Ella 1

ELLA
Extended Live Load Analysis

SOFiSTiK 2016
ELLA
Extended Live Load Analysis
ELLA Manual, Version 2016-0
Software Version SOFiSTiK 2016
c 2015 by SOFiSTiK AG, Oberschleissheim, Germany.
Copyright
SOFiSTiK AG
HQ Oberschleissheim
Bruckmannring 38
85764 Oberschleissheim
Germany
Office Nuremberg
Burgschmietstr. 40
90419 Nuremberg
Germany
T +49 (0)89 315878-0

F +49 (0)89 315878-23
T +49 (0)911 39901-0

F +49(0)911 397904
info@sofistik.de
www.sofistik.de
This manual is protected by copyright laws. No part of it may be translated, copied or

reproduced, in any form or by any means, without written permission from SOFiSTiK AG.
SOFiSTiK reserves the right to modify or to release new editions of this manual.
The manual and the program have been thoroughly checked for errors. However, SOFiSTiK
does not claim that either one is completely error free. Errors and omissions are corrected as
soon as they are detected.
The user of the program is solely responsible for the applications. We strongly encourage the
user to test the correctness of all calculations at least by random sampling.
Front Cover
Project: MILANEO, Stuttgart, Germany | Client: Bayerische Hausbau and ECE | Architect: RKW Rhode Kellermann Wawrowsky
| Structural Engineering for Bayerische Hausbau: Boll und Partner | Photo: Dirk Mnzner
Contents | ELLA
Contents
Contents
Task Description
1-1
Theoretical Principles
2.1
Bending Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2
Unit Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3
Load Introduction in Lanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4
Interpolation of the Influence Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5
Transverse Influence Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6
Evaluation of the Influence Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.1
Favourably and Unfavourably Performing Loads .
2.6.2
Unfavourable Load Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7
Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2-1
2-1
2-1
2-1
2-3
2-6
2-7
2-7
2-8
2-9
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3-1
3-1
3-2
3-4
3-5
3-6
3-7
3-9
3-13
3-15
3-16
3-18
3-20
3-21
3-23
3-24
3-33
3-34
3-38
3-40
3-41
Input Description
3.1
Input Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2
Input Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3
ECHO Control of the Output Extent . . . . . . . . .
3.4
CTRL Control Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5
Definition of the Lane Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6
GAX Geometry of an Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7
LANE Width of Traffic Lanes . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8
LSEL Selection of a Defined Lane . . . . . . . . .
3.9
Calculation of Influence Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.10 CALC Evaluation of Influence Areas . . . . . . . .
3.11 LINF Influence Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12 APPL Control of the Loading Location . . . . . . .
3.13 SIZE Graphic Representation of Influence Lines
3.14 SHOW Representation of Influence Lines . . . .
3.15 ACT Definition of an Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.16 LC Train Load Loading Case . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.17 TRAI Load Train Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.17.1 Impact Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.17.2 Centrifugal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.17.3 Load Trains according to Eurocode . . . .
SOFiSTiK 2016
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ELLA | Contents
3.18
3.19
3.20
3.21
3.22
3.23
4
ii
3.17.4 Load Trains SLW and LKW . . . . . . . . . .

3.17.5 Load trains BS 5400 and AASHTO, TMH7
3.17.6 Heavy Load trains BS 5400, TMH7 . . . . .
3.17.7 Single trucks according to AASHTO . . . . .
3.17.8 Load trains according CAN/CSA . . . . . . .
3.17.9 Load trains IRC 6-2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.17.10 Load trains of the Japan Road Association
3.17.11 Load trains AS 5100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.17.12 Swedish Load Trains (BRO 2004) . . . . . .
3.17.13 Railway train loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.17.14 Military NATO Load Trains (Stanag 2021) .
TRPL Point Load of load train . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TRBL Block Load of Load Train . . . . . . . . . . . .
SAVE Saving case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CASE Evaluation Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
POSL Position of the Load Trains . . . . . . . . . . .
COMB Intermediate Combination of Evaluations .
Output Description
4.1
Lane Geometry . . . . . . . . .
4.2
Influence Lines . . . . . . . . .
4.3
Load Trains . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4
Superposition Combinations
4.5
Evaluation Results . . . . . . .
4.6
Program Statistics . . . . . . .
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3-50
3-52
3-54
3-56
3-57
3-58
3-59
3-59
3-61
3-62
3-69
3-70
3-73
3-75
3-76
3-78
3-82
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4-1
4-1
4-1
4-2
4-3
4-4
4-4
SOFiSTiK 2016
Task Description | ELLA
Task Description
ELLA is a program for the analysis and evaluation of imposed loads that acts
on spatial beam or shell structures in the form of load trains which move along
certain traffic lanes. The envelopes of the scalar variables for the entire structure are usually the result. In the case of simple statical systems and simple
load cases a traditional analysis of the system can be faster for a large number
of imposed load cases under circumstances. The evaluation of influence lines
or influence surfaces becomes necessary for an accurate analysis of larger systems, as they are usual particularly in the bridge construction. It is not so simple
to determine either the most unfavourable load position or the used parts of a
load in order to maximize the certain internal forces for important parts of the
structure outside its midspan. In addition, different load positions are critical for
the different internal forces and moments. The evaluation of the influence lines
reduces the extent of the input very significantly.
The entire surface of a structure at which imposed loads act gets divided into
straight or curved lanes of variable width. Any load trains can be assigned to
each lane. They can move independently or in relation to each other. The traffic
lanes are defined with axes which may contain circular segments or clothoids.
The loading refers always to the lane axis. An influence line is generated for
a vertical loading along the lanes axis for each lane as well as for a moment
loading about the same axis due to the eccentrical parts. Additional influence
lines for brake or centrifugal loading can be considered upon request.
The program evaluates influence lines only for corresponding traffic lanes even
in the case of plane structures. However, a satisfactory representation of the
two-dimensional effects can be achieved for the available element distribution
by partitioning the structure into multiple lanes. The influence surfaces can be
either transferred from the database or determined as a rule with a calculation
with an own static module of the influence line program.
In the second case, however, all the single element stiffnesses as well as the
stiffness matrix of the entire structure must be available. This requires that at
least one load case has been analysed with the programs ASE or STAR2 with
option CTRL SOLV 1 or 3, and the corresponding data is still available. Load
cases with settlement of support or non-linear load cases are not suitable for
this.
SOFiSTiK 2016
1-1
ELLA | Task Description
1-2
SOFiSTiK 2016
Theoretical Principles | ELLA
2
2.1
Theoretical Principles
Bending Areas
Influence lines can be calculated with two completely different methods. The first
method determines the deformations (e.g. bending line) due to an unit deformation for the searched internal force (e.g. a break for a moment). The bending
area is the result of a static analysis with an appropriate program. A load case
defines always one influence area. Corresponding areas are own load cases in
each case. This method should be preferred when only a few influence areas or
particular variables are to be calculated (e.g. support reactions, deformations or
sums of scalar variables).
When a large number of influence lines of the structure has to be calculated with
this method, an own load case will have to be analysed for each cross section
and for each internal force. This procedure exceeds usually the available CPU
time and memory capacities of the static programs.
2.2
Unit Loads
The second method works in opposite manner. A unit load is defined at each position (node or member cross section). The analysis determines all the other corresponding internal forces. The main advantage of this method is that the single
loads do not have to be applied at every loading location. The missing intermediate values can be calculated easily with an interpolation, if the known discontinuities at loading location (break, jump) are considered additionally. Therefore,
the number of load cases to be analysed can be reduced significantly.
In the case of plane structures the discontinuity is defined by means of a singularity. This singularity does not result from a finite element analysis in principal.
However we have a smooth approximate influence function which may be used
to derive the principal problem of precision in a Finite-Element-Analysis very
clearly (see Hartmann/Katz - Structural Analysis with Finite Elements, Springer).
This should be considered particularly in the case of shear forces!
2.3
Load Introduction in Lanes
The loaded traffic area is defined by lanes with constant width and a residual
area. Loads will be defined within a lane, but can move arbitrarily along the lane
and in many cases also across the lane.
In order to accelerate the evaluation, the loads are simplified within a lane by
SOFiSTiK 2016
2-1
ELLA | Theoretical Principles
a vertical loading and a torsional moment due to the eccentric position of the
vertical load. Thus the description by means of an eccentric lane or an eccentric
load is equivalent for single loads.
Most of the standard road loadings are
Figure 2.1: Eccentric lane and eccentric load
internally partitioned into loads at the left-hand side and at the right-hand side
of the shear centre. The location of which is automatically determined from the
influence values for torsional and vertical loading.
Figure 2.2: Partition of the distributed loads at the shear centre
In the case of two girders and articulated load distribution the result is the same,
if the loading is placed centrically at lane 1 or eccentric with respect to lane 2.
The eccentricity moment offers the necessary correction for the distribution of
the loading at the longitudinal girders:
However, great differences are already available in this case for rigid load dis2-2
SOFiSTiK 2016
Lane 1
Lane 2
Lane 1:
Lane 2:
Figure 2.3: Distribution two longitudinal girders
tribution. An eccentricity should be then only relatively small. Here up to 20

percent deviations would result in the distribution between the two variants.
In the case of three or more girders the results can be very different as the next
two figures show. It can be stated as a rule that both the load and the lane
must be located in the same span region in terms of the lateral behaviour of the
structure.
Different results are also obtained in FE structures, when load and lane are not
at the same or neighboring elements. The deviations of the results are negligible
in the neighboring element, but they increase of course as the distance between
lane and load increases. Because the loading of moments in the case of plane
structures may lead to further errors, eccentricities of loads should not be used
for these types of the structure, instead an evaluation with a transverse influence
line should be used.
2.4
Interpolation of the Influence Areas
When the lane axis does not coincide with the defined nodes, the values of the
influence line must be interpolated. The program searches then for two series
of nodes in the direct vicinity of the lane and interpolates perpendicularly to its
SOFiSTiK 2016
2-3
Figure 2.4: Correct load distribution for three longitudinal girders
moment M
load P
resulting force
Figure 2.5: Wrong load distribution for three longitudinal girders
2-4
SOFiSTiK 2016
Figure 2.6: Interpolation of the influence areas
axis.
The selection of a neighboring node series is trivial for plane structures. For
girders, however, it is in general a problem for the artificial intelligence. It is
extremely difficult for a program to develop the human ability of the general
overview. Therefore, this part of the program can not execute in a uniquely determined way. A specific constellation not being recognized correctly can occur
again and again. The user must take a proper action in such cases by defining
a sequence of nodes or beam elements.
For the interpolation perpendicularly to the lane axis a distinction must be done
very exactly between three variations that result from different types of the load
distribution:
INT = 0
Single lane
INT = 1
Articulated
load distribution
INT = 2
Rigid
load distribution
Figure 2.7: Load distribution
In the first case (INT 0) an eccentrically placed loading generates directly a

torsional moment. The influence line of the shear force for the effect of the
eccentric influence has no jump in the loading location.
In the second case (INT 1) the load is replaced by two forces that act at the
two girders. The torsional moments result only as a secondary phenomenon
due to the constraint of the rotations. The influence line for the effect of the
eccentricity may include jumps. This is usually the most accurate method for
plane structures analyzed with Mindlin elements.
SOFiSTiK 2016
2-5
In the third case (INT 2) torsional moments result additionally from the fixed
constraint of the deck slab.
Following the inverse principle of influence lines it is also possible to view the
different methods as different interpolation grades of the transverse influence
line as shown in the following picture:
INT 1
INT 0
INT 2
Figure 2.8: Interpolation Grades
2.5
Transverse Influence Lines
For plate and shell structures this interpolation of the lane values may become
insufficient as local effects of the loads have to be neglected. If the use of
multiple synchronized lanes is not applicable the types 3,5,7 or 9 will create this
number of load points transverse to the lane.
In a first step the transverse influence line will be established, followed by an
immediate evaluation of the maximum effects for a uniform loading and a single axle with two wheels with a given distance. The obtained values will then
become the values of the longitudinal influence line at this position.
Figure 2.9: Immediate Evaluation
There are two problems to be dealt: First it might be possible that the extreme
2-6
SOFiSTiK 2016
load position is not the same for the maximum vertical effect and the maximum
torsional effect (e.g. wind). This is neglected by using the most adverse effect in
all cases.
Figure 2.10: Second Load Position
The second problem is that we will have positive and negative influence lines
across the lane. While this is handled most accurately for the uniform loading
by integrating the contributions separately, the axle load will be applied always
with both wheels and only with is dominating contribution. It is therefore recommended not to place lanes centrically on the main girder, but eccentric at the
true position.
2.6
Evaluation of the Influence Lines
2.6.1
Favourably and Unfavourably Performing Loads
Since each load may use more than one influence line at the same time, a
quick evaluation of influence lines is possible only if some assumptions are made
about the load positions. ELLA uses also deductional loads, i.e. negative loads,
which describe gaps within an uniform traffic band.
Loads of the load trains are thus considered unfavourable, when a load in the
positive gravity direction (downwards) with the same eccentricity at the corresponding point of the influence line would also act unfavourably. Loads that act
at regions of the influence line with an opposite sign are considered favourable.
This classification decides about the appropriate dynamic factors, the possible
use of the reduction factors, and whether the load should be taken into account
at all. Horizontal loading will not be included in this decision. However all load
directions are considered for the determination of the most unfavourable load
SOFiSTiK 2016
2-7
position and the final evaluation of the results of cause.

In order to consider eccentricity effects (eg. torsional loading), the loads may
be automatically subdivided if the shear centre is within the width of the lane.
However, despite all these features the user should take care, that the real load
situation may be mapped by the load train. Sometimes either the lane axis must
be displaced or a secondary lane must be added or the loads must be given
explicitly.
For the evaluation of horizontal loading by braking or wind one has to take care
of some more subtle effects. If for example the influence line for a bending
moment is taken with respect to the eccentric longitudinal force at the upper
deck, we have areas with positive and negative values:
Figure 2.11: Evaluation of Horizontal Loading
Following remarks should be observed:
If the brake load is taken over the total length in the same direction, the
contributions will cancel mostly. This kind of loading should be defined as
standard load case, but not within ELLA.
If the load train has a dedicated travelling direction, only those contributions
will be taken into account acting unfavourably, although the design code (e.g.
Eurocode) may define the load value by the total, but limited loading in the
lane and an overall loaded length. A modification of the load value depending
on the loaded length will not occur.
If the load train is allowed to travel in any direction, all contributions will be
summed up with their unfavourable sign. Thus the areas with the wrong
sign will either have traffic in the opposite direction or acceleration forces are
effective. Although the Eurocode specifies this possibility only for the total
load value, this approach will also compensate for the missing effect of the
adoption of the load value to the loaded length from the remark above.
2.6.2
Unfavourable Load Position
For the load trains there are cases where the load train should be applied in total
only or where parts of the load train may be deactivated. This will be controlled
2-8
SOFiSTiK 2016
by a factor for favorable loading for every load element. The distinction between
the cases of a loading which is always present (e.g. cranes) and those where
the load may leave the system may not be decided in ELLA with ultimate precission. But as the resulting forces and moments have to be superimposed with
permanent loads, this decision may be postponed until then.
The most unfavourable load position is sought with a two-stage method. In a
first step the load train is placed at selected positions which either the program
selects itself or the user prescribes with POSL. Variable lengths or convoys of
loading are estimated separately with a simple method. The lengths of the positive loads are set always equal to their maximum value, whereas negative loads
are placed in such a way that their influence value at the end of the load is the
largest possible.
In a second step the most unfavourable value of all analyzed positions keeps on
being examined for local extreme values. That means the load train positions
and all lengths are varied until the most unfavourable position is found.
2.7
Limits
Some limits must be satisfied when using the program. The load direction
of all load trains is always in the direction of the gravity. The application of
ELLA for plane frames or shear walls provides so many possibilities for missunderstandings, that we do not support this feature currently.
coordinate system
right-handed
maximum number of load cases
9999
maximum number of axis
unlimited
maximum number of lanes per axis
99
maximum number of influence lines
unlimited
The program uses a working memory which is used mainly for the storage of the
values needed for the influence lines. An analytical equation for the necessary
memory can not be given, yet the in fact used area can be printed with ECHO
STAT.
The program is executed mostly in a uniquely determined way. There are, however, two types of problems for which a unique solution does not exist or can not
be found by the program under circumstances. These are:
SOFiSTiK 2016
2-9
The algorithm for the selection of the nodes next to the lane It is to be expected that unexpected results arise at irregularities (e.g. kinematic constraints, double defined beam members etc.).
Load trains with variable length In the case of load trains with loads of variable length the whole problem may become very complex. One should use
so few changeable lengths as possible. In addition the user should define
first the lengths which have the most significant effects. In the case of doubt
it is better to define more evaluation cases with fixed load lengths.
2-10
SOFiSTiK 2016
Input Description | ELLA
Input Description
3.1
Input Language
The input is made in the CADINP language (see general manual SOFiSTiK:
FEA / STRUCTURAL Installation and Basics).
The geometric and statical model must have been already defined and stored in
the database. The geometric definitions of the lanes may be already available
in the database.
The input is articulated in blocks which are decollated with the record END.
Within every block one can:
calculate or take over influence lines at old or new defined lanes:.

GAX, LANE
LSEL
LINF
CALC, APPL
print or plot the calculated or stored influence lines

SIZE, SHOW
Geometric definition of a lane

Select a lane for influence line evaluation
Get influence line from database
Parameter for evaluation
Print and draw influence lines
Define load trains

LC, TRAI, TRPL, TRBL
evaluate the influence lines with different load trains

CASE,COMB
POSL
Load cases and their combinations

Position of load trains within the lanes
The influence lines and load positions remain stored in a separate database
(.CDI) and are available for further evaluations.
The program is ended, when an empty block (END/END) occurs.
Three categories of units are distinguished:
mm
Fixed unit. Input is always required in the specified unit.
[mm]
Explicit unit. Input defaults to the specified unit. Alternatively, an

explicit assignment of a related unit is possible (eg. 2.5[m] ).
[mm] 1011
Implicit unit. Implicit units are categorised semantically and denoted
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-1
ELLA | Input Description
by a corresponding identity number (shown in green). Valid categories referring to the unit length are, for example, geodetic
elevation, section length and thickness. The default unit for each
category is defined by the currently active (design code specific)
unit set. This input default can be overridden as described above.
The specified unit in square brackets corresponds to the default for
unit set 5 (Eurocodes, NORM UNIT 5).
3.2
Input Records
The following input records are defined:

Record
Items
ECHO
TYPE
VAL
CTRL
OPT
VAL
GAX
NO
NX
NY
NZ
TYPE
TITL
NO
TYPE
SA
SE
YCE
YRA
YLA
NO
INT
LSEL
LSEQ
CALC
TYPE
LINF
WR
WL
YCA
YRE
YLE
DX
DY
DZ
RSEL
RSEQ
LMAX
LMIN
FROM
TO
DELT
SYST
T1
L1
T2
L2
T3
L3
T4
L4
T5
L5
T6
L6
TITL
APPL
TYPE
TGEN
SIZE
TYPE
SC
MARG
FORM
HDIV
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
SHOW
SNO
TYPE
NO
ETYP
DSV
YMAX
ACT
TYPE
GAMU
GAMF
PSI0
PSI1
PSI2
PS1S
PART
SUP
TITL
NO
PSI0
PSI1
PSI2
PS1S
GAMU
GAMF
TYPE
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
P8
P9
PFAC
WIDT
PHI
PHI2
PHIS
PHI4
XCON
DIR
LANE
LSEL
LC
TITL
TRAI
FUGA
Table continued on next page.
3-2
SOFiSTiK 2016
Record
Items
DIRT
TRPL
PB
PW
PF
PFAC
DIST
DPOS
DMIN
DMAX
Y2
HW
ZW
HF
PHI
PB
PW
PF
PFAC
DIST
LMAX
LDEL
Y2
HW
ZW
HF
PHI
SAVE
LCB
TYPE
TITL
CASE
NO
GRP
POSL
NO
TRAI
FACT
OPT
SMIN
SMAX
DEL
SYNC
TYPE
L1
F1
L2
F2
L3
F3
L4
F4
L5
F5
L6
F6
L7
F7
L9
F9
L10
F10
TRBL
YEX
COMB
L8
F8
The records HEAD, END and PAGE are described in the general manual
SOFiSTiK: FEA / STRUCTURAL Installation and Basics.
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-3
3.3
ECHO Control of the Output Extent
See also: LANE, LINF, CALC, TRAI
ECHO
Item
Description
Unit
Default
OPT
A literal from the following list:

LANE Lane geometry
IL
Influence lines
LOAD Load trains
EVAL Evaluation
LPOS Load positions
RES
Results
LT
FULL
LT
FULL
FULL
STAT
VAL
All the above options

CPU time and memory allocation
Extent of the output

OFF
no calculation, no output
NO
no output
YES
regular output
FULL extensive output
EXTR extreme output
The record name ECHO must be input for every record so that the options are
not confused with other records with identical names. The volume of printed
data is also controlled with the record SHOW.
With ECHO IL the influence lines will be printed, in general as pictures, but with
option EXTR also as text. The small influence lines in transverse direction will
be shown with the Option +4. Without a SHOW selection the volume of pictures
may become quite large.
With the option LPOS the actual load positions of all evaluations will be saved
to the database and the graphical visualization of the influence lines will include
the loading and will be repeated for all evaluation cases.
ECHO EVAL YES prints only the generated load cases for the case of ECHO
RES NO. For the load train position ECHO EVAL FULL is needed and for the
detailed statistical data ECHO EVAL EXTR.
ECHO RES EXTR prints the intermediate results of all cases.
3-4
SOFiSTiK 2016
3.4
CTRL Control Parameter
See also: APPL, CALC
CTRL
Item
Description
Unit
Default
OPT
A literal from the following list:

SECT Evaluation of beam sections
LT
VAL
Value of Option
V2
reserved for additional option
V3
V4
V5
V6
With CTRL SECT one can obtain evaluations only at certain beam sections. The
input options are:
CTRL SECT 0
CTRL SECT 1
only section with print-flag (see program SOFiMSHA

record BSEC)
all beam sections (default)
With CTRL AGRL one can select how ELLA should cope with the aggregation
of loaded lengths. The load values as well as the impact factors may depend on
those values.
STEU AGRL 0
STEU AGRL 1
STEU AGRL 2
Length values will be kept separately

Length values will be combined within the same lane
(Default)
Length values will be combined over all lanes
It has to be pointed out, that option 0 will be not be general applicable in case
of elastic supports, where strong discontinuities in the results may be obtained
and thus is not a mechanically sound procedure.
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3-5
3.5
Definition of the Lane Geometry
The base of the moving load process is a lane geometry, described in the plan
view by straight, circular or clothoid segments and in the elevation as straight
or quadratic parabola. This can be taken from the database as defined by
SOFiMSHC or SOFILOAD or explicitly input with the record GAX. Each axis
may have up to nine separate lanes with the sub numbers 1 to 9 defined via
LANE. For the dynamic impact coefficients an effective length may be specified
and the extra width of the traffic area may be defined.
A lane axis already stored in the database (by SOFiMSHC or SOFiLOAD or
ELLA) can be activated with the record LSEL.
Each lane has two coordinate systems. There is a local system (x) at the lane
axis for real distances. However, the inputs for the positions along the lanes
are entered in a global system of stations (s) which defines an alignment of the
lanes to each other.
Figure 3.1: Lane axis definition
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SOFiSTiK 2016
3.6
GAX Geometry of an Axis
See also: Load-train, LANE
GAX
Item
Description
Unit
Default
NO
Axis identifier
LT4
A1
Total arc length (station)
Real world coordinates of point
[m] 1001
[m] 1001
[m] 1001
Radius of the lane axis
[m] 1001
Spiral transition curve RL=A2
[m] 1001
NX
Direction vector
NY
NZ
LT
AXIS
LT32
TYPE
Type of axis
AXIS
general axis
LANE
traffic lane
BGEO bridge geometry line

TITL
Designation of lane
A general geometric axis with all details may be now defined in SOFIMSHC. For
SOFiLOAD / ELLA / GEOS only a simplified definition is provided as follows.
Definition with a length resp. station in the plan view For the first record of
an axis the start point (X,Y,Z) and the start direction (NX,NY,NZ), the length
S of the first segment and optional curvature and clothoidal parameter is
specified. All consecutive records contain only the next S-value and the
curvature parameters.
If a radius is defined, a transition element from the last radius to the current
value is generated. Positive values for R cause a curvature to the right-hand
side, whilst negative values a curvature to the left-hand side. If A is defined,
a clothoidal spiral transition curve is created where the curvature increases
for the positive values of A and decreases for the negative values. If the
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-7
radius R is not given it will be calculated automatically based on the length,

if it is given together with A the curvature of the start point will be calculated
instead. Basket arches with piecewice constant curvatures may be defined
with A=0.0 and the selected radius.
GAX B1 S 8.0 A 10
X -1.000 NX 1.0 TITL SPIRAL AND CIRCLE
S 16.0
GAX B2 S 8.0 R 25.0 A 0.0 Y -1.000 NY 1.0 TITL THREE CENTER
CURVE
S 16.0 R 14.0 A 0.0
Figure 3.2: Lane axis
Definition about 3D points at a curve The coordinates have to be input for

all records. The given direction (NX,NY,NZ) is the local z-axis and thus a
defined circular arc turns around this vector.
GAX A1-X S 0.0 X -1.000 TITL CENTER GEOMETRY
S 16.0 X 30.000 R 150.0 NZ 1.0
The described elements will be automatically adopted from WinGRAF as dynamic axis. A graphical check is recommended with the programs WING or
WinGRAF.
The options to define the elevation or cross falls are now only available in
SOFiMSHC.
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SOFiSTiK 2016
3.7
LANE Width of Traffic Lanes
See also: Load-train, GAX
LANE
Item
Description
Unit
Default
NO
LT
TYPE
Lane number (lane_ident.nummer)

e.g. A1.3 = third lane of axis A1
lane_ident only = all/total lanes
Predefined type (see remarks)
LT
WR
Ordinate of right curbstone
[m] 1001
WL
Ordinate of left curbstone
[m] 1001
-WR
SA
Coordinate along lane axis for start
SE
Coordinate along lane axis for end
YCA
Offset of centre of lane at start (SA)
[m] 1001
YCE
Offset of centre of lane at the end (SE)
[m] 1001
YCA
YRA
Right value at start (SA)
[m] 1001
YLA
Left value at start (SA)
[m] 1001
YRE
Right value at end (SE)
[m] 1001
YRA
YLE
Left value at end (SE)
[m] 1001
YLA
Effective length of segment for impact coefficients and loaded length dependencies
CONT add to last segment
[m] 1001
HSA
Height of deck or rail above lane at SA
[m] 1001
0.0
HSE
Height of deck or rail above lane at SE
[m] 1001
HSA
INCA
Cross fall dz/dy or h[mm] at SA
[mm]
0.0
INCE
Cross fall dz/dy or h[mm] at SE
[mm]
INCA
HEFF
Effective height of rail and sleeper
[m] 1001
BEFF
Effective length of sleeper
[m] 1001
DEFF
Effective width of sleeper
[m] 1001
INCD
Spread angle for stresses
0.25
ASL
Distance between mounting points
[m] 1001
WREF
Gauge to convert inclinations
[m] 1001
1.435
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3-9
The total loading area will be subdivided in up to 99 individual traffic lanes relative to a given geometrical axis. These may be created automatically by a predefined standard section or with explicit coordinates. One may subdivide each
segment with different widths and dynamic impact factors. All lanes have to be
defined together to an existing axis, any new definition will delete all previously
defined lane definitions.
Figure 3.3: Single lane loaded and residual area
The width of the lane is defined through the left and the right boundaries. The
lane can be widened or narrowed by different input data at different stations.
If the lane edges happen to intersect the lane, this should be defined only at
distinct points to allow for correct treating of torsional loading.
The width of the load train may be less than those of the lane. In that case
additional basic areas are established loaded by a constant load specified with
the load train. If the load train is larger than the lane width, reductions of the
applied loading are possible.
The lane 0 has to be defined always, for the following procedures two cases
have to be distinguished:
There is only lane 0, the width of the moving loading is defined only by the
load train.
There are other lanes within the curb stone limits. Then lane 0 defines the
total extend of the traffic load including pathways. The width of the moving
load is the maximum extend of the other lanes.
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SOFiSTiK 2016
4.00
2.00
AXIS.1
T 0.00
101
2.00
4.00
M 1 : 70
Figure 3.4: Two lanes loaded and residual area
Default constant sections are available via literals as follows. If such type (without blanc spaces) is given at the main lane, secondary lanes will be automatically created:
RQ7.5, RQ9.5, RQ10.5, RQ15.5,
RQ20, RQ26, RQ29.5
RQ33, RQ35.5
Setting total width automatically
For the following types the definition of the curbstone coordinates is always required, which is constant along the total lane.
EC
EC 1-3 (4) / DIN-Fachbericht 101
BS
even lanes according BS resp. BD 37-01
TMH7
even lanes according TMH7
CAN
even lanes according Canadian Standards
IRC
even lanes according Indian road congress
JRA
Main and secondary lanes (Japan road congress)
AS
Main and secondary lanes (Australian AS 5100)
If the lanes have all the same width, they will be aligned from the right (positive
y-values) starting with number 1. However if this is not the case, lane 1 is always
the central lane with the total traffic area, more lanes with numbers 2 to 9 will
be created aside. together with lane 1. Additional lanes will be created right
adjusted starting with number 10 and left adjusted with number 20. For TMH7
lanes 11,12,13 resp. 19,18,17 with extrem eccentricity will be created.
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-11
AXIS.11
T 102
2.00
4.00
AXIS.10
T 2.00
101
0.00
4.00
M 1 : 70
Figure 3.5: Two lanes adjusted to the right loaded and residual area
4.00
AXIS.20
T2.00
101
0.00
AXIS.21
T 1022.00
4.00
M 1 : 70
Figure 3.6: Two lanes adjusted to the left loaded and residual area
Residual areas are the areas between the edges defined by the width of the
load train and the edges of the lane itself. The pathways are thus only included
in lane 0. Gaps between the lanes are NOT treated as residual loading areas.
For the loading of the lane in SOFiLOAD it will be subdivided in the longitudinal
direction into segments (e.g. each span). If several lane-definitions should be
combined to one single segment, the definition of L is only possible for the first of
the definitions, while specifying for all the others the literal CONT at this position.
For railway bridges there are detailed tables available within EC1 or DIN FB 101
how to select the governing length. Further there are detailed descriptions how
to calculate the effective pressures from the load which needs the input values
HEFF to ASL however which are definable in SOFiLOAD only.
+ INC
INCD
YL
HEFF
BEFF
INCD
z
HS
y
YR
Figure 3.7: Ballast and sleepers
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SOFiSTiK 2016
3.8
LSEL Selection of a Defined Lane
See also: LaneGeometry, GAX, LANE, LSEL
LSEL
Item
Description
Unit
Default
NO
Lane identifier
t8
INT
[m] 1001
99
DY
Load distribution (see chapter 2)

0
Single lane
1
Articulated distribution
2
Rigid distribution
3,5,7,9 Transverse infl. line QUAD
Maximum longitudinal distance or direction
deviation
Influence width of the lane
[m] 1001
99
DZ
Influence height of the lane
[m] 1001
99
RSEL
Explicit centric/right-hand side nodes

EDGE by nodal sequence RSEQ
SZUG by continuous beam RSEQ
GRP by beams of group RSEQ
QGRP QUADs of group RSEQ
Selection number for RSEL
LT
EDGE
Explicit left-hand side nodes

EDGE by nodal sequence LSEQ
SZUG by continuous beam LSEQ
GRP by beams of group LSEQ
QGRP QUADs of group LSEQ
Selection number for LSEL
LT
(RSEL)
/ Lt
DX
RSEQ
LSEL
LSEQ
only for INT>2:

BWH
Distance of wheels in transverse direction
[m] 1001
2.0
YMAX
maximum eccentricity
[m] 1001
0.0
YMIN
minimum eccentricity
[m] 1001
0.0
An already defined lane gets activated for evaluation with the record LSEL. At
NO one has to specify the axis identifier (4 chars) optionally appended by a dot
and a digit for the lane number (e.g. A1.3 but also with wild cards like A1.? or
A1.1?). Without a lane number all lanes of that axis are selected, which is not
always a good choice to minimze analysis time. At the same time parameters
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-13
can be specified for the selection of the neighboring nodes.

Lanes which are defined with the record GAX in the same block are selected
automatically with the standard values for DX, DY and DZ. A special feature can
be achieved with an input of a negative value for INT. In this case all geometric
parameters and influence lines are deleted for this lane.
If the user does not define an explicit sequence of neighboring nodes, Ella will
try in a first step to look for all nodes which are adjacent to the lane and tries to
link them to one (INT 0) or two (INT 1,2) nodal sequences.
For this search DY and DZ describe a region in which the corresponding nodes
must be situated. DY is measured in this case at the right-hand side and at the
left-hand side of the lane. A value of about 90 percent of the distance between
the main girders is a sound definition.
The parameter DZ defines the limits of the region under the lane which is to
be examined. This is for example necessary for three-dimensional structures at
which parts of this structure lie sometimes beneath the lane. Nodes above the
lane axis are never considered.
For INT>2 DX specifies a maximum distance of the load points along the axis.
While the default is to use a load point at every edge crossing the lane, a smaller
value will insert additional points between.
For INT 0 to 2 the parameter DX specifies, how large the angle between the lane
axis and an edge of the nodal sequence is accepted. An input is necessary, if
transverse girders and longitudinal girders have similar angles of intersection to
the lane. If the node sequences may intersect the lane, DX has to be input with
a negative value.
Figure 3.8: Node selection for a lane
If ELLA is not able to find suitable sequences of nodes, then it is possible to
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SOFiSTiK 2016
specify two sequences explicitly by boundary or beam elements containing the

desired nodes with RSEL/RSEQ and LSEL/LSEQ.
For plates and shells structures it is recommended to make an evaluation of the
influence area in transverse direction before establishing the longitudinal influence values- With types 3,5,7 and 9 these numbers of load points in transverse
direction will be examined based on the existing and selected QUAD elements.
QUAD elements are searched only based on the plan view. If a secondary group
or a range of primary groups is specified, no further checks about the elevation
will be made. However if no such definitions are given, only those QUAD elements will be considered situated with a maximum of DZ below the loading or
where the loading is within the element. Thus it is strongly recommended to use
a group definition to specify the traffic area properly. One secondary group or a
range of primary groups may be specified.
For the evaluation the transverse distance of the wheels BWH and the minimum
and maximum eccentricities (YMIN,YMAX) are required. For the evaluation in
the longitudinal direction these values may not be changed any more. If the
wheel distance of the train do not match, slight deviations are possible, which
are flagged by a warning message.
A graphical control may be obtained with ECHO EL +4.
3.9
Calculation of Influence Areas
Influence areas are calculated from unit load cases, when the record CALC is
input. In every case all the influence areas are produced for the corresponding
internal forces. The record CALC specifies for which elements and for which
scalar variables the evaluation of the influence area will be performed.
For each extreme value of any scalar variable a load case can be generated
and stored in the database. The corresponding values of the rest of the internal
forces are calculated automatically too.
As an alternate way one may read influence lines or areas which were stored
as load cases in the data base with the input option LINF. The values are then
interpolated to the defined lanes. The results, however, do not get stored in the
database.
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-15
3.10
CALC Evaluation of Influence Areas
See also:
CASE
CalculationofInfluenceAreas, APPL, CTRL,
CALC
Item
Description
Unit
Default
TYPE
LT
FROM
Scalar variable for which the influence lines

should be evaluated
Load case number for the maximum
0
no evaluation
Load case number for the minimum
0
no evaluation
Smallest element number
/ Lt4
TO
Largest element number
/ Lt4
FROM
DELT
Increment of the element numbers
SYST
Subsystem for the analysis

SPAC / GIRD
Impact factor or characteristic length for impact factor if given with a length unit
LT
LMAX
LMIN
PHI
If no input occurred for FROM, TO and DELT, all elements of the structure will
be selected. Multiple overlapping definitions are possible, the latest positive
definition is valid. Instead of the element numbers a group may be selected via
or FROM GRP group.
The parameter SYST can define a reduced influence line evaluation. This may
result in a significant reduction of the CPU time and the memory requirement
e.g. in the case of girders, if a three-dimensional model was defined due to
the prestress and the temperature, while the imposed loads are acting only at a
two-dimensional girder. The influence lines for the axial force as well as for the
transverse bending are not calculated or evaluated with the input SYST GIRD.
List of the Scalar Variables
1. Beam Elements
N, VY, VZ, MT, MY, MZ
Internal forces and moments
2. Truss, Cable and Spring Elements
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SOFiSTiK 2016
TRUS
CABL
P, M
Axial forces in truss elements

Cable forces
Spring force, spring moment
3. Shell, disk and plate elements

MXX, MYY, MXY
VXX, VYY
NXX, NYY, NXY
Bending moments
Shear forces
Membrane forces
4. Nodes
UX, UY, UZ
global displacements
PHIX, PHIY, PHIZ
global rotations
UXL, UYL, UZL
local displacements
UXXL, UYYL, UZZL
global rotations
local displacements may not be saved in the database
5. Result sets
Result sets will be selected with TYPE RSET:xxxxx, where xxxxx is
either the ID of the item within a set to be evaluated or a number if the
x-th item of all result sets should be evaluated. Supported are all forces
and moments of beam, truss and cable elements, forces and stresses
in the center of QUAD and BRIC elements and nodal displacements,
support forces and spring forces (but not resultant PT)
At FROM and TO the idents of the result sets may be specified in lexical
order (FROM may also contain wildcards, e.g. "SU*") .
The evaluation of the influence lines for nodal support forces is possible by an
import of a deflection area caused from a nodal displacement, as force of a
supporting spring or via the result sets.
The application of ELLA for plane frames or shear walls provides so many
possibilities for miss-understandings, that we do not support this feature.
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-17
3.11
LINF Influence Lines
See also:
SHOW
CalculationofInfluenceAreas, LANE, ECHO,
LINF
Item
Description
Unit
Default
T1
Type of the first influence line
LT
MAMI
L1
Load case number first influence line
T2
Type of the second influence line
LT
MAMI
L2
Load case number second influence line
T3
Type of the third influence line
LT
MAMI
L3
Load case number third influence line
T4
Type of the fourth influence line
LT
MAMI
L4
Load case number fourth influence line
T5
Type of the fifth influence line
LT
MAMI
L5
Load case number fifth influence line
T6
Type of the sixth influence line
LT
MAMI
L6
Load case number sixth influence line
PHI
Impact factor or characteristic length for impact factor if given with a length unit
TITL
Title of the influence line
LT24
Influence lines or areas which were stored as load cases can be taken over for
the evaluation along the defined lane axis. However, results are only printed and
do not get stored in the database.
Up to six corresponding influence lines can be defined together.
For type T1 to T6 one can enter:
MAMI
MAX
MIN
ACC
= Evaluation for minimum and maximum

= Evaluation for maximum
= Evaluation for minimum
= Evaluation only as corresponding line
Positive load case numbers are processed with the first set of impact factors
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SOFiSTiK 2016
(bending), while negative load case numbers use the second set (shear).
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-19
3.12
APPL Control of the Loading Location
See also: CalculationofInfluenceAreas, CALC, CTRL
APPL
Item
Description
Unit
Default
TYPE
Direction of the unit forces

MONO Only centric vertical loading
STAN Only vertical loading
TRAV Additionally tranverse loading
FULL Additionally longitudinal loading
Accuracy of the cross section jumps
LT
STAN
0.
TGEN
The CPU time for obtaining the influence lines can be reduced by using the
default value of APPL. The options TRAV and FULL are only useful for threedimensional systems with the corresponding loads.
The item TGEN specifies at which cross sections within a beam element the
additional loading locations are defined. A loading location is inserted, when the
difference of the reciprocal stiffness of two neighbouring cross sections is larger
than a multiple of TGEN.

1
1
1
> TGEN

E
E+1
E
(3.1)
The input of TGEN is recommended for structures with many similar cross sections, because the CPU time and the memory allocation are reduced then significantly. For instance, TGEN 1.E10 suppresses the insertion of any loading
locations at internal beam sections.
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SOFiSTiK 2016
3.13
SIZE Graphic Representation of Influence Lines
See also: SHOW, ECHO
Item
Description
TYPE
Paper size
Positive value
Negative value
SC
Scale
0
SIZE
Unit
Default
-lp
Landscape format
Portrait format
format filling
Paper width
cm
Paper height
cm
MARG
Draws a border
OFF
does not draw a border
NO
draws only an inner border
YES
release of an additional border
FULL draws an additional border
around the sheet
LT
FULL
FORM
Form of the border

STAN Standard frame
ZTVK ZTVK-88 frame
URS
URSULA definition
LT
ZTVK
HDIV
Number of the representations per sheet
C1
Pen number for PV influence lines
C2
Pen number for MS influence lines
C3
Pen number for PS influence lines
C4
Pen number for PQ influence lines
C5
Pen number for the legend
C6
Pen number for loadings
2001
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-21
Item
Description
C7
Fill area number for loadings
Unit
Default
2235
Graphic representations are only produced, when the record SIZE is input. If
a pen number is defined negatively, the corresponding line type does not get
plotted. The lines to be plotted are prescribed with the input of the record SHOW.
Without ECHO LPOS only the influence lines will be shown, with ECHO LPOS
the actual load position will be also visualized, which will need more pictures in
general.
The item causes a subdivision of the sheet into some strips, so that the corresponding influence lines can be plotted at the same drawing. Positive values
draw the lane axis along the paper width and subdivide the paper height; negative values have a contrary effect. The default is that three lines get plotted
parallel to the largest dimension of the paper.
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SOFiSTiK 2016
3.14
SHOW Representation of Influence Lines
See also: SIZE, ECHO, LINF
Item
Description
SNO
Lane number
0
all
lit4
all lanes of axis lit4
lit4.n
only lane n of axis lit4
TYPE
Influence location
ALL
All types
LINF explicit bending areas (LINF)
BEAM Beam elements
TRUS Truss elements
CABL Cable elements
SPRI Spring elements
QUAD Plane elements
NO
Element or first LINF-case number

no input
all
X value for beam elements
no input
all beams
SHOW
Unit
Default
LT
ALL
LT
ALL
ETYP
Type of the influence lines

EXTR Lines only for extreme values
ALL
Also the corresponding lines
DSV
Distance of the output values
YMAX
minimum value to scale the line
1.E-6
With SHOW the lines which should be printed (record ECHO IL) and / or plotted
(record SIZE) are selected. The item DSV controls the distance between marked
positions in the output. Available values are shown then at least in this distance.
However, extreme values are output additionally in all cases.
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-23
3.15
ACT Definition of an Action
See also: ACT, LC
ACT
Item
Description
Unit
Default
TYPE
Designation of action
LT4
GAMU
Unfavourable safety factor
GAMF
Favourable safety factor
PSI0
Combination coefficient rare
PSI1
Combination coefficient frequent
PSI2
Combination coefficient quasi-permanent
PS1S
Combination coefficient non-frequent
GAMA
Safety factor accidental
PART
Partition to which the action belongs:

G
permanent
P
prestress
Q
variable action
Q_1
variable action load group 1
...
Q_9
variable action load group 9
A
accidental action
E
earthquake
Default superposition of the load cases
within the action:
PERM permanent with unique factor
PERC permanent with individual factors
COND conditional
EXCL mutually exclusive within category
EXEX mutually exclusive within action
UNSI conditional with unfavourable sign
USEX exclusive with unfavourable sign
ALEX always but exclusive
LT
LT
LT24
SUP
TITL
Designation of action
As type of the action one may use any literal with up to 4 characters, however
some combinations are reserved for special purpose. They are defined in the
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SOFiSTiK 2016
corresponding INI-files and will follow the designation of the selected design
code as close as possible. An overview is given in the table below. Further it is
possible to subdivide each action with two characters in categories selected with
a character from A to Z, each having distinguished combination coefficients or
safety factors. The category will be appended with an underscore to the name
of the action.
Each category has its own combination values and its own load cases and a
default superposition rule within the action category,
Each Category comprehends all its categories, i.e. one may select either a
sub category on its own or all categories by the generic name of the category.
(Q selects all Q_?)
I N I - File/ EC- Default s
act ion G
loadcase
loadcase
act ion Q
act ion Q_A
loadcase
loadcase
act ion Q_B
loadcase
loadcase
Figure 3.9: Structure of the actions, their categories and their load cases
For example there are for road bridges in EC1-3 for the uniform life load UDL and
the movable double axle different combination coefficients. For simple cases
one will define a load case for every span of type L_U (UDL), to be superimposed conditionally, while the discrete load cases of different load positions of
the double axle will be defined as type L_T and exclude each other. All load
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-25
cases however will be applied together as leading action.

Finally any individual load case may have its own combination factors assigned
in SOFiLOAD. (see LC). This should be avoided however and a definition of
combination coefficients in MAXIMA is then at least ambiguous and of little use
therefore.
Normal Add. Spec. Remark
for LC only: not assigned to an action
NONE
Gg
ZGg
SGq
dead load
G1g
Z1g
S1q
primary dead load
G2g
Z2g
S2q
secondary dead load
Pg
ZPg
SPq
Prestress (for old DIN use V !)
Cg
ZCg
SCq
Creep and shrinkage
Qq
ZQ
SQ
variable load
ZL
SL
ZW
SW
life load (L in analog mode L_T (TS), ZL in analog

mode L_U (UDL))
Wind (use ZW for Bridges)
Sq
ZS
SS
Snow (use ZS for Bridges)
Rg
ZR
SR
Earth pressure, Water Pressure
Fq
ZF
SF
Settlements (ZF = expected, SF = possible)
ZT
ST
Temperature
ZA
SA
Accidental
ZB
SB
ZE
SE
Construction, Maintenance
(ZB = resistance of bearings, SB = Exchange of bearings)
Earthquake (ZE = Service, SE = Design)
= Load case is permanent (always added)
= Load case is conditional (added if unfavourable)
= Load cases are conditional excluding each other
The actions indicated in the table are used only as preset action, provided that
they are available in the INI-file of the selected design code.
The entries within one row with preceding Z for additional loading and S for
special loading may be treated in AQB as belonging to the same action.
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SOFiSTiK 2016
Further there is an action GA for dead weight for the check of stability (Buoyancy,
overturning etc.) with = 1.10/ 0.90 instead of = 1.35/ 1.00.
For the action of earthquake there is in EC 8 an importance factor depending
on the importance class to be selected by the user explicitly:
Class factor Description
I
1.4
II
1.2
III
1.0
IV
0.8
Buildings whose integrity during earthquakes is of vital importance for civil protection, e.g. hospitals, fire stations, power
plants, etc.
Buildings whose seismic resistance is of importance in view
of the consequences associated with a collapse, e.g. schools,
assembly halls, cultural institutions etc.
Ordinary buildings, not belonging to the other categories
Buildings of minor importance for public safety, e.g. agricultural buildings, etc.
In principal every action may be subdivided by categories. For some action

types (Q, L or S) the values from Table 9.3 of EC1 resp. DIN 1055-100, Table
A2 or other deviations are already available as follows:
Action
Q: Payload for buildings
[0.70]
[0.50]
[0.30]
- Q_A
Housing
[0.70]
[0.50]
[0.30]
- Q_B
Offices
[0.70]
[0.50]
[0.30]
- Q_C
Assembly rooms
[0.70]
[0.70]
[0.60]
- Q_D
Sales rooms
[0.70]
[0.70]
[0.60]
- Q_E
Storage rooms
[1.00]
[0.90]
[0.80]
Live load for buildings

- Q_F
truck load < 30kN
[0.70]
[0.70]
[0.60]
- Q_G
30kN < truck load < 160kN
[0.70]
[0.50]
[0.30]
- Q_H
Roofs
[0.00]
[0.00]
[0.00]
L: Live loads according EC 1.3 etc.

- L_T
Tandem Axle of LM 1
[0.75]
[0.75]
[0.20]
- L_U
UDL loading of LM 1
[0.40]
[0.40]
[0.20]
- L_C
Load model UIC 71 ( = 1.45)
[0.80]
[0.80]
[0.00]
- L_D
Load model SW/0 ( = 1.45
[0.80]
[0.80]
[0.00]
- L_E
Load model SW/2 ( = 1.20)
[0.00]
[0.80]
[0.00]
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-27
Action
Live load for buildings

- L_F
truck load < 30kN
[0.70]
[0.70]
[0.60]
- L_G
30kN < truck load < 160kN
[0.70]
[0.50]
[0.30]
- L_H
Roofs
[0.00]
[0.00]
[0.00]
[0.60]
[0.20]
[0.00]
- S_L = buildings up to 1000m elevation
[0.50]
[0.20]
[0.00]
- S_H = buildings above 1000m elevation
[0.70]
[0.50]
[0.20]
- For SIA 260 with PSI0 as elevation h
1-60/ h
1-250/ h
1-1000/ h
W: Wind for buildings
[0.60]
[0.50]
[0.00]
T: Temperature (no fire) for buildings
[0.60]
[0.50]
[0.00]
F: Settlements
[1.00]
[1.00]
[1.00]
Other actions
[0.80]
[0.70]
[0.50]
S: Snow for buildings
The user should check the defaults in all cases. Deviations of the PSI-values
for wind and temperature especially for bridges or other non buildings are to be
expected as all values are "boxed values" depending on individual or country
dependant settings. For example you will find in OENORM B 4750 categories
with trucks between 30 and 60 kN with values augmented by 0.1 for 1 and 2 .
For all EN codes as well the SIA codes there are two defaults for the live load for
buildings with the categories F,G and H. The user can choose, whether the live
load for buildings should be in an own action L (with categories L_F, L_G and
L_H) or whether these categories should be a part of the action Q in addition to
the payloads for buildings (categories Q_A till Q_H).
Values GAMU to PS1S replace the predefined values which should be checked
by the user if not defined. With the specification of ACT all subsequent load
cases will then have this action type as default.
It might be possible to reinitialize an action, due to some changed parameters
of a design code. SOFiLOAD provides two possibilities: ACT INIT deletes all
actions, ACT TYPE INIT or a new parameter definition will reinitialize the action
TYPE with the current defaults. As such changes may have unforeseeable side
effects on existing definitions and results, this has to be done with extreme care.
PART defines, to which action of the selected superposition equation the input
action belongs. The actions in the superposition equations are distinguished
according to their temporal variances:
3-28
SOFiSTiK 2016
permanent actions:
variable actions
PART G
e.g dead load
PART P
prestress
PART Q
PART Q_1
load group 1
PART Q_2
load group 2
...
PART Q_9
accidental actions
PART A
action earthquake
PART E
load group 9
Thus the item PART allows the correct classification of user-defined actions, but
also of special cases as for example PART G SUP ALEX (always but exclusive,
it means, that only one load case is always used). Exclusively the item SUP
controls, how the load cases which are a part of the actions are used for the
superposition (always, conditional, mutually exclusive).
Meant for example PART P, that the input action is used in the equation part
Pk for superpositions for ultimate and serviceability limit state (EC,DIN, DIN-FB,
see manual MAXIMA, chapter 2).
The item PART depends on TYPE for preset actions. For example PART G is
the default for the actions G, G1 and G2, PART P for the actions P and C, PART
Q for the actions Q and L, PART A for the action A and PART E for the action E.
The item PART has to be input for user-defined actions. Otherwise the userdefined actions get PART Q (default).
The item SUP defines the default treatment of multiple load cases within an
action. The default will be taken from the INI-File, but for free defined types of
actions it is EXCL in general, if the type of the action has a leading Q it will
become COND and for a leading G it will be PERM.
In MAXIMA one may overwrite this for any particular load case of an action or
recombine load cases (e.g. 0.7*LC_101(Ex)+0.5*LC_102(Ey)). Due to historic
reasons there are special literals at record LC in MAXIMA in addition to the
literals of SUP:
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-29
SOFiLOAD MAXIMA
Remark
ACT SUP
LC TYPE
PERM
always (permanent), safety factor action-wise
PERC
PERC
COND
always (permanent) with variable factors, safety factor load-case-wise

conditional (only unfavourable)
EXCL
A*
mutually exculsive
EXEX
Ano
UNSI
mutually exclusive but conditional inclusive categories (only within an action), MAXIMA record LC
only one alternative group number Ano
changing sign (e.g. earthquake)
USEX
X*
changing sign, mutually exclusive
ALEX
AG1
always but exclusive (only within an action)
additional load case to be combined
Using SUP PERM the same safety factor is used for all load cases of a permanent action (e.g. ACT G). In this case the sum of the values of the single load
cases is decisive, whether the unfavourable (GAMU) or the favourable (GAMF)
safety factor is applied. In the contrast to that the safety factors are considered
load-case-wisely, if SUP PERC is defined. Here one load case of the permanent
action can get GAMU and another GAMF.
SUP EXEX excludes only categories against each other within an action
(no exclusion of different actions). If for example the categories X_1 and X_2
of the action X are defined with SUP EXEX, then only the most unfavourable load
case is used either from X_1 or from X_2 and also only, if it has an unfavourable
contribution. In the contrast to that an unfavourable load case from X_1 and an
unfavourable load case from X_2 are used for the input of SUP EXCL.
SUP ALEX defines a permanent alternative group (MAXIMA record LC TYPE
AG1). Only the load cases of an action or all load cases of the categories of
an action are used for the formation of a permanent alternative group. Here
only a load case is considered for the superposition, also if it has a favourable
contribution. Load cases of different actions do not exclude themselves mutually.
If SUP ALEX is input for some actions, a load case is considered per action.
In program MAXIMA it is additionally possible to assign load cases of an action or category to several permanent alternative groups. The input is done in
program MAXIMA with LC ... TYPE AG1 till AG99.
The total mechanism of the defaults for the action types is governed by the
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SOFiSTiK 2016
following rules:
By selecting a design code within AQUA all definitions given in the associated INI-File in the [action] -section will become available. If no such file
is available, defaults in the program are available for all EC and newer DIN
(since year 2000). For all other cases there are exactly two predefined actions G and Q without any coefficients or factors.
When addressing an action, a copy of this definition is created in the

database which has then the possibility of deviating factors if explicitly defined with this record or via the SOFiPLUS menus.
When creating a load case, the factors are copied from the action definition
to the load case. However those factors may be modified for any individual
load case.
For special design purposes the factors may be changed temporarily when
using the load cases in AQB.
Variable action - load groups:

The load groups PART Q_1 till Q_9 can be used for a better formation of combination without intermediate superpositions in MAXIMA e.g. for the load models
of the bridge design (EN 1990/A1). If different load groups are defined for categories with corresponding inputs for the item SUP, then the intermediate superpositions and the following superpositions are done in one MAXIMA run.
Example:
PROG SOFILOAD
HEAD
ACT XY_1 gamu
ACT XY_2 gamu
ACT XY_3 gamu
ACT XY_4 gamu
1.4 0.0 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.6 PART Q_1 SUP excl
1.3 0.0 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 PART Q_1 SUP excl
1.45 0.0 0.6 0.3 0.0 0.6 PART Q_2 SUP exex
1.35 0.0 0.5 0.2 0.0 0.5 PART Q_3 SUP exex
...
PROG MAXIMA
HEAD
COMB 1 desi TYPE desi BASE 2100
ACT XY_1
LC -1
ACT XY_2
LC -1
ACT XY_3
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-31
LC -1
ACT XY_4
LC -1
or
COMB 2 expl TYPE desi BASE 2200
ADD {QI} gamm
First of all three load groups Q_1, Q_2 and Q_3 are defined with PART in the
program SOFiLOAD. The categories XY_1 und XY_2 are a art of the load group
1. Their load cases are mutually exclusive only within the respective category
about the input SUP EXCL. The categories XY_3 and XY_4 are a part of the
load groups 2 and 3. All load cases of both categories are mutually exclusive
about the input SUP EXEX.
With one of the MAXIMA combinations then the superposition is done as follows:
First of all MAXIMA searches which load cases of the load group 1 are decisive
(possible one ore two or no load case = first intermediate superposition).Then
the decisive load case of the load groups 2 and 3 is determined (possible one
or no load case = second intermediate superposition). In the last step the final
superposition is done. Either the decisive load cases of the load group 1 or the
decisive load case of the goups 2 and 3 are here the final result.
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SOFiSTiK 2016
3.16
LC Train Load Loading Case
See also: POSL, LANE, , CALC, COMB
Item
Description
NO
Number of load case
TYPE
Action type of load case
PSI0
LC
Unit
Default
LT
Combination value standard
PSI1
Combination value frequent
PSI2
Combination value quasi permanent
PS1S
Combination value non permanent
GAMU
unfavourable safety factor
GAMF
favourable safety factor
TITL
Title of loadcase
Lt24
The input of the loading occurs in the form of load trains identified by a load case
number, which must not be used for other cases, and the position of load trains
within lanes.
The record LC must be followed by the definition of a corresponding load train:
TRAI
Specifying the load train
TRPL,TRBL
Explicit loading of a load train
The combination values may be taken from the action selected by the TYPE or
will be default to the values according to EC1 Part 3 Appendix C, or may be
specified explicitly. For the resulting load cases of the evaluation the maximum
value of all applied trains will be saved. These values will then be accepted from
the program MAXIMA.
Deviations of the PSI-values for wind and temperature especially for bridges ot
other non buildings are to be expected as all values are "boxed values" depending on individual or country dependent settings. For example you will find in
OENORM B 4750 categories with trucks between 30 and 60 kN values augmented by 0.1 for 1and 2.
Furthermore the DIN-Fachberichte supply different combination values for the
constant load an the heavy vehicle.
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-33
3.17
TRAI Load Train Definition
See also: COPY, TRPL, TRBL, LANE, TREX
TRAI
Item
Description
Unit
Default
TYPE
Type of a load train
LT
CONS
P1
class of load train or load value
kN, m
P2
second value for load train
kN, m
P3
Third value for load train
kN, m
P4
fourth value for load train
kN, m
P5
loading on spare areas
kN/ m2
P6
Wind loading
kN/ m2
P7
Height of wind attack area
[m] 1001
P8
Parameter for brake load
P9
Height of mass center for centrifugal load
[m] 1001
PFAC
Factor for vertical-loading of total train
1.0
[m] 1001
(e.g. classified UIC loading)

WIDT
Width of load train
PHI
explicit impact coeffizient for bending
PHIS
explicit impact coeffizient for shear
Speed of load train
FUGA
Factor for the masses of total train for the

centrifugal forces
1.0
XCON
Minimum distance for repeated load train

(convoy)
Eccentricity value for special trains
[m] 1001
[m] 1001
0.0
LT
YEX
DIR
Direction of train
B
= in both directions
R
= only to the right (positive)
L
= only to the left (negative)
N
= train does not move at all
[km/ h] 1203
3-34
SOFiSTiK 2016
Item
Description
Unit
Default
DIRT
Direction of transverse loading

B
= in both directions
R
= only to the right (positive)
L
= only to the left (negative)
N
= suppress this loading
LT
1/ sec
0.0
Parameters for multibody dynamics:

FRB
Frequency for body Spring Cb
DAB
Modal Damping of body support
BOGI
Load value of bogie
/ kN
0.0
FRBO
Frequency for bogie Spring Cbo
1/ sec
DABO
Modal Damping of bogie support
0.0
WHEE
Load value of wheel
/ kN
0.0
FRWH
Frequency for wheel spring Cwh
1/ sec
DAWH
Modal Damping of wheel support
0.0
The description of all available load trains can be found within the next pages.
If a value for the convoy distance is given (XCON), the specified train will be
applied multiple times with that given minimum distance between the last load
ordinate and the reference point of the consecutive loadtrain.
The entire, possibly variable, width of the lane is loaded by the basic area loading
P5. By contrast, the loading travel having a constant width. The basic area
loading is applied without dynamic factors and without centrifugal forces.
The wind loading is generally equal to P6 and acts horizontally upon a traffic
band with height P7. As there will be no traffic for strong winds, this is not the
maximum wind load on the structure itself. The sign of the wind load is defined
as positive if coming from the right in the moving direction, but option DIRT
allows a more specific definition. ELLA has the possibility in record POSL via
OPT to apply the wind load in the most unfavourable direction at its own, if DIRT
has allowed this. Both options are combined with a logical and-operation.
The load trains have a moving direction which is not only important for some of
the train loads but also for the direction of the braking load. Positive load values
are considered to be braking loads in traveling direction, negative load values
are accelerating loads in reverse direction. If DIR N is specified, no impact
factor will be applied and the brake and velocity and wind load will be preset to
zero.
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-35
The meaning of value P8 is different for each loading type. The sign of the
braking load will be taken from the moving direction. A changing sign (DIR B)
will be only possible for ELLA to take care of. ELLA and SOFILOAD allow to
change the direction or deactivate the loading.
For an analysis with multi-body-dynamics it is possible to generate masses,
beams, springs and dampers via the record TREX. The mass of bogie and wheel
may be specified either as a positive absolute load value or as a negative fraction
of the total mass. For more information see record TREX.
Table of Standard Load Trains:
USER
constant Area Loading P5 / user defined Load Train
LM1
double axle load model 1 according Eurocode 1 part 3
LM2
single axle load model 2 according Eurocode 1 part 3
LM3
special case load model 3 according Eurocode 1 part 3
SV,SOV
Special vehicles according BS EN1991-2
LM4
pedestrian load model 4 according Eurocode 1 part 3
FLM1
Fatigue load model 1 according Eurocode 1 part 3
FLM2
FLM3
FLM4
SLW
Heavy load truck according to DIN / OENORM / IAP
LKW
Standard truck (according to country code)
LKWD
German truck (in Austria)
LKWA
Austrian truck
NBR
Brasilian load trains NBR 7188 / NB6 similar to SLW/LKW
Highway Load according AASHTO resp. BS 5400
HS
Highway Load according AASHTO resp. BS 5400
HT
Highway Truck H(M) according AASHTO
HST
Highway Truck HS(MS) according AASHTO
3-36
SOFiSTiK 2016
CAN
Highway Load according Canandian Standard CSA
ONT
Highway Load according Canandian Standard CSA (Ontario)
HA
HA according BS 5400
HB
HB according BS 5400
IRC
Loading Class AA, A, B and Appendix I of

Indian Road Congress 6-2000
JRA
Load trains T and L of the Japan Road Association
BRO1
3 axle load train of the Swedish BRO type 1
BRO2
Single axle load train of the Swedish BRO type 2/3/4
BRO3
2 x 3 axle load train of the Swedish BRO type 5
BROF
Fatigue relevant load train of the Swedish BRO
AS_A
Single wheel / axle according australian AS 5100
AS_M
Load train M 1600 according AS 5100
AS_S
Load train S 1600 according AS 5100
HLP
Heavy load platform according AS 5100.7
UIC
Loading according UIC 71

resp. RU of BS 5400
SW
Heavy load trains SW/0 DS 804 / EC
SW/2
Heavy load trains SW/2 DS 804 / EC
RFAT
Railway Fatigue loading EC and others
HSLM
Load trains according EC 1 Annex 2
RL
Railway Loading BS 5400
ASRT
Railway Loading AS 5100
All load trains may be extended with TRPL and TRBL definitions. If none of
the standard load elements of the rain should be used, but other properties like
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-37
impact factors should be retained, the literal USER may be defined for P1. The
user should take care of:
The default live load P5 should be deducted for the areas loaded by the
defined loading.
The distance to the last load of a standard train may be not as expected due
to automatically generated loads of those type and should be checked.
The Eurocode load model allows the loading to be moved across the lane within
some limits, each load will have therefore a range of possible eccentricities for
ELLA.
3.17.1
Impact Factor
Two different dynamic factors are provided for bending or shear effects. The
values depend on the dynamic properties of the structure, the type of loading
and on an effective length, to be defined in general for every individual element
and result with record CALC. If that is not done, the value defined with the lane
geometry is used, but one can also specify an explicit value for each of those
four values. With the definition of PHI STEE, CONC, PRCO und COMP variants
of the formulas may be selected, if the design code supplies such variants.
Default formulas are:
DIN
Impact factor according to DIN 1072

(Default for SLW and LKW)
PH = 1.4 0.008 LPH
UIC
Impact factor according to EN 1992 / DS 804

for extended maintenance
p
PH = 0.82 + 1.44/ ( LPH 0.2) 1.67
UICB
BS
(3.4)
Impact factor according to BS 5400

p
PHB = 0.73 + 2.16/ ( LPH 0.2) 2.0
p
PHS = 0.82 + 1.44/ ( LPH 0.2) 1.67
3-38
(3.3)
Impact factor according to EN 1992 / DS 804

with standard maintenance
p
PH = 0.73 + 2.16/ ( LPH 0.2) 2.0
(3.2)
(3.5a)
(3.5b)
SOFiSTiK 2016
NA
Impact factor according to TMH7

PH = 0.05 (100 + LPH)/ (10 + LPH)
SW/0
Impact factor according to DS 804

between 1.48 and 1.08
SW/2
Impact factor according to DS 804

AASH
Impact factor according to AASHTO

(3.6)
PH = 1.0 + 15.24/ (LPH + 38)
(3.7)
CAN
Impact factor according to CAN/CSA

between 1.25 and 1.40, depending on the available length for
one, two or three axles. (A depencency for the true number of
applied axles is not available)
IRC
Impact factor according to Clause 211 Fig. 5. for Class A, B

and AA loading for concrete and steel bridges.
PH = 1.0 + 4.5/ (LPH + 6)
(3.8a)
(3.8b)
PH = 1.0 + 9.0/ (LPH + 13.5)
JRA
AS
Impact factor according to JRA are only distinct for T-Loading,

for L-loading there are deviations for standard concrete and
steel bridges.
PH = 1.0 + 20/ (50 + LPH)
(T)
PH = 1.0 + 10/ (25 + LPH)
(L)
(3.9a)
(3.9b)
Impact factor according to AS 5100 are defined as (1+). For

roads fixed values are given in Table 6.7.2, however as M1600
requires a greater allowance if only a single three- axle component controls and there exists also a stationary loading S1600
without dynamic allowance, a user definition is required in some
cases.
AS_A
PHB = 1.0 + 0.40
AS_M
PHB = 1.0 + 0.30(1.0 + 0.35)
(3.10a)
(3.10b)
Railway loading distinguishes between ballasted and direct fixing (input with LANE) and account for the reference length as
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-39
follows:
p
PHB = 1.0 + 2.16/ ( LPH 0.20) 0.27 ( > 3.6) (3.11a)
p
PHB = 1.0 + 2.16/ ( LPH 0.20) 0.17 ( > 2.0) (3.11b)
LPHI should be defined for the axis via LANE. However ELLA may also use
the distance of the zero values of the influence line as a good approach to the
effective length. If no input for LPHI is given, the dynamic factor will be set equal
to the value with a minimum length and the width of the lane will be set equal to
0.0.
Dynamic coefficients according to appendix E of DIN FB 101 are dependant on
the frequency of the structure and should be specified explicitly therefore.
3.17.2
Centrifugal Forces
In case of a curve, the mass of the loading, usually derived from the vertical
load, is used together with the speed of the train and the curvature of the lane
to compute the centrifugal load components.
The forces calculated according to the laws of physics with vin [ m/sec] are:
P = P
2
;
Rg
g = 9.80665 m/ sec2
(3.12)
Sometimes there is an equivalent formula in the design code for a speed in [

km/h] with a factor of v2 /(127R).
These forces will be changed for Eurocode and BRO as follows:
According to Eurocode EC 1-3 4.3 (independent from v)
Qtk = 0.2 Q
(r < 200m)
Qtk = 40 Q / R
Qtk = 0
(200m r 1500m)
(r > 1500m)
(3.13a)
(3.13b)
(3.13c)
These forces will be changed for railway loadings UIC as follows:

UIC
Reduction according DS 804 / BS 5400 / EC 1-3 6.5

for v > 120 km/h and L > 2.88

p

120 814

+ 1.75 1 2.88/ L
red = 1.0
1000
3-40
(3.14)
SOFiSTiK 2016
For FUGA you may however specify an additional factor explicitly. Negative
factors will enforce the laws of physic to all type of load trains.
In those cases where a constant horizontal centrifugal loading or horizontal
bumping has to be considered a horizontal loading PW/HW may be specified
with TRPL/TRBL.
3.17.3
Load Trains according to Eurocode
The position of the loading according to Eurocode within the traffic lanes is free.
The synchronisation with secondary lanes should not be applied. The minimum
distance of 0.5 m between adjacent loading is not checked by ELLA but will be
satisfied in almost all cases if the width of the lane is at least 2.5 m.
The double axle should be applied only in total. Thus all loads of the axles will
be set to be applied even if favourable.
Load Model 1
Figure 3.10: Load model 1
There is one double axle with a spacing of 1.2 m. For the different lane classes
it is generally recommended to use three different load trains with individual
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-41
adjustment factors q. These factors are specified in national annexes and are
defined in the INI-files. (e.g. DIN Fachbericht with a value of Q = 0.8, SIA with
a value of Q = 0.9). Other values may be specified with a direct load value if
needed.
P1 = Class
300 200 100
P2 = Axle load [ kN]
300 200 100
P3 = reserved [ kN]
P4 = traffic lane [ kN/m2 ]
9.0
2.5
2.5
P5 = Residual area [ kN/m2 ]
2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
P8 = Brake loading [ kN]
The brake loading is calculated according to the length of the total lane and
distributed as uniform load along the line:
Qk = 1.2 P2 + 0.10 P4 WDT L
180Q1 Qk 900kN
(3.15)
The upper limit is defined by the requests of the STANAG, it may be redefined
by a national annex or other means. This may be specified via a global variable
EN1991-2_QLMAX in the INI-file.
Load Model 2
This load model is a single axle taken from load model 1, but with a dynamic
impact factor and the wheels may act independently. As this load model is only
for local elements it should not be selected within ELLA, especially as it does
not work with influence areas (INT>2). A possible application is the accidential
load case of a vehicle on the pathway:
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SOFiSTiK 2016
P1 = Basic Value
400 300 200 100
P2 = Axle load [ kN]
320 240 160
P3 = Rotation [ ]
80
P5 = Residual area [ kN/m2 ]
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
P8 = Brake loading [ kN]
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Load Model 3
This load model is for special cases of heavy load vehicles. We have to distinguish between the narrow version fitting within one lane (2 axles) and the
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-43
broader version for P2=240 (3 axles). For the latter case the loading of the
same load train in two synchronized lanes with special provisions of YEX should
be used. Parts of the load train not within the lane imits will be clipped automatically.
The three values of P1 to P3 define the loading as follows (Table A1):
600 / 150
4 150 kN
900 / 150
6 150 kN
1200 / 150
8 150 kN
1200 / 200
6 200 kN
1500 / 150
10 150 kN
1500 / 200
7 200 kN + 1 100 kN
1800 / 150
12 150 kN
1800 / 200
9 200 kN
2400 / 200
12 200 kN
2400 / 240
10 240 kN
2400 / 200 / 200

3000 / 200
15 200 kN
3000 / 240
12 240 kN + 1 120 kN
3000 / 200 / 200
8 200 kN + 7 200 kN
3600 / 200
18 200 kN
3600 / 240
15 240 kN
3600 / 200 / 200
3-44
6 200 kN + 6 200 kN
9 200 kN + 9 200 kN
SOFiSTiK 2016
Figure 3.13: Loadmodell LM3
The speed of the load train is a very important parameter, it does not only control
front and rear for some load trains, but it defines also if the load train is moving
slowly (v = 5 km/h) or with a regular speed (v = 70 km/h). This triggers if an
impact factor is applied or not.
Further there will be no loading witin a distance of 25 m before and behind
that vehicle, but then a load train LM1 with ist frequent load values (1 ) may be
applied, by specifying the load case number of a correspondig LM1 load train at
P4. To select the relative position to the vehicle before or behind the sign of the
P4 definition will be taken. A positive value will select a vehicel before, while a
negative value will select a value behind. The implemented algorithm does not
allow to select this automatically.
As the coefficients 1 are different for UDL and TS, we use from this load case
the value 1 for TS, but for UDL and the residual loding the default value of 0.4
of the EN will be taken.
Load Model 3 (NA BS)
NA to BS EN 1991-2:2003 defines different types of this load model. The distance to the residual loading in the lane has been reduced to 2.5 resp 5.0 m.
As every axle has a different dynamic amplification factor, these will be applied
directly if V is larger than 5 km/h.
Load trains of the Special Types General Order (STGO) will be selected with
TYPE SV, where P1 defines the class (80, 100 or 196), P2 and P3 are not used,
alle other remarks especially about P4 remain valid:
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-45
Figure 3.14: Load Model 3 (NA BS)
Load trains of the Special Order (SO) will be selected with TYPE SOV:
Figure 3.15: Loadmodell SO
P1
= Class
250
350
450
600
P2
= combination of tractors in gradients larger 1:25

= Number of pulling tractors * 10 + number of pushing tractors
P3
= explicit fixed distance between trailers (default is variable)
Load Model 4
This is a pedestrian load model with a basic load area with a maximum value of
5.0kN/ m2 . For a loaded length greater 10 m the load value will be decreased:
q k = 2.0 +
3-46
120
L + 30
> 2.50 kN/ m2
(3.16)
SOFiSTiK 2016
Further we have the standard service vehicle according Eurocode:
Figure 3.16: Load Model 4
P1 = Axle loading QSV1
80 kN
P2 = Axle loading QSV2
40 kN
P3 = Distance of axles
3.00 m
For the application of this load model the definition of the loadgroup is mandatory: GR3 or GR4 for the area loading and GR0 for the service vehicle.
Load Model FLM1
This model is identical to LM1, but the Axle loads will be reduced by a factor of
0.7, and the distributed loading by 0.3.
Load Model FLM2
This selects via P1 the frequent truck models according Table 4.6 with the following axle load values:
SOFiSTiK 2016
P1 = 1
90 / 190 kN
P1 = 2
80 / 140 / 140 kN
P1 = 3
90 / 180 / 120 / 120 / 120 kN
P1 = 4
90 / 190 / 140 / 140 kN
P1 = 5
90 / 180 / 120 / 110 / 110 kN
3-47
Figure 3.17: Load Model FLM2
Load Model FLM3
This is a complete truck with two double axles P1 with a distance of 6.0 m
designed for the fatigue design.
3-48
SOFiSTiK 2016
P1 = axle loading [ kN]
120
P5 = default life load [ kN/m2 ]
0.0
Load Model FLM4

This selects via P1 the heavy load trucks according to table 4.7 with the following
axle loading:
P1 = 1
70 / 130 kN
P1 = 2
70 / 120 / 120 kN
P1 = 3
70 / 150 / 90 / 90 / 90 kN
P1 = 4
70 / 140 / 90 / 90 kN
P1 = 5
70 / 130 / 90 / 80 / 80 kN
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3-49
3.17.4
Load Trains SLW and LKW
Load Train SLW
Figure 3.20: Load Train SLW
Load Train LKW
Figure 3.21: Load Train LKW
Those classical load trains are used in several countries in Europe (DIN 1072,
OENORM B 4002, Spanische IAP and Brasilian NBR). National variants may
be selected with a country code. The width of the moving loading is 3.0 m
in general, for the OENORM it is 2.5 m and for the Spanish IAP a minimum
distance to the secondary truck suggests a width of 4.0 m. The rest of the traffic
band is loaded by P3, the remaining areas inside the lane are loaded with the
basic area loading P5. With DIR N one may select a secondary lane without any
dynamic factors.
The direct definition of a second load train beside with P2 und P4 can not be
supported for some of the recent features. It us strongly recommended to use
synchronized lanes instead, it is recommended to use two lanes with individual
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SOFiSTiK 2016
load trains instead.

All loads are divided to portions to the right and to the left of the lane axis, which
can act independently.
Axial Loads [kN]
P3 kN/ m2
SLW 30
100
5.0
3.0
SLW 60
200
5.0
3.0
LKW 3/3
20+10
3.0
2.0
2.0
LKW 6/6
40+20
4.0
2.0
2.0
LKW 9/9
60+30
4.0
3.0
3.0
LKW 12
80+40
4.0
3.0
3.0
LKW 12/12
80+40
4.0
3.0
3.0
LKW 16/16
100+60
5.0
3.0
3.0
LKWA
16/16
LKWA
25/25
NBR 45
110+50
4.0
3.0
3.0
170+80
5.0
3.0
3.0
150(SLW)
5.0
3.0
NBR 30
100(SLW)
5.0
3.0
NBR 12
80/40(LKW)
4.0(3.0)
3.0
NBR 36
120(SLW)
5.0
3.0
NBR 24
80(SLW)
4.0
3.0
P4 kN/ m2
P5 kN/ m2
The IAP (Instruccin sobre las acciones a considerar en al proyecto de puentes

de carretera, Ministerio de fomento, 2000) has a constant value of 4.0 kN/m2 on
the total area of the bridge, but without any deduction for the SLW. For fatigue a
SLW with 390 kN and an impact factor of 1.2 may be selected by P2 = 468 kN.
Wind loading:
P6 = 1.25 kN/m2
P7 = 3.50 m
Brake loading:
P8 = 1.00 (Factor for horizontal force)
DIN 1072 defines a total brake loading with a maximum of 900 kN and a minimum of 30 % of the heavy load trains within the principal and secondary lane
or 25% of the total principal lane. As the brake loading is an other load class
than the standard life load it is not always possible to apply both loads within one
loadcase. IAP has a minimum of 140 kN and a maximum of 720 kN.
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3-51
3.17.5
Load trains BS 5400 and AASHTO, TMH7
Load Train for H, HS, HA, NA
Figure 3.22: Load Train for H, HS, HA, NA
The loading H, HS and HA, NA is described by a uniform load and an additional

concentrated single or tandem load with spacing P4.
The value P1 specifies for H and HS the type of load train according to AASHTO.
The width of the train is 3.048 m. The following values are possible:
P1
Load train
P2 (H)
P2 (HS)
P3
P4
10
H10-44(M18)
40 kN
58 kN
4.7 kN/m
15
H15-44(M13.5)
60 kN
87 kN
7.1 kN/m
20
H20-44(M9)
80 kN
116 kN
9.4 kN/m
25
HL 98 (2005)
110 kN
9.3 kN/m
1.20
Wind loading:
P6 = 1.46 kN/m
P7 = 1.829 m (6ft)
Brake loading:
P8 = 0.05 (friction coefficient)
The loading HA (Departmental Standard BD 37) is represented by a uniform

load P3 pu, with the magnitude pu depending on the length of the loading, and
either a concentrated load (KEL) P1=120 kN or a tandem loading with P1=148
kN (with distance P2, default 1.2m). The value of P4 defines the loaded length L.
If P4 is not given, L will be calculated in ELLA based on the sum of the distances
of the null points of the influence line.
The value pu is calculated from the total loaded length L
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SOFiSTiK 2016
up to L = 50 m:
p = 336 L0.67
(3.17)
from L = 50 m (and for the tandem loading):

p = 36 L0.1
(3.18)
It is then possible that shorter loaded lengths could lead to higher forces. As
this can not be treated easily, ELLA uses an approximation by evaluating an effective length according to BD 37/01 figure 11. SBase
lengths for highly cusped

In a first step the integral of the total positive and negative
influence linesT.
contributions of the influence line will be evaluated, then the effective length is
caluclated:
Le = 2
(Area under IL)

(value of maximum ordinate)
(total length of IL)
(3.19)
In Hong Kong (BS + Country code 852) the formulas are slightly different:
up to L = 70 m:
p = 400 L0.67
(3.20)
from L = 70 m:
p = 44 L0.15 < 14.85 kN/ m
(3.21)
the old definition of BS may be selected if P4 is specified negative and is defined

as:
p = 151 L0.475
Wind loading:
9 p 30
(3.22)
P6 = 1.25 kN/m
P7 = 2.50 m
The brake loading is also calculated according to the loaded length of the lane:
P8 = 200kN + 8.0 L 700kN
The loading NA (Bridge Design Code TMH7, South Africa 1981) is represented
by a uniform load P3 pu, with the magnitude depending on the length of the
p
loading and a concentrated load P1=144/ n kN (KEL). The value of P4 defines
the loaded length L as with the HA loading described above. P2 may be used
as with HA to generate a tandem loading.
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3-53
The value pu is calculated from the total loaded length L
up to L = 36 m:
p = 36
(3.23)
from L = 36 m:
p = 6 + 180/ L0.5
Wind loading:
(3.24)
P6 = 1.25 kN/m
P7 = 2.50 m
The brake loading is also calculated according to the loaded length of the lane:
P8 = 100kN + 3.0 L 400kN
3.17.6
Heavy Load trains BS 5400, TMH7
Load Train HB, NB
Figure 3.23: Load Train HB, NB
The loading HB and NB consists of a heavy loading and a simultaneous traffic

band load. P1 selects the "units", values between 24 and 45 are possible, each
inducing an axle loading of 10 times the unit. The value P3 of the latter load
varies with the length P4 according to the loading HA.
x can take the values 6.0, 11.0, 16.0, 21.0 or 26.0 m.
P1 = 30.0
(Default Axle loading)
BS 5400 makes a distinction between four positions of the HB loading, which

affect the magnitude of the traffic band load. These are controlled by the factor
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SOFiSTiK 2016
P3 and the eccentricity P2:

P3 = 1.000 ; P2 = 0.0
HA-UDL simply centred
P3 = 2.000 ; P2 = 0.0
HA-UDL doubly centred
P3 = 1.333 ; P2 = +a/4
HA-UDL full to the right, 1/3 to the left

a = nominal lane width
P3 = 1.333 ; P2 = -a/4
HA-UDL full to the left, 1/3 to the right

a = nominal lane width
The Departmental Standard BD37/88 has other factors (Table 14). The default
value for P3 will be selected based on a nominal width bL of 3.048 m and the first
lane.
TMH7 applies the NB vehicle not combined with other life loads. Values P2 to
P4 will be ignored. The distance between the axis is 2.0 instead of 1.8 m.
Basic area loading:
P5 = 0.00 kN/m2
Wind loading:
P6 = 1.25 kN/m2
P7 = 2.5 m
Brake loading are % of the total load between first and second axle:
P8 = 0.25 (HB)
P8 = 0.20 (NB)
Hint
The basic area loading P5 is not deducted in the case of HA and HB loading. It always acts upon the full width of the lane.
TMH7 knows also a NC loading. As this is defined by two blocks of varying
width, length and distance. If the variation of this loading becomes t complex a
definition with individual block loads with TRBL may be useful.
P1 = 30.0
(Area loading kN/ m2 )
P2 = 5.0
(Width of loading [m] )
P3 = 40.0
(Total loaded length [m] )
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3-55
3.17.7
Single trucks according to AASHTO
Load train HT (Two axle Truck, ed. 2002)
Figure 3.24: Load train HT (Two axle Truck, ed. 2002)
Load train HST (three axle truck, ed. 2002/2005)
Figure 3.25: Load train HST (three axle truck, ed. 2002/2005)
The load train has a width of 3.048 m, the value of X can be between 4.267 and
9.144 m.
The values P2 and P3 are preset as follows:
3-56
P1
Load Train
P2 (H und HS)
P3
10
H10-44(M18)
90.0 kN
4.7 kN/m
15
H15-44(M13.5)
135.0 kN
7.1 kN/m
20
H20-44(M9)
180.0 kN
9.4 kN/m
US
HL 98 (2005)
180 kN (40 kip)
9.34kN/m (640lb/ft)
SI
HL 98 (2005)
35 / 145 kN
9.3 kN/m
SOFiSTiK 2016
Basic area loading:
P5 = 0.00 kN/m2
Wind loading:
P6 = 1.46 kN/m2
P7 = 1.829 m
Brake loading:
P8 = 0.05 (frictional coefficient)
The traffic band load P3 has been specified in the 2002 edition as an alternate
loading, with the load model HL 98 of the 2005 edition it is now active on the full
longitudinal length.
3.17.8
Load trains according CAN/CSA
The Canadian standards define a truck load in several variants. The type CAN
is used for the default load train according chapter 14.9, while the type ONT is
used for the variation to be used in Ontario according Annex A14.4.
Axle no.
CL-W
1
0.04W
0.08W
3
2
0.1W 0.1W
0.2W 0.2W
4
0.14W
0.28W
25
50
62.5 62.5
125 125
87.5
175
CL-625
3.6 m
1.2 m
6.6 m
5
0.12W Wheel loads
0.24W Axle loads
75
150
Wheel loads, kN
Axle loads, kN
6.6 m
18 m
0.25 m
(Typ.)
0.25 m
(Typ.)
2.40 m
1.80 m
0.60 m
(Typ.)
Figure 3.26: Load trains according CAN/CSA
The value P1 defines the level of the load train (CL1, CL2, CL3) or with MV the
maintenace vehicle according 3.8.11.
The value P2 defines the class of the load train (default 625).
If the value P3 is defined ( 9.0, 8.0 or 7.0 for class A, B or C and D) a constant
lane load will be defined with reduced load values of the load train without any
dynamic allowance. For this loading a braking load P8 of min(700,180+0.1*L)
will be applied. So P8 should become zero for secondary lanes.
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-57
The height of the wind attack area P7 is 3.0[ m] , the zentrifugal force is acting
at P9=2.0[ m] aove the lane.
3.17.9
Load trains IRC 6-2000
The provisions of the Indian Roads Congress has load trains acting always in
total. The type of the load train is always IRC, the subtype is given via P1. There
will be no other life load on the bridge (P5=0.0). How many lanes should be
loaded is given in table 2.
IRC AA - Heavy Loading for certain areas or highways This is a bogie of two
axles with a total weight of P2 (40t). There is only one lane loaded with this
train.
IRC AAT - Loading for certain areas or highways This is a tracked vehicle
with a total weight of P2 (70t). A convoy with a minimum distance of 90 m is
foreseen. There is only one lane loaded with this train.
IRC A - Loading for all permanent bridges This is a train with two trailers,
repeatable with a minimum distance of 18.5 m. The axle loading is P2 (27
kN), P3 (114 kN) and P4 (68 kN).
IRC B - Loading for timber bridges and temporary structures This is a train
with two trailers, repeatable with a minimum distance of 18.5 m. The axle
loading is P2 (16 kN), P3 (68 kN) and P4 (41 kN).
IRC nnR
All numbers refer to the hypothetical vehicles of appendix 1. An appended
R will select the wheeled trains, an appended S the four wheelers (only 3 to
24) and an appended T will select the tracked vehicle:
3, 5, 9, 12, 18, 24, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70
IRC PD for loading on footways is just a selectable type. The reduction

according to clause 209.4 dependant from width and length has to be done
by the user explicitly via parameter P5.
For the longitudinal effects of the loading the clause 208 establishes reduction
factor for multiple lanes. This effect should be taken into account during the
superposition of load cases.
The brake load with P8 (0.2 = 20 %) is defined as the fraction for the first load
train, while the other trains have only half of this value. P8 = 0.05 should be
applied in the case of more than two lanes to the other ones.
Wind loading:
P6 = 1.0 kN/m2
P7 = 3.0 m
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SOFiSTiK 2016
(attack in height of 1.5 m with 3 kN/m)

The height of the mass centre is defined as P9 = 1.2 m.
3.17.10
Load trains of the Japan Road Association
The following load trains are available:

JRAT A
Mult. Single Axis Class A for L < 15.0 m
JRAT B
Mult. Single Axis Class B for L < 15.0 m with Tab. 2.2.2.
P2
Value of axle load (100 kN)
P4
Effective span length L (default from lane)
P5
Residual load for pedestrian areas (5 kN/m2 )
JRAL A
Area loading Class A for L > 15.0 m with D= 6 m
JRAL B
Area loading Class B for L > 15.0 m with D= 10 m
JRAL AS
Area loading LA with enlarged p1 value for shear
JRAL BS
Area loading LB with enlarged p1 value for shear

P2
explicit lane load p2 ( -1 variable, kN/m2 )
P3
explicit extra lane load p1 ( 10 / 12 kN/m2 )
P4
explicit value of distance D (m)
Load values P2 of JRAL are dependant on the length. In that case negative
values for P2 define factors to these basic values. Loads for pedestrian lanes
according to Tab. 2.2.4. have to be defined with type JRAL and P3=0.0.
3.17.11
Load trains AS 5100
The provisions of the Australian AS 5100 may be subdivided in two basic load
trains.
AS_A 160
A single axle, including the special case of a single wheel W 80

for local effects.
and further a system with 12 axles and a variant length to be used with influence
lines.
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-59
Figure 3.27: Load trains AS 5100
AS_M
the moving load M 1600
AS_S
the stationary load S 1600

P1 = Total load (1600)
P2 = Load of an axle group (360/240)
P3 = uniform distributed load (6 / 24 kN/m)
P4 = fixed distance ( > 6.25 m)
P8 = Brake coefficient acc. 6.8.2.
0.45 for single lane (200 < FBS < 720)
0.15 for multi lane
If more than one lane is loaded, the second lane shall be loaded with a lane
factor of 0.8 all subsequent lanes with 0.4. For fatigue 70 percent of the A160 or
M1600 load without uniform load value P3 should be used.
The "heavy load platform" is given in AS 5100.7. It is a load with 16 axles with
200 kN each for the HLP 320 and 250 kN for the HLP 400. The have either a
uniform distance of 1.8 m or a variable distance between 6 and 15 m between
two groups of 8 axles each.
HLP
3-60
P1 = total weight in tons (320/400)

P2 = distance between groups (default = 6 to 15 m)
SOFiSTiK 2016
3.17.12
Swedish Load Trains (BRO 2004)
Figure 3.28: Swedish Load Trains (BRO 2004)
The Swedish load trains have the special feature of variant distances between
the loads which are best treated using influence lines. However the short distance of 1.5m will be fixed to that minimum value, as there are hardly cases to
be expected not yielding the most unfavourable value with that short distance.
Most train types have different load values for primary and secondary lanes. The
parameter P1 is used to specify an enumeration for the most important lane, the
secondary lane etc.
BRO1
BRO2
3 axle load train of the Swedish BRO type 1/4

P1
Lane index
1
2
P2
Axle load [ kN]
250 170 0 325
P3
Line loading [ kN/m]
12
P4
explicit distance
(minimum 6.0 m)
P5
area loading [ kN/m2 ]
9
3
6
2
0
0
Single axle load train of the Swedish BRO type 2/3

P1
Lane index
1
2
3
P2
BRO5
Axle load [ kN]
310 210 155
2 x 3 axle load train of the Swedish BRO type 5
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-61
Figure 3.29: BRO5
P1
Lane index
P2
Axle load [ kN]
250 170
P3
Line loading [ kN/m]
12
P4
explicit distance
(minimum 6.0 m)
P5
area loading [ kN/m2 ]
2
9
3
The second train has a distance with minimum of 50 m, the individual loads with a minimum of 10 m
BROF
Fatigue relevant load train of the Swedish BRO
Figure 3.30: BROF
3.17.13
Railway train loads
Load trains of the railway are defined as axle loading in general. To get distributed loads more data is required, this is the dimension of the ballast with the
lane definition and here the distance of the sleepers and the gauge width. There
are hundreds of gauge widths, dependant on the country code the default is:
1520 mm (Russian gauge)
Russia, Ukraine, Finland
1668 mm (Iberic gauge)
Spain, Portugal
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SOFiSTiK 2016
1676 mm (Indian gauge)
India, Pakistan, Argentinia, Chile
1435 mm (Standard gauge)
all others
Load train UIC = UIC 71 = RU (BS5400)
Figure 3.31: Load train UIC = UIC 71 = RU (BS5400)
Defaults:
P1 = Sleeper distance / block length

0
with four single loads (Default)
>0
with distributed single loads
6.4
with simplified block load
P2 = Axle loading (250 kN)

P3 = Lane loading (80 kN/m)
P4 = Transverse shock (100 kN)
The type UIC is considered for a train within a ecellent maintained track. If that is
not the case, it is possibel to select with type UICB a variant with impact factors
for the standard maintenance.
Loadings are defined with a possible eccentricity of 1/18 of the gauge according
to EC / DIN-Fachbericht, if not an explicit value is specified.
For a sleeper distance up to 0.8 m each load is converted to 3 single loads equal
to 0.25 PA, 0.50 PA and 0.25 PA at distances of P1 from each other. A value
greater 0.8 will yield a constant block load as follows:
SOFiSTiK 2016
3-63
Figure 3.32: Load train UIC = UIC 71 = RU (BS5400) - Constant Block Load
Wind loading:
P6 = 1.25 kN/m2
P7 = 3.50 m
Brake loading:
P8 = 20.0 kN/m (constant brake load)

( -33.0 kN/m for starting)
Centre of mass:
P9 = 1.8 m
Aerodynamic loading due to trains passing and derailing loading are not available.
Load train SW Schwerlastzug
Figure 3.33: Load train SW Schwerlastzug
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SOFiSTiK 2016
Load train SW/2 Schwerlastzug
Figure 3.34: Load train SW/2 Schwerlastzug
Defaults:
P2 = Block load 133 kN/m / 150 kN/m

P4 = Transverse shock (100 kN)
Wind loading:
P6 = 1.25 kN/m2
P7 = 3.50 m
Brake loading:

Hint
load trains SW will act also if their contributions have favourable effects.
Load train RFAT Real Load trains of EC / DIN Fachbericht etc.

Defaults:
SOFiSTiK 2016
P1 = Class of load train

1
= Passenger train with engine (663 t)
= Passenger train with engine (530 t)
= High speed passenger train (940 t)
= High speed passenger train (510 t)
= freight train with engine (2160 t)
= suburban multiple unit train (296 t)
10
= subway - multiple unit train (360 t)
11
12
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IC
= German Intercity (549 t)
ICE1
= German Intercity 1 (780 t)
ICE2
= German Intercity 2 (693.6 t)
ICE3
= German Intercity 3 (992.6 t)
ICT2
= German Intercity-T (2xBR411=814 t)
ICT3
= German Intercity T (3xBR415 = 902 t)
THAL
= French ( 878.4 t)
TGV
= French TGV (1020 t)
VIRG
= British Virgin (748 t)
EURO
= eurostar 373/1 (816 t)
TALG
= Spanish TALGO AV 2 (680 t)
AVE
= Spanish TALGO 350 (842.9 t)
ETRY
= Italian ETR-Y 500 (629.6 t)
P2 = Total load (kN)

P3 = Total length (m)
P4 = equivalent block load (kN/m)
Load values P2 to P3 are informative values only. These load trains will be applied as constant block load in general, but if you specify P4 = 0.0, all individual
axles (up to 96!) will be generated. The speed of the trains will default to the
values specified in the EC.
Load trains HSLM of EN1991-2 (Annex E)
Specification:
P1 = characterist. Length L-lamda of HSLM-B

or Class of load train (A1 to A10)
Defaults:
P2 = Axle loading (kN)

P3 = Number of inner coaches (HSLM-A)
Number of loads (HSLM-B)
P4 = Coach length (D) [ m] for HSLM-A
Distance of loads for HSLM-B [ m]
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Load train RL = Railway Loading BS 5400
Figure 3.35: Load train RL = Railway Loading BS 5400
Defaults:
P1 = 200 kN
P2 = 50 kN/m
P3 = 25 kN/m
Wind loading:
P6 = 1.00 kN/m2
P7 = 3.7 m
Brake loading:
SOFiSTiK 2016
P8 = 8.0 kN/m (constant load)
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Load train ASRT = Railway Loading 300LA according AS 5100
Figure 3.36: Load train ASRT = Railway Loading 300LA according AS 5100
The load train 300LA of the AS 5100 consists of a locomotive and as many
vehicles as necessary, each of them with a variant length between 12 and 20 m.
Unfortunately even with influence line it is hardly possible to deal with an infinite
number of variables, thus the load train has always a finite number of vehicles.
Defaults:
P1 = 300 kN (Axle load)

P2 = 360 kN (leading axle load)
P3 = number of vehicles (12)
P4 = fixed length of vehicles (-)
Brake loading:
P8 = 100.0 + 15*(L-50) kN (continuous track)
For more than tow tracks, the loading in the third track is applied with a factor of
0.85, the fourth track with 0.70 and all other with 0.60.
For this load train different coefficients for dynamic allowances are specified, depending on the type of the rail fixing. (Ballast or direct fixing). These information
is taken from the LANE definition.
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3.17.14
Military NATO Load Trains (Stanag 2021)
Figure 3.37: Military NATO Load Trains (Stanag 2021)
MLC Load trains of the STANAG are given in the sixth edition in appendix A.
There are the classes P1 = 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 30 up to 150. For every class
we have available:
P2 = 1 Values from column 4 (Single Axles)
P2 = 2 Values from column 2 (tracked vehicles)
P2 = 3 Values from column 3 (Wheeled vehicles)
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3.18
TRPL Point Load of load train
See also: TRAI, TRBL, LANE, TREX
Item
Description
TRPL
Unit
Default
Loadvalue of vertical load
[kN] 1190
0.0
PB
Loadvalue for braking
[kN] 1190
0.0
PW
Loadvalue transverse (bumping, wind)
[kN] 1190
0.0
PF
Value of vertical load for centrifugal load
[kN] 1190
PFAC
Factor for favourable components
0.0
DIST
Minimum (MIN) / absolut (ABS) distance
LT
ABS
Distance to last load of train
[m] 1001
0.0
DPOS
Minimum distance to load refer. point
[m] 1001
0.0
DMIN
Influence area before
[m] 1001
0.0
DMAX
Influence area behind
[m] 1001
0.0
Excentricity to lane axis ( > 0 = to the right)
[m] 1001
0.0
Y2
2nd value of excentricity to lane axis
[m] 1001
HW
Total height of wind attack area
[m] 1001
0.0
ZW
Height of horizontal force
[m] 1001
HW/2
HF
Height of resulting mass forces
[m] 1001
0.0
PHI
Special options (see remarks)
Distance of wheels across the lane
[m] 1001
0.0
BW
Width of Wheel contact area
[m] 1001
0.0
LW
Length of wheeel contact area
[m] 1001
0.0
SNO
Section number for Animation
1/ sec

FRB
DAB
BOGI
Load value of bogie
/ kN
FRBO
1/ sec
DABO
WHEE
Load value of wheel
/ kN
FRWH
1/ sec
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Item
Description
Unit
Default
DAWH
CONT
Contact node
A freely defined loading by the user comprises an arbitrary number of loads

defined relative to each other. The first load determines the load reference point
(x=0.0). Each further loading is defined with a distance to the previous one.The
distance of the point load to the last load point may be either constant or variable
with a minimum value. In the latter case and additional minimum distance to the
load reference point may be defined with DPOS. For the evaluation in ELLA two
additional values DMIN and DMAX may be specified for special cases describing
an influence region before and behind the load.
x
A1
A2
> DPOS(4)
A3
A4
A5
Figure 3.38: Freely defined load train
The loading has a vertical component P, a longitudinal component PB and two

components in transverse direction. The load may be defined either as single
point load, as a pair of wheels (Definition of B < WIDT) or as distributed load
(Definition of BW only or B equal to WIDT)
Positive loadings of PB are braking loads acting in traveling direction, negative
values are intended as accelerating loads in the reverse direction. Loads are
applied at the height of the lane.
The centrifugal loading acts in the height hs, the constant horizontal force in the
height zw, thus creating torsional moments. If the load has a width B, this moment will be applied as a pair of forces on the lane surface, a torsional moment
along the lane axis will be generated otherwise.
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PFSv2/gR
PW
hw
hs
Figure 3.39: Single load and its components
With the item PHI several options are controlled:

1
Apply impact factor
Multiply vertical load value with UDL-value of design code (eg.BS)
Multiply longitudinal load value with value of design code (eg. EN),
split load in transverse direction if unfavourable,
16
the load is an area load, the total load value will be adopted to the
lane width
32
load is always centric, YEX is not applied
For an analysis with multi-body-dynamics it is possible to generate masses,

beams, springs and dampers via the record TREX. The mass of bogie and
wheel may be specified either as a positive absolute load value or as a negative fraction of the total mass. The default values are specified with the record
TRAI. For more information see record TREX.
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3.19
TRBL Block Load of Load Train
See also: TRAI, TRPL, LANE, TREX
TRBL
Item
Description
Unit
Default
Loadvalue of vertical load
[kN/ m] 1191
0.0
PB
Loadvalue for braking
[kN/ m] 1191
0.0
PW
Loadvalue in transverse direction
[kN/ m] 1191
0.0
PF
Value of vertical load for centrifugal load
[kN/ m] 1191
PFAC
Factor for favourable components
DIST
Minimum (MIN) / absolut (ABS) distance
A
L
0.0
LT
ABS
Distance to last load of train
[m] 1001
0.0
fixed or minimum length of load
[m] 1001
0.0
(positive or negative, 0 = unlimited)
LMAX
maximum length of load
[m] 1001
LDEL
discrete variable length: L + n LDEL
[m] 1001
0.0
Excentricity to lane axis ( > 0 = to the right)
[m] 1001
0.0
Y2
2nd value of excentricity to lane axis
[m] 1001
HW
Total height of wind attack area
[m] 1001
0.0
ZW
Height of resulting force PW
[m] 1001
HW/2
HF
Height of resulting mass forces
[m] 1001
0.0
PHI
Special options (see remarks)
Distance of wheels across the lane
[m] 1001
0.0
BW
Width of Wheel contact area
[m] 1001
0.0
LW
Length of wheeel contact area
[m] 1001
0.0
SNO
Section number for Animation
1/ sec

FRB
DAB
BOGI
Load value of bogie
/ kN
FRBO
1/ sec
DABO
WHEE
Load value of wheel
/ kN
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Item
Description
Unit
Default
FRWH
1/ sec
DAWH
A freely defined loading by the user comprises an arbitrary number of loads

defined relative to each other. The general parameters and remarks are given
at record TRPL .
Figure 3.40: Block loading
All load values will be treated as line loads in general. If the width of the load is
equal to the width of the train or option 16has been set, the load values will be
converted to a distributed load and applied on the current lane width. 12kN/m
distributed on 3m yield 4kN/m2, for a total lane width of 5m the resulting load
equals to 20kN/m. For standard load trains, the definition is taken from the code.
If the width B is smaller than the width, two line loads with the distance B will be
created. If only BW is defined, an area load is selected with a width BW less
than the width of the lane.
If only HW is specified a value for PW will be evaluated from the wind load given
with the load train wind definition.
Input values for multi-body-dynamics of line loads TRBL for record TREX will not
be used currently.
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3.20
SAVE Saving case
See also: POSL, LANE, TRAI, CALC, COMB
Item
Description
LCB
Loading case base number
TYPE
Action for this Evaluation
TITL
Designation of resulting load cases
SAVE
Unit
Default
Lt4
Lt32
The input of the loading occurs in the form of saving and evaluation cases. Each
saving case includes several evaluation cases CASE and optional superposition
rules of those evaluation cases COMB.
The value given here at LCB is added to the number of the case defined with
the record CALC.
Example:
CALC defines LMAX 12 and LMIN 11
1. Evaluation of the imposed loads in the construction stage (crane etc.)
SAVE 200
The load cases 211 and 212 are the result.
2. Evaluation of the imposed loads in the final stage
SAVE 250
The load case 261 and 262 are the result.
The action type and the designation of the resulting load cases may be specified
explicitly or be derived from the data saved with the load cases of the used load
trains automatically.
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3.21
CASE Evaluation Case
See also: , POSL, LANE, TRAI, CALC, COMB
Item
Description
NO
GRP
CASE
Unit
Default
Evaluation Case
Group of Loading
LT
The input of the loading within a saving case occurs in the form of evaluation
cases. Each case gets an identification number and contains the assignement
of load trains to individual lanes.
With the input of GRP one may specify literals for load groups according to the
EN 1991-2 or DIN Fachbericht. While without entry all loads are taken, the
possible values are:
GR0
GRU
GR1
GR2
GR2N
GR2F
GR2L
GR2T
GR20
GR3
GR4
GR5
GR11
...
GR17
GR21
...
GR27
GR31
= Single vertical loads only

= only vertical distributed loads (UDL+Residual area)
= Vertical loads (gr1 in Table 4.4a)
= Horizontal loads (gr2 in Table 4.4a)
= non-frequent variant of group 2
= frequent variant of group 2
= only longitudinal loads of group 2
= only transverse loads of group 2
= only horizontal loads of group 2
= pedestrian walk (residual) area only (gr3 in Table 4.4a)
= LM4 / P5 on total traffic area (gr4 in Table 4.4a)
= Special vehicles of LM3 (gr 5 in table 4.4.a)
all other types of load train with its frequent value
= Max. vertical 1 according table 6.6 for 1 track
= SW/2
= Max. vertical 1 according table 6.6 for 2 tracks
= SW/2
= Max. vertical 1 according table 6.6 for 3 or more tracks
The loading is generally done within the lanes only, but the load train may be
smaller than the lane or not all lanes will be loaded. Then we have the following
rules:
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The residual loading area will be applied for a regular lane on the space
between the lane boundaries and the true traffic lane defined by the applied
load train. However for lane 0 all other defined lanes will be spared. An
automatic extension of the residual area is no longer applied.
A loading with group GR4 will apply the residual load on the total traffic area.
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3.22
POSL Position of the Load Trains
See also: , CASE, LANE, TRAI
POSL
Item
Description
Unit
Default
NO
Lane (lane_ident.nummer)
e.g. A1.3 = third lane of axis A1
Loadcase number of load train
LT
1.0
OPT
global factor for loadtrain

> 0 is applied to all load values
< 0 is not applied to the residual loading
Evaluation options (see remarks)
all
SMIN
Minimum start station load reference point
SMAX
Maximum start station load reference point
DEL
Optional grid of the start points
YEX
Total eccentricity of the train in the lane

positive on the right
Speed of the train
[m] 1001
TRAI
FACT
V
P
SYNC
Residual loading
default as spezified in TRAI
Synchronisation of load trains
ON
All trains move together
OFF
trains move individually
[km/ h] 1203

kN/ m2 1192
LT
*
*
OFF
With this record the loading within a lane for an evaluation case is defined. You
have to specify at TRAI the load case number of the defined load train and/or
the residual loading at P. Loadings outside of the defined lane width will not be
applied.
To specify the superposition of the loading for primary and secondary lanes
there are now the following possibilities:
Usage of different load trains (e.g. UIC and SSW)
Definition of global factors in POSL.
Definition of factors within the final superposition
The record CASE must be followed by the corresponding POSL records. Lanes
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without load train remain unloaded.

The program places automatically the loading at the most unfavourable position
inside the above region. To achieve this, all selected points of the load train are
placed at up to four extremes of the influence line. The maximum value of this
initial position is used for a detailed iteration. However, the region can be input
for special cases. This is the case, if:
only one single load position should be analyzed.

input of SMIN=SMAX, DEL without effect
the load train can not stand in all positions of the influence line.
input of SMIN, SMAX but DEL not defined
the algorithm does not find the correct extreme positions.

input of SMIN, SMAX and DEL. If DEL is defined <0.0 the Newton search
will be deactivated.
In all other cases it is reasonable not to input any values for SMIN, SMAX, or
DEL. Only a single intervall may be used.
Load trains will be positioned at parallel locations in general. If independently
moving trains are required, this needs separate lanes in every case and either
separate geometries (eg. AXA.1 and AXB.1) or a special SYNC OFF definition. Variable load distances will then be applied as in the main lane. It should
be noted that for the case of favorable contributions of the synchronized load
trains, results may be on the unsafe side, especially for a classical load position
analysis.
For FE structures an eccentric loading (YEX) will produce accurate results only
in rare cases. It is strongly recommended to define an own lane for each load.
For lane 0 YEX is still used as an eccentricity for the total load train, but for all
other cases it is only used to define special effects of the loading like the position
of extra wide loadings or the load values of eccentric loaded railway trains.
Sometimes several further information is necessary for the evaluation and for
search of the extreme values. This is summarized in the item OPT.
OPT = OPTB + 4 OPTW + 16 OPTF + 32 OPT + 64 OPTE
+ 128 OPTS + 1024 OPTR
OPTB
0
1
2
3
SOFiSTiK 2016
Do not apply longitudinal loading (brake etc)

apply longitudinal loading only forward
apply longitudinal loading only backward
apply longitudinal loading in both directions
3-79
OPTW
0
1
2
3
Do not apply transverse loading (wind etc.)

apply transverse loading only to the right
apply transverse loading only to the left
apply transverse loading in both directions
OPTF
0
1
Zentrifugal force from physics

Centrifugal force as defined with load train
OPTI
0
1
Do not apply impact factors

Apply impact factors as defined with load train
OPTE
0
1
Account for excentricities automatically

Do not change eccentricities
OPTS
Evaluation of load position based on vertical components only

Evaluation of load position based on all components
1
OPTR
0
1
All Loads are bound to lane geometry (SMIN:SMAX)

(e.g. crane rails)
Loads may leave and enter the lane geometry
Deafult: = all options active

An input may be either positive as sum of options or negative to deactivate
just a few options. (e.g. OPT -3*4 deactivates only wind loading). OPTS 0
is only reasonable for special cases. For the evaluation of torsional moments or
transverse loads it leads often to inaccurate or even unusable results.
ELLA tries to find the maximum forces. The influence of wind on the vehicles
is considered therefore with a simplified manner: The wind acts always in the
most unfavorable direction. The wind on the structure itself is not handled and
detailed effects like partial loading (consideration of lee), wind on partial vehicles, coherence or unified wind directions at all parts of the structure are also
not considered. However, in some case the wind may be defined with a fixed
sign. Thus one may describe a few of these effects.
In the case of a bow of the lane the masses of the load train, usually calculated
from the vertical loads, are used together with the velocity and the curvature of
the lane in the plan view for the calculation of the horizontal loads. Depending
on the type of the load train, reductions or simplified rules may apply.
For the eccentricity there are the following effects, which might be influenced by
the OPTE value:
Any loading may be eccentric within a given range within the lane. Especially for railway loadings this is a very important option to select the most
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unfavorable eccentricity.
A loading may be subdivided in a right and left part based on the torsional
effect. For some evaluations (e.g. SLW) a single wheel may become effective
in those cases.
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3.23
COMB Intermediate Combination of Evaluations
See also: SAVE, CASE
COMB
Item
Description
Unit
Default
TYPE
Superposition of this combination

G
permanently acting
Q
acting only if unfavourable
A0
Alternative group 0
A1
Alternative group 1
...
A9
Alternative group 9
F
Additional evaluation case to add
LT
L1
Number / range of evaluation case
F1
Factor of an evaluation case
1.0
L2
F2
1.0
L3
F3
1.0
L4
F4
1.0
L5
F5
1.0
L6
F6
1.0
L10
Number of an evaluation case
F10
1.0
...
The envelope of extreme values is calculated after the end of evaluation of all
the evaluating cases. Without COMB definitions each evaluation case is mutually exclusive. However for special cases it is possible to define intermediate
results with the COMB record which are then combined with variant superposition conditions.
Each intermediate result has a superposition rule assigned and is created from
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up to ten basic evaluation cases with factors. If more than ten cases should be
combined, additional records with COMB F may be used for that purpose.
For the common case that a combination of multiple lanes is required with either
different type of load trains or with different global factors, an internal sorting
may be performed by specifying a range of case numbers "cmin:cmax". In that
case only loadings are considered not having loads in any already loaded lane.
Examples:
COMB A0 F1 1.0 F2 0.6 F3 0.4
combines any 3 cases such that the

most unfavourable will be taken with
100 %, the second with 60 % and the
least unfavourable with 40 %
COMB A0 L1 1 1.0 2:9 0.6 2:9 0.4 combines case 1 to 100 % with 60 %
of the largest of the cases 2 to 9
and 40 % of highest remaining case.
Example:
A railway bridge with 3 tracks and 2 spans with 8.00 and 12.00 m length
has to be analyzed. According to DS 804 are to be examined:
2 tracks with UIC 71
100% or
3 tracks with UIC 71
71% or
2 tracks with SW
100% or
1 track with SSW and 1 track with UIC 71
The following input is possible for the definition and the superposition of the four
combinations based on nine evaluation cases:
LC 1001
LC 1002
LC 1003
CASE 1
CASE 2
CASE 3
CASE 4
CASE 5
CASE 6
CASE 7
CASE 8
CASE 9
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
SOFiSTiK 2016
TRAI
TRAI
TRAI
POSL
PSOL
POSL
POSL
POSL
POSL
POSL
POSL
POSL
UIC
SW
SSW
1 1001
2 1001
3 1001
1 1002
2 1002
3 1002
1 1003
2 1003
3 1003
! UIC
! SW
! SSW
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COMB
3-84
A0
A0
A0
A0
1:3 1.00
1 0.71 2
4:6 1.00
7:9 1.00
1:3 1.00
0.71 3 0.71
4:6 1.00
1:3 1.00
$
$
$
$
ANY TWO TRACKS WITH UIC

THREE TRACKS WITH REDUCED UIC
ANY TWO TRACKS WITH SW
ANY TRACK WITH SSW AND A 2ND UIC
SOFiSTiK 2016
Output Description | ELLA
Output Description
The output of an influence line evaluation can become very extensive. Therefore
the use of the various ECHO options may be very helpful.
4.1
Lane Geometry
The geometry of the lanes can be controlled with ECHO LINE. The default output
results in a table for each lane with the following information in its headline:
DY
Influence width of the lane, see record

LSEL
Influence height of the lane, see record
LSEL
Load distribution, see record LSEL
DZ
The table contains the following columns:

STATION
Station parameters of the lane
COORDINATES X,Y,Z
Coordinates of the station at the lane
SECTION LENGTH
Distance of the following section to the

next station
REMARKS
Data for geometry, radius, clothoidal etc.
With ECHO LINE FULL one obtains a list of the neighbouring nodes at the lefthand side and to the right-hand side of the lane.
4.2
Influence Lines
Influence lines can be represented and printed graphically. However, an output

occurs only, if the lines have been selected with SHOW, and ECHO IL has not
been set equal to NO. The graphical output is obtained only by using the record
SIZE, whilst the output in the form of tables is obtained with ECHO IL FULL.
The table of the influence lines contains in its headline the application point of
the unit load and the scalar variable. The columns are as follows:
X-VALUE
X coordinate measured at the lane axis,

beginning with 0.000 m
PV-VALUE
SOFiSTiK 2016
Influence line value for vertical loading

4-1
ELLA | Output Description
at the lane axis

MS-VALUE
Influence line value for torsional loading
PS-VALUE
Influence line value for longitudinal loading

(brake load)
PQ-VALUE
Influence line value for lateral loading

(wind, centrifugal force)
dPV/ds
First derivative of the influence line values

PV (corresponds to IL for -M loading)
Influence lines are plotted with a predetermined scale in the longitudinal direction and with a scale for the influence line values, which is determined by the
height of the drawing bands. Maximum and minimum values are printed at the
plot.
For the graphics of the transverse influence line, the sum of the influence values
of the the two wheels of the axle (Pv) and the integrals of the positive (p+)
and negative (p-) influence values are also given. The values r+ and r- are the
integrals of the residual areas outside the traffic lane.
4.3
Load Trains
The load trains are described in plain text with their parameters. The output of
the corresponding table can be suppressed with ECHO TYPL NO; with ECHO
TYPL FULL the table is expanded in order to show the generated loadings. This
table is also printed for user defined loadings by entering ECHO TYPL YES.
This table contains the following columns:
4-2
TYPE
Load type
E
Point load
E-0
Point load without dynamic factor
G
Distributed load
G-0
Distributed load without dynamic
factor
UDL
Distributed load with variable value
according to BS 5400
PV
Vertical load value
PL
Load value in the lane direction (brake)
PW
Load value in lateral direction (wind)
SOFiSTiK 2016
Output Description | ELLA
PFUG
Load value for centrifugal force
PFAK
Factor for favourably acting components
Load position
Length of the load for distributed loads
LDEL
Subdivision of the length of the load
Load eccentricity
HW
Height of the gravity centre for wind loads
HF
Height of the gravity centre for centrifugal

forces
For loads with variable length the output of a second line with the maximum and
the minimum length and a possible subdivision length value in the column LDEL
follows.
The dynamic factors and the lane widths are output in an additional table. The
parameters therein mean:
4.4
STARTING
first station value
ENDING
second station value
PHIB
dynamic factor for unfavourable bending
PHI2
dynamic factor for favourable bending
PHIS
dynamic factor for unfavourable shear
PHI4
dynamic factor for favourable shear
LPHI
determinant length
YRA
lane boundary to the right of first station
YLA
lane boundary to the left of first station
YRE
lane boundary to the right of second station
YLE
lane boundary to the left of second station
Superposition Combinations
A table of the superposition combinations always appears when such combinations have been defined. A single line is printed for each combination containing
SOFiSTiK 2016
4-3
ELLA | Output Description
its type as well as the participated evaluation cases with their factors.
4.5
Evaluation Results
The evaluation results are controlled by the two ECHO options EVAL and RES.
When one of these two options is active, a line which contains the identification
of the position is printed for each position with corresponding influence lines.
As long as EVAL is active, the position of the load train as well as the possible
convoy distances or the variable lengths are output in a succeeding table.
If EVAL is set to FULL, the regions with different signs are printed then for each
evaluation case and for each lane together with the applied dynamic factors
PHI1/PHI2 for unfavourably/favourably acting loading and the positions of extreme values.
If RES is active, the extreme values of the internal forces or other parameters are
output in an additional table. The first columns contain the number, with which
the load case has to be stored, and a text for the designation the evaluation
rule.
4.6
Program Statistics
If the ECHO option STAT is used, one receives an output which shows the used
CPU time and the up to now needed memory allocation at the screen or in the
logfile for each part of the program. These values are important, in order to
allow an estimation of the memory and the CPU time requirements for larger
examples.
4-4
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ELLA

Extended Live Load Analysis

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This manual is protected by copyright laws. No part of it may be translated, copied or

3.17.4 Load Trains SLW and LKW . . . . . . . . . .

Task Description | ELLA

ELLA | Task Description

Theoretical Principles | ELLA

Load Introduction in Lanes

ELLA | Theoretical Principles

Figure 2.1: Eccentric lane and eccentric load

Figure 2.2: Partition of the distributed loads at the shear centre

Theoretical Principles | ELLA

Figure 2.3: Distribution two longitudinal girders

tribution. An eccentricity should be then only relatively small. Here up to 20

Interpolation of the Influence Areas

ELLA | Theoretical Principles

Figure 2.4: Correct load distribution for three longitudinal girders

Figure 2.5: Wrong load distribution for three longitudinal girders

Theoretical Principles | ELLA

Figure 2.6: Interpolation of the influence areas

Figure 2.7: Load distribution

In the first case (INT 0) an eccentrically placed loading generates directly a

ELLA | Theoretical Principles

Figure 2.8: Interpolation Grades

Transverse Influence Lines

Figure 2.9: Immediate Evaluation

Theoretical Principles | ELLA

Figure 2.10: Second Load Position

Evaluation of the Influence Lines

Favourably and Unfavourably Performing Loads

ELLA | Theoretical Principles

position and the final evaluation of the results of cause.

Figure 2.11: Evaluation of Horizontal Loading

Following remarks should be observed:

Unfavourable Load Position

Theoretical Principles | ELLA

maximum number of load cases

maximum number of axis

maximum number of lanes per axis

maximum number of influence lines

ELLA | Theoretical Principles

Input Description | ELLA

calculate or take over influence lines at old or new defined lanes:.

print or plot the calculated or stored influence lines

Geometric definition of a lane

Print and draw influence lines

Define load trains

evaluate the influence lines with different load trains

Load cases and their combinations

Fixed unit. Input is always required in the specified unit.

Explicit unit. Input defaults to the specified unit. Alternatively, an

Implicit unit. Implicit units are categorised semantically and denoted

ELLA | Input Description

The following input records are defined:

Table continued on next page.

Input Description | ELLA

ELLA | Input Description