generated windhistories for selected elements may be saved in the database for graphical
visualisation with DYNR. The individual components are then available with types V-X, V-Y and
V-Z, CFD-Boundary conditions with types U, V and W.

Some parameters of wind generation (e.g. DT, FMAX, FDEL) may be selected by the user,
they have to match however. The frequency step FDEL has to be small enough, otherwise
a non natural periodicity of the wind load may be obtained. DT has to be chosen in such a
way that all important frequencies of the structure are properly addressed. An optional value
of FMAX has then to be larger that those important structural resonance frequencies. For the
case of a steady wind it is possible to specify DT 0.0 as special case.

The wind generation will become very costly on the other side if the parameters are chosen
to generous, thus it might be necessary to choose a best compromise. FMAX and FDEL may

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SOFiLOAD | Wind Loading

be also changed for tests or prechecks in the evaluation phase of a project to have shorter
response times. For the final design however, the parameters should match the statistic nec-
essaries. The defaults are selected based on the needs for large bridges. for smaller structures
modifications are necessary, e.g. reducing the value of DT, enlarging the value of FMAX.

Within the generation of turbulence a decay of turbulence for the end point of an element
based on the local decay of coherency along the beam axis is implemented allowing an easier
generation of beam loading. For checks of the turbulence it might be requested to switch this
option off via the definition of LCOH OFF.

It is also recommended to start with a primary load case based on the static wind to keep the
disturbances of the start up period as low as possible. The best start is to use the same wind
field of the mean wind directly as a static load case for this purpose.

For the static wind generation the wind velocities will be converted to classical loadings, which
can be used in other programs as well. If the literal MEAN or GUST has an appendix ":E"
the loads will be generated separately, thus the transverse loading is acting with a possible
eccentricity in the WPAR referenece point.

The volume of the data may become rather large, because a nonlinear history will create an
own load case for every time step. That is why we recommend to use a separate copy of the
database for every history. With the definition of the TO item, a clone of the current database
is created containing all necessary data for the wind history analysis. After performing the
analysis and all superpositions, the extreme values may be imported into the master via the
program DBMERG.

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6.14 WIPT – Wind Tunnel Data Point

See also: WIND, WPRO, WROU, WTOP, WSPE

WIPT

Item Description Unit Default

X Coordinates of measurement point [m] 1001 0.0

Y [m] 1001 0.0
Z [m] 1001 0.0
GRP Group in wind mesh (optional) − -
TOL Tolerance in projected direction [m] 1001 0.01
ELIM Limit value for edge point detection − 0.4
(0 = centre, 1 = edge)
MNAM Name of data base containing wind mesh Lt∗ !

Using a wind tunnel experiment a model of the building is tested yielding integral forces or
pressures in discrete points. They vary along time and it is depending on the structure if the
loading may be taken as quasi static mean value or if the dynamic effects should be modelled.
To convert those pressures to loadings the recommended procedure is as follows:

• For every measured data item a separate load case is defined.

• Then a unit pressure of 1.0 is applied in that data point while all other data points have the
value of 0.0. This yields a areal distribution of pressure to be taken as influence function of
the pressure in that point.
• Each of this load cases may be taken as static or defined with FUNC as transient. In both
cases the applied factors are the real pressures in that data point.

Assuming that we have an area of the hull of our structure with several measurement data
points, we may create a coarse mesh of triangles or quadrilaterals in two ways. We have either
the possibility to create this mesh to have each data point near the center of one element (a)
or in the corners or near the corners of a bilinear mesh (b):

(a) (b)
Figure 6.7: Meshing of measurement points

Than the coordinates of that selected data point are specified with WIPT. SOFILOAD will create
an areal load pattern with the selected shape of the influence function. If the point is inside

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SOFiLOAD | Wind Loading

the element a constant pressure for the whole element is created. if the point is near the edge
(ELIM) a bilienar shape function is assumed with the value 1.0 in the data point and 0.0 in the
distant nodes. Thus the node nearest to the data point will have an extrapolated value > 1.0.

The influence functions may be then used directly within DYNA or may be converted with STEP
to single load cases for ASE.

Values for ELIM, TOL and MNAM are retained as default for all following definitions.

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7 Wave Loading

7.1 General
Waves on the ocean are primarly created by wind over longer distances. They are an essential
loading for embedded structures in the coastal regions or offshore. Similar to the wind a large
scale stochastic wave field is generated, influenced substantially by sea currents and the shape
of the coast. For these problems special software (e.g. SWAN) is available.

For the loading of a structure a local design wave or wave spectra is provided, which is saved
in SOFiLOAD in an individual load case number. The SOFiSTiK solution separates the wave
model from the structure similar as in the previous chapter. The water flow is calculated as if
there is no structure present. For the evaluation of the forces however the movement of the
structure will be accounted for by taking the relative velocities and accelerations by the Morison
equation.
1 π ∂U
F = Fd + F = ρ · Cd · D · U2 + · ρ · Chyd · D2 · (7.1)
2 4 ∂t

c
z
x

Fi Fd

vy

vx

Figure 7.1: Wave Loading

7.2 Introduction
Oceanic waters are deep waters, such that the waves are unaffected by the seabed, with-
out currents or obstacles such as islands, headlands and breakwaters. In contrast with the
treatment of coastal waters, a limited but constant water depth, i.e. a horizontal bottom, is
considered [29].

Waves on the surface of the ocean, with periods usually between 3 to 25 sec, are a funda-
mental feature of coastal regions. Other wave motions exist on the ocean including internal

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waves, currents, tides, and edge waves. The term waves will here apply only to surface gravity
waves, to water with idealized physical properties and motions and with gravitation as the only
external force [30].

Knowledge of these waves and the forces they generate is essential for the design of offshore
structures. An overview of the theories and mathematical formulas for describing ocean surface
waves and the forces, accelerations, and velocities due to them, is given here, and two main
wave categories are treated: regular waves and irregular waves.

In the Regular Waves section, the objective is to provide a detailed understanding of the kine-
matics of a wave field through examination of waves of constant height and period. In the
Irregular Waves section, the objective is to describe the methods involved for analyzing irregu-
lar waves which are more descriptive of the waves seen in nature.

7.3 Regular Waves

Wave theories are approximations to reality. When looking at the sea surface, it is typically
irregular, three-dimensional and changes in time. The complexity of this time-varying 3 − D
surface cannot be adequately described in its whole, and thus simplifying assumptions must
be employed in order to arrive at estimates able to represent it.

The simplest mathematical representation of oceanic waves is provided by the linear wave
theory. Linear theory is described by freely propagating, small in amplitude, harmonic waves.
The main requirement for the linear theory to apply is that the amplitudes of the waves are
small, i.e. small compared with the wave length and small compared to the water depth. This
linear theory is also called Airy and can cover many engineering problems with reasonable
accuracy.

When wave heights become larger, the linear theory may not be adequate and finite amplitude
wave theories have to be used. These theories are nonlinear and allow formulation of waves
that are not purely sinusoidal in shape. For steep waves or waves in shallow water, e.g. waves
with flatter troughs and peaked crests, higher order theories will be described such as the
Stokes wave theory and the Cnoidal wave theory. Furthermore, the stretching of linear theory
is introduced, which compensates for the small amplitude assumption and maps the results
into the finite region of their extent.

Adopting a wave theory, care must be taken to ensure that the wave phenomenon of interest is
described reasonably well by the theory, since offshore design depends on the ability to predict
sufficiently wave surface profiles and water motion.

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z
η
H
x SWL d

d
L h

Figure 7.2: Wave

A regular wave, may be described by a periodic deterministic function controlled by three es-
sential parameters:

• a wave height H (difference between crest and trough)

• a period of the wave T (mostly between 3 and 25 sec)
• a (constant) water depth d

7.3.1 Linear Wave Theory (Airy)

The surface elevation of an Airy wave of wave height H, at any instance of time t and horizontal
position  in the direction of travel of the wave, is denoted by η and is given by:
H
η= cos (k − ωt) (7.2)
2

with the following velocity potential ϕ

ωα cosh [k (z + d)]
ϕ = ϕ̂ sin (k − ωt) with ϕ̂ = (7.3)
k sinh(kd)

where k is the wave number k = 2π/ L, L the wavelength, ω the circular frequency ω = 2π/ T
and T the period. The wave speed (celerity) c is defined as c = L/ T .

The particle velocities can readily be obtained from the velocity potential as ϑϕ/ ϑ =  and
ϑϕ/ ϑz = z and the accelerations as the time derivative of the velocities ϑ / ϑt =  and
ϑz / ϑt = z . The alongwave horizontal  and vertical z velocity and the horizontal  and
vertical z acceleration, at position z measured from the Still Water Level (SWL), in water depth
d, are given by:

cosh [k (z + d)]
 =ωα cos (k − ωt) (7.4)
sinh(kd)
sinh [k (z + d)]
z =ωα sin (k − ωt) (7.5)
sinh(kd)

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cosh [k (z + d)]
 =ω2 α sin (k − ωt) (7.6)
sinh(kd)
sinh [k (z + d)]
z = − ω2 α cos (k − ωt) (7.7)
sinh(kd)

where α is the wave amplitude α = H/ 2. The dispersion relationship relates the wave number
k or the wavelength L to the circular frequency ω through:

gT 2 2πd
 
2
ω = gk tnh (kd) or L = tnh (7.8)
2π L

where g is the acceleration due to gravity. For deep water tnh (kd) → 1 while kd → ∞,
whereas for very shallow tnh (kd) → kd while kd → 0, leading to further simplification of the
above equations.

Table 7.1: Summary of Linear Wave Theory (Airy) wave characteristics

d 1 d 1
   
Wave property Shallow Water < Deep Water >
L 25 L 2
Dispersion ω2 = g k 2 d ω2 = g k
relation
g
L=T L= T 2 ≈ 1.56 T 2
p
Wave Length - gd
2π
Period relation
ωα
Horizontal  = cos (k − ωt)  = ωα ekz cos (k − ωt)
kd
velocity
z+d
Vertical velocity z = ωα sin (k − ωt) z = ωα ekz sin (k − ωt)
d
ω2 α
Horizontal  = sin (k − ωt)  = ω2 α ekz sin (k − ωt)
kd
acceleration
z+d
Vertical z = −ω2 α cos (k − ωt) z = −ω2 α ekz cos (k − ωt)
d
Acceleration

7.3.2 Stokes 2nd and 5th Order Wave Theory

In the linear wave theory, a wave with a harmonic surface profile that conforms to the linearised
basic equations and boundary conditions is described. It only approximates though the non-
linear equations and boundary conditions. A better approximation can be found by adding
corrections to the harmonic wave profile. This is done by the Stokes theory by adding ex-
tra harmonic waves to the basic harmonic, in terms of a successive correction, where every
higher-order correction is obtained on the basis of the previously obtained lower-order correc-
tion. The order of the theory is the number of terms considered. For example, the surface
elevation for Stokes 2nd order, consisting of two terms, is given by [29]:

cosh(kd)
η(, t) = α cos (k − ωt) + kα 2 [2 + cosh(2kd)] cos [2(k − ωt)] (7.9)
4 sinh3 (kd)

Stokes waves are an extension to Airy’s wave theory and therefore are also formulated in terms

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of the velocity potential. For the Stokes 5th order waves the potential reads:
5
c X
ϕ= G cosh [ k (z + d)] sin [ (k − ωt)] (7.10)
k =1

Accordingly, the water particle velocities and accelerations, as well as the surface elevation,
are given by [31]:
5
X
 =c  G cosh [ k (z + d)] cos [ (k − ωt)] (7.11a)
=1
X5
z =c  G sinh [ k (z + d)] sin [ (k − ωt)] (7.11b)
=1
5
X
 =ω c 2 G cosh [ k (z + d)] sin [ (k − ωt)] (7.11c)
=1
5
X
z = − ω c 2 G sinh [ k (z + d)] cos [ (k − ωt)] (7.11d)
=1
5
1 X
η= F cos [ (k − ωt)] (7.11e)
k =1

The dispersion relationship now becomes:

€ Š
ω2 =gk tnh (kd) 1 + λ2 C1 + λ4 C2 or (7.12a)
gT 2 2πd €
 
Š
L= tnh 1 + λ2 C1 + λ4 C2 (7.12b)
2π L

For a design wave, λ and k are to be determined by virtue of the following pair of equations:

gT 2 2πd
 
€ Š
L= tnh 1 + λ2 C1 + λ4 C2 (7.13a)
2π L
€ Š
πH =L λ + λ3 B33 + λ5 (B35 + B55 ) (7.13b)

The coefficients G , F , Bj , C are given in terms of the wavelength L and can be found in
Skjelbreia and Hendrickson [31]. 1

7.3.3 Cnoidal Wave Theory: 3rd Order and 5th Order Iwagaki approximation
Korteweg and de Vries (1895) developed a wave theory termed the cnoidal theory. The cnoidal
theory is applicable to finite-amplitude shallow-water waves and includes both nonlinearity and
dispersion effects. The theory is defined in terms of the Jacobian elliptic function, cn, hence the
name cnoidal. Cnoidal waves are periodic with sharp crests separated by wide flat troughs.
Many advancements have been made since the initial theory and the cnoidal wave theory
presented byFenton [34] (1990), [35] (1999) is included here, both the full 3rd order as well as
the 5th order Iwagaki approximation.

In Fenton [35] (1999) the underlying method relies on the expansion in two main parameters:
1 The expressions are given in Skjelbreia and Hendrickson [31], but notice that in Skjelbreia’s original expres-
sion for C2, the factor +2592 should be replaced by −2592, see Nishimura & al. (1977), Fenton [32] (1985),
Bhattacharyya [33] (1995).

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SOFiLOAD | Wave Loading

the wave height relative to the trough depth ε = H/ h and the shallowness parameter δ = 42 / 3.
The symbol cn is used to denote cn(αX/ h|m) = cn(α( − ct)/ h|m), where α is a coefficient
given in terms of ε. The parameter m, the modulus of the elliptic function, is determined by the
geometry of the wave through an iterative process. The surface elevation for Cnoidal 3rd order
is given by:

η ε‹  ε ‹2  3 3 2 4
  ‹3
ε
2 2 2
=1 + m · cn + − m cn + m cn + ·
h m m 4 4 m
(7.14)
61 2 111 3 61 2 53 3 101 3 6
    
· − m + m cn2 + m − m cn4 + m cn
80 80 80 20 80

while for the 5th order Iwagaki approximation it becomes:

η 3 3 5 151 101
   
2 2 2 4 3 2 4 6
=1 + ε · cn + ε − cn + cn + ε cn − cn + cn +
h 4 4 8 80 80
8209 2 11641 4 112393 6 17367 8
 
+ ε4 − cn + cn − cn + cn +
6000 3000 24000 8000
(7.15)
364671 2 2920931 4 2001361 6 17906339 8

+ ε5 cn − cn + cn − cn +
196000 392000 156800 1568000
1331817 10

+ cn
313600

For the Cnoidal 5th order Iwagaki approximation a simplification is assumed, suggested by
the fact that for waves which are not low and/or short, the values of the parameter m used in
practice are very close to unity indeed. This suggests the simplification that, in all the formulae,
wherever m appears as a coefficient, it is replaced by m = 1, leading in much shorter formulae.
This theory takes its name by its originator Iwagaki (1968). Here, the Fenton [35] (1999)
approach is implemented, which suggests that wherever m appears explicitly as a coefficient,
not as an argument of an elliptic integral or function, it is replaced by 1, but is retained in all
elliptic integrals and functions.

The velocities are given by:

 c X5 X  z ′ 2j X
−1 

p =p −1+ δ cn2k (α( − ct)/ h|m) jk (7.16a)
gh gh =1 j=0
h k=0

z X5 X  z ′ 2j+1
−1

p =2α cn() sn() dn() δ ·
gh =1 j=0
h
(7.16b)

X k
· cn2(k−1) (α( − ct)/ h|m) jk
k=1
2j + 1

where the coefficients jk and the rest of the parameters and their definition, can be found in
Fenton [34] (1990) and Fenton [35] (1998) for both 3rd and 5th order.

7.3.4 Stretching
AIRY-Theory is only defined up to the SWL and for waves of infinitesimal small height. How-
ever, when extended to finite crest amplitudes the results above the SWL are overestimated
[36], [37]. To remedy this, either the values are extrapolated or the results are stretched (or

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compressed) to the actual water level.

Table 7.2: Stretching Formulas for Horizontal Velocity 

Scheme Horizontal Velocity

z+d
 
cosh kd
η+d
Wheeler  = ωα cos (k − ωt)
sinh(kd)
Stretching
cosh [k (z + d)]
Chakrabarti  = ωα cos (k − ωt)
sinh [k (η + d)]
Stretching
cosh (kd)
Vertical  = ωα cos (k − ωt) for z > 0, Airy for z ≤ 0
sinh(kd)
Stretching
cosh (kd)
 
Linear  = ωα + zk cos (k − ωt) for z > 0, Airy for z ≤ 0
sinh(kd)
Extrapolation

Four different extrapolation or stretching schemes are implemented here, in order to provide a
more realistic representation of the near surface fluid kinematics for linear waves and random
waves consisting of linear waves:

• Wheeler Stretching: the profile of the fluid kinematics computed by the linear theory is
effectively stretched or compressed to the instantaneous wave surface. This is achieved by
d+z
replacing z with z ′ = d d+η − d in Eq. 7.11.
• Chakrabarti Stretching
• Vertical Stretching: for fluid particles located above the SWL, the values are taken equal to
those obtained at z = 0, hence are stretched vertically.
• Linear Extrapolation

Hint
The stretching is a filtering technique, which modifies the small-amplitude assumption
of linear Airy wave theory. Its use is important for the irregular waves, since they are
composed by superposing linear Airy waves. With this linear filtering method, a wave train
of any length and any degree of irregularity can be used in design of offshore structures.

Stretching is applicable to finite water. This means that when the full range of irregular
waves (Tmn - Tm ) is evaluated, the stretching scheme will only be applied for those
regular waves that will fall into finite water.

7.3.5 Validity of Wave Theories

The simplest linear wave theory from Airy is based on the assumption of small wave heights.
When the waves become steeper nonlinear theories have to be used like Stokes 3rd of 5th
order or the cnoidal wave theory. But above a certain wave height the waves will break and
a consistent description is only possible with extended methods like particle or CFD models.
The limits of the different theories may be seen in Fig. 7.3 Holthuijsen [29]:

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dH/HLH=H0.04 dH/HLH=H0.5
dH/HgT²H=H0.00155 dH/HgT²H=H0.0792

HShallowHwaterHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHFiniteHwaterHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHDeepHwater
0.1
Deep water H
breaking criterion = 0.142
H L
2
gT
Stokes 5th order

0.01 Shallow water

Stokes 3rd order
breaking criterion
H
= 0.78
d
s Stokes 2nd order
ve
way

0.001
ar
lit

HL²
≈ 26
So

d³

0.0001
Linear wave theoryH5Airy3
Cnoidal
waves

0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 d 1.0

2
gT

Figure 7.3: Wave models

Wave height is limited by both depth and wavelength. For a given water depth and wave
period, there is a maximum height limit above which the wave becomes unstable and breaks.
This upper limit of wave height, called breaking wave height, is in deep water a function of the
wavelength. In shallow and transitional water it is a function of both depth and wavelength.
Wave breaking is a complex phenomenon and it is one of the areas in wave mechanics that
has been investigated extensively both experimentally and numerically.

The range over which periodic solutions for waves can occur is given in Figure 7.4, which
shows limits to the existence of waves determined by computational studies. The highest
waves possible, H = Hm , are shown by the thick line, which is the approximation to the results

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 Wave Loading | SOFiLOAD

of Williams (1981), presented as Equation 7.17 in Fenton [34] (1990):

 2  3
L L L
0.141063 + 0.0095721
+ 0.0077829
Hm d d d
=  2  3 (7.17)
d L L L
1 + 0.0788340 + 0.0317567 + 0.0093407
d d d

Nelson has shown from experiments, that the maximum wave height achievable (just below
breaking) in practice is actually only Hm / d = 0.55, rather than 0.78 which is the theoretical
maximum. According to Nelson [38] (1994), the difference between ratios of H/ d 0.78 to 0.55
may lead to a significant reduction in the wave loadings and the design crest levels above mean
water level.

The degree of nonlinearity of waves is often quantified with the Ursell number U, which com-
bines wave steepness S = H/ L and relative water depth:

steepness (H/ L) HL2

U= = = (7.18)
(rete depth)3 (d/ L)3 d3

It has been pointed out that the Cnoidal theory should be applied for U > 40, marking the
boundary between Stokes and Cnoidal theory, as shown in Fig. 7.4. Furthermore, it is neces-
sary to know the limiting value of wave heights and wave steepness at different water depths to
establish range of validity of a Stokes-type expansion. This is customarily done by comparing
the magnitude of each successive term in the expansion [30]. Each should be smaller than
the term preceding it. For example, if the third-order term is to be less than
q 1 percent of the
second-order term, the limiting wave steepness is H/ L = (1/ 7) sinh (kd) 1 + 8 cosh3 (kd).
3

The maximum steepness is Sm = 0.142 tnh(2πd/ L), which leads to the deep water break-
ing wave limit of H/ L = 0.142, as shown in Fig. 7.3.

1
Hm / d Solitary>Wave
0.8 U>40

0.6 H>/>d>=>0.55
Wave height / depth
H/d
0.4

Stokes Theory Cnoidal Theory

0.2

0
1 10 100
Wavelength / depth
L/d
Figure 7.4: Applicability of Stokes - Cnoidal Theory, Steady waves

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7.3.6 Wave Forces

The simplest loading is a static loading for a given time. For the design a sequence of discrete
time steps have to be established in different load cases. The results of these load cases
are then taken mutually exclusive for the most unfavorable case. This will be achieved in
SOFILOAD with the COPY command and a shift by DX,DY.

A dynamic analysis will then account for the fluid structure interaction according to the assump-
tions stated before. A complete modeling of all effects requires considerable numerical effort
for a fluid structure interaction with field methods (CFD).

7.4 Irregular Waves

A more realistic description of the waves has to account for different directions and periods
of the waves. If a restriction to the linear wave theory is accepted, it becomes possible to
use statistical methods with a wave spectra. Then the moving surface elevation η(t) can be
described as a sum of NF harmonic waves, each with a constant amplitude A and a phase φ
randomly chosen [29].
NF
X
η(t) = A cos (k  − ω t + φ ) (7.19)
=1

Two methods are implemented here for the sampling of the spectrum and the determination of
the amplitude:

constant frequency interval: Δω = (ωm − ωmn )/ NF, A =

p
• 2E(ω)Δω
PNF p
irrational frequency: Δω = / ( + 1) ωm / / ( + 1), A = 2E(ω)Δω
p p
• =1

A well-known spectrum is the JONSWAP, which was developed by the Joint North Sea Wave
Project for the limited fetch North Sea ans is used extensively by the offshore industry[39].
  ‹2 
ω−ωpek
αg2 5 ω ‹−4  ep − 21

pek σωpek
E(ω) = ep − ·γ (7.20)
ω5 4 ω

In JONSWAP, the scatter in the values of the shape parameters γ, σ and σb was so large
that average values were determined and are usually applied. Two values for the standard
deviation σ = 0.07 and σb = 0.09 are used here: the first for ω < ωpek , while the second
for ω ≥ ωpek . For the peak enhancement coefficient γ, the average value of 3.3 is used here,
and is limited with a lower bound of γ ≥ 1.0. The energy scale parameter α is here expressed
in terms of the peak period as α = 0.0317(1/ Tpek )0.67 . An average value commonly used is
also α = 0.0081. For γ = 1.0, JONSWAP falls into the special case of the Pierson-Moskowitz
spectrum, which is used to describe fully developed seas.

For shallow waters a transformation of JONSWAP to the TMA (Texel, Marsen, Arsloe) spectrum
may be applied [40]:

ETMA (ω) = EJONSWAP (ω) · ϕ(ω, d) (7.21)

1 1 2kd
 
ϕ(ω, d) = tnh2 (kd) ; n = 1+ (7.22)
2n 2 sinh(2kd)

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approximated by

p
2 p
if ω d/ g < 1



 0.5 ω d/ g

ϕ(ω, d) =
p
2 p
 1 − 0.5 2 − ω d/ g if 1 ≤ ω d/ g < 2


 p
1 if ω d/ g ≥ 2

Hughes gives also the following expressions for the parameters α and γ in the TMA spectrum
based on shallow water data and applied here:

α = 16π 2 (εε)2 , γ = 6614(εε)1.59 (7.23)

where εε = H/ (4L), H the significant wave height and L the wavelength at the peak frequency,
as defined by the linear theory.

The directional distribution of the spectra is implemented with s ∈ {0, 2, 4, 6} independent from
the frequency and the following equations (St. Denis und Pierson):

!
θ−θ
Gθ =C(s) · coss (7.24)
2
p
π (s/ 2 + 1)
C(s) = (7.25)
π(s/ 2 + 1/ 2)
p
2π

12.0

10.0

γ=7.0
8.0

γ=5.0
ES(ω)

6.0

4.0 γ=3.3

γ=2.0
2.0

γ=1.0

0.0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
ω

Figure 7.5: Jonswap Spectra

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7.5 WAVE – Wave

See also: WIND

WAVE

Item Description Unit Default

TYPE Wave model LT *

Regular Waves
AIRY Linear wave theory (Airy)
STOK Stokes 5th order
CNOI Cnoidal 5th order
optional appendix for other Stokes order
:2 = Stokes 2nd order
optional appendix for other Cnoidal order
:3 = Cnoidal 3rd order
Irregular Waves
JONS Jonswap Spectra
TMAS TMA shallow water extension
optional appendix for stretching of Airy waves
:W = Wheeler stretching
:C = Chakrabarti stretching
:V = Vertical stretching
:E = Linear Extrapolation
optional appendix for frequency sampling of irregular
waves
:I = Irrational frequency
H significant wave height [m] 1006 !
T Period of the wave sec !
D Water depth [m] 1006 ∞
SWL Sea Water Level (e.g. storm tide) [m] 1006 0.0

DX Main direction of wave − 0.0

DY resp. current − 0.0
DZ − 0.0
UC superimposed tidal current [m/ sec] 1201 0.0
EXPU Profile exponent for U − 0.17
kg/ m3
 
RHO density of the water 1236 1025

NF number of frequencies − 100

TMIN smallest wave period − 3
Table continued on next page.

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 Wave Loading | SOFiLOAD

Item Description Unit Default

TMAX highest wave period − 25

GAM Peak-enhancement coefficient − 3.3
ALF Energy scale parameter − *
SIGA Peak-width parameter − 0.07
SIGB Peak-width parameter − 0.09
S Exponent directional distribution − 0
PHI resolution for direct. distribution 5

Instead of the single design wave a complete spectra of an irregular wave field may be used.
In that case H is the siginficant wave height, while T is the peak period of the spectra. The
seed for the random generator is the load case number. Values of NF, TMIN, TMAX etc. are
used only for that case.

Furthermore, the irrational frequency, rather than the default constant frequency interval, can
be applied for the calculation of the amplitudes, when using a spectrum. This is done by
specifying the literal :I after the input spectra type, e.g. JONS:I or with a stretching scheme
JONS:IW.

For the TMA spectrum, the default values used here for the parameters γ and α are given
by Eq. 7.23, as described by Hughes [40]. The main advantage of this parameterization is
the ability to specify the equilibrium wind sea spectrum associated with a given energy level.
Otherwise a standard input could be given as in JONSWAP spectra, such as for example
γ = 3.3 and α = 0.0081, which will just transform the corresponding JONSWAP to a shallow
water spectrum.

The wave kinematics may be enhanced by a constant current. For this an exponential distribu-
tion may be specified. For the exponent α a value of 0.17 is found in the literature.

z+d α
 
U(z) = U · (7.26)
d

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8 Snow Loads

The snow loading in SOFiLOAD is just at the beginning of the total development.

Wehen defining the design code with NORM it is possible to define the snow zone and the alti-
tude about sea level. From those values a basic snow load is derived according the provisions
of the design codes.

• The basic snow load is defined in SOFiLOAD according to EN-1991-1-3 for the climate
regions following appendix C according to table C.1 dependant on the country code and
the Z-value defined at NORM SNOW (1,2,3,4 or 4.5), and the altitude.
• For Germany, Austria and Switzerland the national documents have been provided instead:
DIN (Zones 1,1a,2,2a and 3), OENORM (2*,2,3,4) and the SIA 261.
• For Italy the national document DM 2005 with Snow Zones I,II,III according table 3.5 has
been implemented.

Snowloads are available for all free loadings of type LINE and AREA as load type SNOW. The
load value then defines the form factor wich is used to be multiplied with the basic snow load
on the ground, depending on the inclination of the roof and local aglomerations.

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9 Load Take Down

SOFiLOAD enables the transfer of support forces from another database (source) to the cur-
rent model (target). This makes it possible, for example, to model the floors of a building
independently.

9.1 Source – Target Assignment

There are essentially two different ways to assign support loads of the source geometry to
target geometries: i) manually, by linking the respective involved structural lines (SLN) and
structural points (SPT), or ii) (partially) automatically.

The magnitude and shape of the resulting point and line loads result from the load transfer
function and whether the target geometries act independently or as a unit (see modes for
target geometries).

9.1.1 1:1 Assignment

1:1 assignment is the simplest (but most elaborate) form of load transfer. Here, support forces
of a source geometry are directly assigned to a target geometry, typically source-SLN ↔ target-
SLN, or source-SPT ↔ target-SPT. It is also possible to concentrate support forces of structural
lines on a column or to ’smear’ individual support forces on a wall. Whole groups can also be
linked together (see Figure 9.1).

201 202

101 11
a) b)

Figure 9.1: 1:1 assignment: Support loads transferred from a) SLN 202 to SLN 101 and b) SLN
202 to SPT 11.

$ Loads from SLN 201 are transferred to SLN 101

LTD OPT TASK SRLC 1 SRCT SLN SRC 201 TRGT SLN TRG 101 TYPE MOMT FROM $$
"source.cdb"

$ Loads from SLN 202 are transferred to SPT 11

LTD OPT TASK SRLC 1 SRCT SLN SRC 202 TRGT SPT TRG 11 FROM "source.cdb"

$ Loads from group 1 are transferred to group 2

LTD OPT TASK SRLC 1 SRCT GRP SRC 1 TRGT GRP TRG 2 FROM "source.cdb"

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9.1.2 N:M Assignment

The N:M assignment allows n source geometries to be assigned to m target geometries. For
this purpose, any number of LTD OPT SEL records can be specified after the main LTD OPT
TASK record. Possible use cases are e.g. the assignment of a wall to several columns or walls
that are divided differently in the source and target geometry (see Figure 9.2).

201 202 203

101 102 103 11 12 13

a) b)

Figure 9.2: N:M assignment: Support loads of a) two SLNs (201, 202) are assigned to three SLNs
101, 102, 103, and b) of SLN 203 to three SPTs 11, 12, 13.

$ Wall in source geometry consists of SLNs 201, 202

$ Wall in the target geometry consists of SLNs 101, 102, 103
LTD OPT TASK SRLC 1 TYPE MOMT TRGM COMB FROM "source.cdb"
LTD OPT SEL SRCT SLN SRC 201,202
LTD OPT SEL TRGT SLN TRG 101,102,103

$ Loads from SLN 203 are assigned to columns 11, 12 and 13

LTD OPT TASK SRLC 1 FROM "source.cdb"
LTD OPT SEL SRCT SLN SRC 203
LTD OPT SEL TRGT SPT TRG 11,12,13

9.1.3 All Loads – Falldown of Source Geometries

Selecting all sources (SRCT ALL) ensures that all loads from the source geometry are cap-
tured. With TRGT FALL, all load bearing SLNs and SPTs of the source geometry are duplicated
(see Figure 9.3). If the source and target groundplan differ, it is not guaranteed that all loads
will be transferred correctly – so loads may fall through openings.

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 Load Take Down | SOFiLOAD

22 21

202
201

Figure 9.3: ALL → FALL: All support forces from the source are dropped onto the target geometry.

$ All loads from the source fall down

LTD OPT TASK SRLC 1 SRCT ALL TRGT FALL TYPE MOMT FROM "source.cdb"

9.1.4 All Loads – Automatic Target Selection

Selecting all sources (SRCT ALL) ensures that all loads from the source geometry are cap-
tured. With TRGT AUTO, the target geometry is determined automatically (see Figure 9.4).
It should be noted that the SLNs and SPTs of the target geometry carry no information as to
whether they actually represent a wall or column. Therefore, incorrect assignments may occur.
It is imperative that the loads are checked by the user. With the options IGN and MOD it is
possible to make corrections in the assignment (see Section 9.1.5).

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22 21

202
201

101
12

102 11

Figure 9.4: ALL → AUTO: All support forces of the source are transferred. From all target geome-
tries, an attempt is made to select those that could have a share in the load transfer. For example,
there are no loads above SLN 102 and consequently it is not loaded.

$ All loads from the source are automatically transferred to reasonable target
geometries.
LTD OPT TASK SRLC 1 SRCT ALL TRGT AUTO TYPE MOMT FROM "source.cdb"

9.1.5 All Loads – Corrections

For many applications it makes sense to select all loads (SRCT ALL) and then either drop them
(TRGT FALL), or automatically assign them to the target geometry (TRGT AUTO). However,
as described, in these cases it can happen that the target geometries were selected incorrectly
or loads slip through an opening. The OPT MOD (Modification) and OPT IGN (Ignore) options
can be used to correct the assignment.

Example Ignore IGN: In Figure 9.5 a loaded wall ends in three columns. In the target geometry
at this point there are three structural points (SPTs 11, 12 and 13) for the columns as well as
the structural line SLN 103, which could come from the meshing of the plate, for example.
The automatic target selection is not able to detect the supporting columns correctly. Various
modifications can be made with IGN to apply the load correctly to the supports.

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203 203 203

103 103 103

11 12 13 11 12 13 11 12 13
a) b) c)

Figure 9.5: Option IGN: a) Initial situation – All loads are distributed automatically. By mistake SLN
103 is selected as target geometry. b) Ignoring target line SLN 103. c) Ignoring source line SLN
203 and adding a N:M assignment.

a) Initial situation: the load from SLN 203 is applied to SLN 103.

LTD OPT TASK SRLC 1 SRCT ALL TRGT AUTO TYPE MOMT FROM "source.cdb"

b) The target line SLN 103 is ignored. Thus the three supports are closest to the loads from
SLN 203 and are loaded accordingly.

LTD OPT TASK SRLC 1 SRCT ALL TRGT AUTO TYPE MOMT FROM "source.cdb"
LTD OPT IGN TRGT SLN TRG 103

c) The source line 203 is ignored and the loads are applied to the supports ’by hand’. Here it
is also possible to let the three supports act as one unit (see modes for target geometries)
and transfer the moment from the source line SLN 203.

LTD OPT TASK SRLC 1 SRCT ALL TRGT AUTO TYPE MOMT FROM "source.cdb"
LTD OPT IGN SRCT SLN SRC 203
LTD OPT TASK SRLC 1 TYPE MOMT TRGM COMB FROM "source.cdb"
LTD OPT SEL SRCT SLN SRC 203
LTD OPT SEL TRGT SPT TRG 11,12,13

Example Modification MOD: In Figure 9.6 an inclined column is shown. Since the edge
point SPT 11 is closer to the source geometry SPT 21, it is incorrectly selected as the target
geometry. MOD can be used to insert a 1:1 relationship within a TASK and thus link SPT 21
directly to SPT 12.

The MOD option is a quick way of ignoring a single source geometry and subsequently insert-
ing a 1:1 assignment.

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21 21

11 12 11 12
a) b)

Figure 9.6: Option MOD: a) Initial situation: load from SPT 21 is incorrectly assigned to the bound-
ary point SPT 11. b) With MOD, the load from SPT 21 is first removed from the selection of source
geometries and then added as a 1:1 assignment.

LTD OPT TASK SRLC 1 SRCT ALL TRGT AUTO FROM "source.cdb"
LTD OPT MOD SRCT SPT SRC 21 TRGT SPT TRG 12

9.2 Load Transfer Functions

SOFiLOAD provides three different methods (TYPE) to transfer loads (see Figure 9.7).

CONS In the simplest case – constant load transfer – the resultant R is formed from all the
support forces of the selected source geometries and applied as a constant load to
the target geometries.
MOMT As a second method, both the resultant force and the moment can be transferred.
For a straight wall, only the moment about the normal direction of the wall can be
transmitted. For the case of a curved wall or several non-collinear walls together,
moments can be transmitted in both spatial directions.
TRAP Under certain circumstances, lifting forces, as they can occur during moment trans-
mission, are not desired – however, the influence of the moment should not be com-
pletely neglected. For this case, there is a transfer function that qualitatively repre-
sents an influence of the moment. The position of the resultant force determines the
trapezoidal load purely geometrically. It applies:

2 1
p1 = ·c , p2 = ·c (9.1)
 

where the constant factor c results from the equilibrium of the forces:

0.5 · (p1 + p2 ) ·  = R (9.2)

If the resultant does not lie on the interval R ∈/ [0, ] , lifting forces would also arise
with this method. This is prevented by restricting R to the interval [0, ] . Thus,
triangular loads occur in the extreme case.

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 Load Take Down | SOFiLOAD


1 2

p() = R
CONS

p() = R + MJ · 
MOMT

p1 p2
TRAP

Figure 9.7: load transfer functions: a) Constant force transfer; the resultant force R is distributed
over the length . b) In addition to the force, the moment is also transferred. c) Positive trapezoidal
load to qualitatively represent an influence of the moment.

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9.3 Modes for Target Geometries

In most cases, a wall will transfer loads independently of other walls (TRGM INDI). However,
there are also cases where several walls are to act as one ’cross-section’, such as in a stiffening
building core. For this case there is the possibility to combine several target geometries (TRGM
COMB) and consider them as unit (see Figure 9.8).

1 1
2 2
4 4
3 3

a) b)

Figure 9.8: Modes for target geometries using the example of a stiffening building core with four
walls 1-4. a) The load transfer is determined individually for each wall (TRGM INDI). b) All four walls
act as a unit (TRGM COMB). The load distribution results from biaxial bending.

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 Load Take Down | SOFiLOAD

9.4 LTD – Load Take Down

See also: LC, LTDG

LTD

Item Description Unit Default

OPT A literal from the following list: LT4 TASK

TASK Task record
SEL Supplementary record for further selections
IGN Supplementary record to ignore a selection
MOD Supplementary record for modifying the
task
SRLC Load case id of the loads to be transferred from the − !
source database
SRCT Source geometry type LT4 ALL
SLN Structural line
SPT Structural point
GRP Group
GUID GUID
ALL All loads from all SLNs and SPTs
SRC ID/GUID of the source geometry (SRCT) − -
TRGT Target geometry type LT4 AUTO
SLN Structural line
SPT Structural point
GRP Group
AUTO Target geometry is found automatically
FALL Falldown: Load-bearing source geometries
are duplicated
TRG ID of the target geometry (TRGT) − -
LMAX Subdivision length of target geometries (deactivated [m] 1001 0.0
with 0.0)
TRGM Mode for target geometries LT4 INDI
INDI Individual
COMB Combined
DZ Z-offset (storey height) for falldown target geometries − 0.0
(TRGT FALL)
TYPE Type of load transmission LT4 CONS
CONS Constant
MOMT Trapezoidal
TRAP Positive-trapezoidal
FACT Factor by which all loads are multiplied − 1.0
FROM Name (and path) of the source database LT !

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SOFiLOAD | Load Take Down

The LTD command can be used to apply the load from a source database to the current model
as line and point loads.

Note: The LTD record must follow a LC set: LC creates a new load case in the current target
database to which the loads are assigned.

OPT TASK creates a new load take down. After a LTD TASK, any number of LTD SEL/-
MOD/IGN records can follow. Here, only the inputs SRCT, SRC, TRGT, TRG are
interpreted. All other information is taken from the preceding TASK record.

SEL SEL can be used to select multiple source and/or target geometries.

LTD OPT TASK SRLC 1 FROM "source.cdb"

LTD OPT SEL SRCT SLN SRC 201,202,203
LTD OPT SEL TRGT SLN TRG 101,102,103

IGN IGN can be used to remove source/target geometries from the selection.
MOD With MOD, an 1:1 assignment can be created within a TASK. The intended
application scenario is: With SRCT ALL TRGT AUTO, all loads are auto-
matically transferred to the target geometries. At some locations a wrong
target geometry is identified. In this case, with MOD the loads can be ’cut
out’ and applied directly to the assigned target geometry.
MOD is thus a short command for an LTD IGN followed by an LTD TASK:

$ All source loads are automatically distributed However, the

load from SLN 201 is misallocated. SPT 103 would be correct
LTD OPT TASK SRLC 1 SRCT ALL TRGT AUTO FROM "source.cdb"
LTD OPT MOD SRCT SLN SRC 201 TRGT SPT TRG 103
$ is equivalent to:
LTD OPT TASK SRLC 1 SRCT ALL TRGT AUTO FROM "source.cdb"
LTD OPT IGN SRCT SLN SRC 201
LTD OPT TASK SRLC 1 FROM "source.cdb"
LTD OPT SEL SRCT SLN SRC 201
LTD OPT SEL TRGT SPT TRG 103

Note: For MOD, only the source geometry is removed/ignored, as other

loads may need the same target geometry for load take down.

Note: With MOD and IGN, source geometries and thus support loads are removed
from the selection. However, these loads can only be removed if they are only
associated with a single SLN or if all corresponding SLNs are removed.

SRC/TRG If a structural element (SLN/SPT), group or GUID (only for source) is requested by
SRCT/TRGT, an input for the desired items is mandatory.

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 Load Take Down | SOFiLOAD

TRGT There are three ways to choose target geometries:

SLN/SPT/GRP The number of the type of geometry or group.

AUTO It is tried to select from all existing structural lines (SLN) and points (SPT)
those that could be walls or columns. This method should only be used if
the source and destination floor plan are very similar.
Note: Structure lines and points have no information about whether they
are actually walls or columns, which can lead to incorrect associations. A
verification of the applied loads is therefore imperative.
FALL Falldown: All load-bearing source geometries are duplicated.
Note: The target geometry is not analysed. With different floor plans (e.g.
openings) it can happen that loads can not be applied correctly.

TRGM There are two ways to model the target geometries:

INDI Individual: Each structure line and point will find the nearest source loads
and form the resulting load distribution according to the selected type
TYPE.
COMB Combined: All target geometries are considered as one unit. All source
loads form a total resultant and are distributed to all target geometries
according to the selected type TYPE. This can be used to model the stiff
connection of target geometries, such as for a stiffening building core.

TYPE There are three ways to transfer the loads:

CONS Constant line loads. The resultant from the support forces of the source
geometries is distributed constantly to all target geometries. The sum of
forces is conserved.
MOMT Trapezoidal line loads. The resulting force and moment(s) are represented
by trapezoidal line loads. The sum of forces and moments is conserved
(sum of moments only if the target geometries are able to take the mo-
ment).
TRAP Positive trapezoidal line loads. The position of the resultant force de-
termines the trapezoidal load purely geometrically. In extreme cases —
when the resultant is outside the target geometry — a triangular load is
created. This type of distribution prevents lifting forces, an models an in-
fluence of the moment. However, only the sum of the forces and not the
moments are conserved.

Note: For columns, an equivalent length of 0.5m is assumed. Columns can only
transfer point forces. Hence, columns that act individually (see TRGM INDI/COMB)
are not able to transfer moments.

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SOFiLOAD | Load Take Down

Examples:

$ Loads from structural line 201 are transferred to structural line 101
LTD SRLC 1 SRCT SLN SRC 201 TRGT SLN TRG 101 FROM "source.cdb"

$ Loads from structural lines 201,202 are transferred to structural lines

101,102,103
LTD SRLC 1 FROM "source.cdb"
LTD OPT SEL SRCT SLN SRC 201,202 $ sources
LTD OPT SEL TRGT SLN SRC 101,102,103 $ targets

$ All source loads will be automatically distributed

LTD SRLC 1 SRCT ALL TRGT AUTO FROM "source.cdb"

$ All source geometries fall down

LTD SRLC 1 SRCT ALL TRGT FALL FROM "source.cdb"

$ Modelling of a stiffening building core with 4 walls

$ - Source: Support loads from structural lines 201,202,203,204
$ - Target: Structural lines 101,102,103,104
$ - Sum of forces and moments at the summarised target "cross section"
LTD SRLC 1 TYPE MOMT TRGM COMB FROM "source.cdb"
LTD OPT SEL SRCT SLN SRC 201,202,203,204
LTD OPT SEL TRGT SLN TRG 101,102,103,104

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 Load Take Down | SOFiLOAD

9.5 LTDG – Load Take Down – Geometry Generation

See also: LTD

LTDG

Item Description Unit Default

X1 X-coordinate of the start point [m] 1001 !

Y1 Y-coordinate of the start point [m] 1001 !
Z1 Z-coordinate of the start point [m] 1001 !
X2 X-coordinate of the point [m] 1001 *
Y2 Y-coordinate of the point [m] 1001 *
Z2 Z-coordinate of the point [m] 1001 *
X3 X-coordinate of a circle point [m] 1001 *
Y3 Y-coordinate of a circle point [m] 1001 *
Z3 Z-coordinate of a circle point [m] 1001 *
TITL Title LT12 -
GUID Globally Unique Identifier LT36 -

The LTDG command can be used to directly create points, lines and arcs for the target geome-
tries. The LTDG command must follow a LTD OPT TASK. LTDG can be called several times
and then adds more target geometries to the task (analogous to LTD OPT SEL).

Note: If a coordinate x, y, z of a point is set, the remaining two must be specified as well.

Points: For the input of a point, only the coordinates for P1(1, y1, z1) are to be given.
Lines: To enter a line, enter the coordinates for the starting point P1(1, y1, z1) and
the ending point P2(2, y2, z2).
Arcs: To enter an arc, all points must be specified. Note that the point P3(3, y3, z3)
lies between the start and end point on the arc. The arc is automatically
divided into line segments. If the subdivision is too coarse, it can be controlled
in the preceding TASK with the LMAX command.

Examples:

LTD SRLC 1 FROM "source.cdb"

SRCT SLN SRC 201 $ Choose source
LTDG X1 1 2 3 $ Choose target-point
LTDG X1 0 0 0 x2 10 0 0 $ Choose target-line
LTDG X1 0 0 0 x2 10 0 0 x3 5 1 0 $ Choose target-arc

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 Output Description | SOFiLOAD

10 Output Description

The output extent can be controlled via the option ECHO LOAD. Following inputs are possible
here:

NO no printout at all
YES only printout of the most important load case information
FULL printout of all input loads
EXTR printout of all generated loads

10.1 Check List of Actions

The check list of the actions is printed with ECHO ACT YES (default). The load cases gener-
ated for the actions are output additionally with ECHO ACT FULL.

Actions

type Type of the action

T Action group
sup Superposition of the load cases within the action
Title Title of the action, in a 2nd line title of the load case
gamu Safety factors and combination coefficients
gamf for the superposition
psi-0 In a 2nd line the load case coefficients are
psi-1 printed, if they are different from those of
psi-2 the action
psi-1’

10.2 Check List of Load Case Selection

The check list of load case selection is printed for every processed load case.

Load Case Load case number, the load case type is printed
in parentheses, if defined, and then the load case
description
Factor forces and moments
Factor dead weight with information of the dead weight component

The following values are only output, if they were defined in the input or if the default was used
via the input of a load case type:

Optimisation criteria cri1

Optimisation criteria cri2

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SOFiLOAD | Output Description

Optimisation criteria cri3

unfavourably safety factor Safety factors and combination coefficients for su-
perpositions
favourably safety factor
Combination factor psi-0
Combination factor psi-1’
Combination factor psi-1
Combination factor psi-2

If the loads are copied from previous load cases in the current one with the record COPY, the
output is done below the check list of load case selection.

Loads completely copied from load case ... with factor ...
or
Loads partially copied from load case ... with factor ...

Either the factor was defined explicitly or it was determined from the relevant safety and com-
bination coefficients according to the input superposition rule. The used partial safety factors
and the input superposition rule are printout after the factor.

10.3 Meshfree Loading

The list of the meshfree loading is output in the result file of free loads of the input records
POIN, LINE, AREA and VOLU:

Meshfree Loading

Kind Kind of load (poin, line, area, volume)

Reference to Reference type and reference identifier
Projection and W [m] Projection direction and window size in projection
direction
Coordinates X, Y, Z [m] Coordinates of the load points
Type Load type and direction
Loadvalue Load values of the load points
activated Value in % which specifies how much of the defined
load was considered during the generation

The reference typ contains quite a lot of additional information. If given in capital letters it is a
definition by the user. If the first position of the reference type is given as capital letter and the
other ones are given in lower case, then the reference type was selected by the user, however,
without a reference or group number. If the reference type is in lower case, it gives the type
and identifier of the object the program has selected automatically. If multiple ids have been
used a "-mult-" is given instead of a number. The literals for the reference types are specified
with the corresponding load definitition records.

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 Output Description | SOFiLOAD

Example:

GAR 1 explicit reference at the area with number 1

Gar no. or -mult- explicit reference at an area or at some areas without defined
reference number

gar no. or -mult- automatic reference at a found area or at some found areas

An expression in parentheses is printout additionally at reference type, if using the load type
PSUP in record COPY in order to taken over the support reactions and moments from the
database. In that mean:

(LC number: nodenumer)

The load case number is the number of the read load case from the database.

A warning is printout after the calculation, if a defined load was not considered with 100%
during generation.

10.4 Nodal Loads

Loads acting on Nodes

Node node number

PX, PY, PZ [kN] nodal loads
MX, MY, MZ [kNm] nodal moments
MB [kNm2]
sum sums of the relevant nodal loads

10.5 QUAD Element Loads

Loads acting on QUAD-elements

Elements from Start element number

to End element number
inc Increment
Load Type Load type
Prim LC / CC Primary load case number or construction stage
number
for wind loading: printout of the design code or
wind pressure distribution
Load val. [kN/m2] Load value for QUAD elements
Dimension Load dimension
Variation dP / dX Load variation load difference with
dP / dY reference to reference point with the

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SOFiLOAD | Output Description

dP / dZ distance X,Y or Z

10.6 BRIC Element Loads

Loads acting on BRIC-elements

Elements from Start element number

to End element number
inc Increment
Load Type Load type
Prim LC / CC Primary load case number or construction stage
number
for wind loading: printout of the design code or
wind pressure distribution
Load val. [kN/m2] Load value for BRIC elements
Dimension Load dimension
Variation dP / dX Load variation load difference with
dP / dY reference to reference point with the
dP / dZ distance X,Y or Z

10.7 Beam Loads

Loads acting on Beam-elements

Number Beam number

Type Load type and direction
a [m] Load distance from total beam start
l [m] Load length (no value for beam single loads)
Loadval Start load value
Loadval [kN/m] End load value (no value for beam single loads)
Dimens. Load dimension
ya, za [m] Local eccentricities of load point at start
ye, ze [m] Local eccentricities of load point at end

10.8 Truss and Cable Loads

Loads acting on Truss-elements

Number Number of the truss element

Type Load type and direction

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 Output Description | SOFiLOAD

Loadval Load value at truss start

Loadval Load value at truss end (omits for constant truss
load)
Dimens. Load dimension

Loads acting on Cable-elements

Number Number of the cable element

Type Load type and direction
Loadval Load value at cable start
Loadval Load value at cable end (omits for constant cable
load)
Dimens. Load dimension

10.9 Accelerations
If translational or rotational accelerations are used with the record ACCE, then they are con-
verted within the program in corresponding element loads and printout.

10.10 Wind Loading

Kind and extent of the output for wind loading depend on the input of the single wind defini-
tions and the system. The list of the wind loading is printout after the check list of load case
selection:

Wind loading

Wind according to code Selected design code is printout here.

Z or zone Wind zone
R Roughness zone
atmospheric wind v = Wind type and velocity in [m/sec]
Surface height
Wind direction with output of the direction components
Reference point with output of the coordinates
Reference direction with output of the direction components

Coefficients of the wind spectrum

(...) Type of wind spectrum according to input or explicit
for explicit specification
A1,A2,A3,B,C Coefficients
Longitudinal longitudinal of spectrum
Lateral lateral of spectrum

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SOFiLOAD | Output Description

Vertical vertical of spectrum

coherences
Longitudinal
Lateral
Vertical

Roughness profile
D [km] Distance from building
r [m] Roughness
Hr [m] Relative height
Hi [m] Influence height

Topological ridge/summit Output of global coordinates XM,YM,ZM

Direction of length Direction of main expansion values DX,DY,DZ
Height above ground
Width of elevation
Length of elevation Output only for topological summit

The output of the wind profile follows:

Windprofil (according to design code or explicit specification) or Windprofil v-boe

h Height above ground

v-mean Mean value of wind velocity
v-boe Gust wind maximum
t-lon Longitudinal turbulence
t-lat Lateral turbulence
t-ver Vertical turbulence
l-lon eff. wave length of long. turbulence
l-lat eff. wave length of lat. turbulence
l-ver eff. wave length of vert. turbulence
phase

At last the relevant element loading follows.

10.11 Load and Time Function

After definition of a load function with the record FUNC a graphic of the function and (for ECHO
LOAD EXTR or deactivated URSULA) a table of the single function values are printed before
the actual loads. Following function parameters result for periodical functions:

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 Output Description | SOFiLOAD

Variation of Loading in Time

Amplitude [-] Function value

Frequency [1/sec] Frequency value
Phase [sec] Phase displacement
start [sec] Start time
end [sec] End time

or

time [sec] Discrete time value

Factor [-] Function value

A graphic and/or a table is also printed before the output of the corresponding load case for a
definition of a time function with the record STEP.

Variation of Loading in Time Transient

T [sec] Discrete time value in sec

nn Number of used load case

10.12 Export of Load Cases

If loads are exported from a database into a input file with the record EXPO, then the program
SOFiLOAD generates a DAT-file with explicit defined name or with the name project_LFD.DAT
according to the default. The generated file includes the corresponding SOFiLOAD input
records for the load generation.

10.13 Load Combinations

An overview of the load combinations is generated with ECHO COPY YES. The corresponding
initial load cases with the factors of the record COPY are printed.

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SOFiLOAD | Output Description

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 Bibliography | SOFiLOAD

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SOFiLOAD | Bibliography

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