Electrical Systems for

Renewable Energy
Tutorial 5：AC Components

PhD student, Qi Xie

School of Engineering
 V-I Characteristics of Different Components
In DC circuit
Basic form In AC circuit
(steady-state)
Resistor R 𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖 𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖 𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖
𝑑𝑖
Inductor L 𝑣=𝐿 Short circuit 𝑣 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝑖
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑢 𝑖
Capacitor C 𝑖=𝐶 Open circuit 𝑣=
𝑑𝑡 𝑗𝜔𝐶
• The basic relationship always holds, whether in AC or DC circuits,
steady state or transient state.
• In DC circuits, when the inductors or capacitors are fully charged or
discharged, the electrical quantities of the circuits no longer change,
we say that the circuits has entered steady states.
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
= 0 ⇒ voltage across the inductor is zero
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑢(𝑡)
= 0 ⇒ current flow through the capacitor is zero
𝑑𝑡 2
 V-I Characteristics of Different Components
In DC circuit
Basic form In AC circuit
(steady-state)
Resistor R 𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖 𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖 𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖
𝑑𝑖
Inductor L 𝑣=𝐿 Short circuit 𝑣 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝑖
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑢 𝑖
Capacitor C 𝑖=𝐶 Open circuit 𝑣=
𝑑𝑡 𝑗𝜔𝐶
• The basic relationship also shows that the current of an inductor,
and the voltage of a capacitor, cannot change instantaneously.
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
Instant change in current means →∞
𝑑𝑡
The basic equation tells us that this change would require an infinite
voltage, and infinite voltages are not possible in real world. Similarly,
an instant change in capacitor voltage requires an infinite current,
which is also not possible.
3
 V-I Characteristics of Different Components
In DC circuit
Basic form In AC circuit
(steady-state)
Resistor R 𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖 𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖 𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖
𝑑𝑖
Inductor L 𝑣=𝐿 Short circuit 𝑣 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝑖
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑢 𝑖
Capacitor C 𝑖=𝐶 Open circuit 𝑣=
𝑑𝑡 𝑗𝜔𝐶
• In AC circuits, the voltage and current vary sinusoidally with time.

Only hold in AC circuits

with sinusoidal signals.
4
A General Solution for Step and Natural Responses
• The differential equations of the first-order RL and RC circuits
shown below have the same form.

5
A General Solution for Step and Natural Responses
• To generalize the solution of these four possible circuits, we let 𝑥(𝑡)
represent the unknown quantity. It can represent the current or
voltage at the terminals of an inductor or the current or voltage at
the terminals of a capacitor. The differential equation describing any
one of the four circuits takes the form
𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥(𝑡)
+ =𝐾
𝑑𝑡 𝜏
where the value of constant 𝐾 can be zero.
• For example, for (a), the differential equation is

𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 𝑖 𝑡 𝑉Th

𝐿 + 𝑅 × 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑉Th ⇒ + =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿
𝑅

6
A General Solution for Step and Natural Responses
• Because the sources in the circuit are constant DC voltages and/or
currents, the final value of 𝑥 will be constant; that is, when 𝑥
reaches its final value, the derivative must be zero. Hence
𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥(𝑡)
+ = 𝐾 ⇒ 𝑥𝑓 = 𝐾𝜏
𝑑𝑡 𝜏
=0
where 𝑥𝑓 represents the final value of the variable.

• We solve the differential equation by separating the variables,

beginning by solving for the first derivative:
𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝐾𝜏 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥𝑓
=− +𝐾 =− =−
𝑑𝑡 𝜏 𝜏 𝜏
multiply both sides by 𝑑𝑡 and divide by 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥𝑓 to obtain
𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 1
= − 𝑑𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥𝑓 𝜏
7
A General Solution for Step and Natural Responses
• Next, we integrate the equation. To obtain a general solution, we
use time 𝑡0 as the lower limit and 𝑡 as the upper limit. Time 𝑡0
corresponds to the time of change, it can be either switch on or off.
Using 𝑢 and 𝑣 as symbols of integration, we get
𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑡 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑣𝑡
න = − න 1 𝑑𝑣 ⇒ ln(𝑢 − 𝑥𝑓 )ቚ =− ฬ
𝑥(𝑡0 ) 𝑢 − 𝑥𝑓 𝜏 𝑡0 𝑥(𝑡0 ) 𝜏 𝑡0

which gives
𝑡−𝑡0
−
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑓 + [𝑥 𝑡0 − 𝑥𝑓 ]𝑒 𝜏

the unknown the final the initial time of switching

variable as a value of the value of the
function of time variable variable time constant

𝐿
For RC circuits: 𝜏 = 𝑅 × 𝐶 For RL circuits: 𝜏 =
𝑅
8
A General Solution for Step and Natural Responses
• In summary, when computing the step and natural responses of
circuits, it may help to follow these steps:

• You can then find equations for other circuit variables using the
circuit analysis techniques introduced in previous lectures or by
repeating the preceding steps for the other variables.
9
A General Solution for Step and Natural Responses
Example :
The switch in the circuit shown in below has been in position a for a long time.
At 𝑡 = 0 the switch is moved to position b.
(a) What is the initial value of 𝑣𝐶 ?
(b) What is the final value of 𝑣𝐶 ?
(c) What is the time constant of the circuit when the switch is in position b?
(d) What is the expression for 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) when 𝑡 ≥ 0 ?
(e) What is the expression for 𝑖(𝑡) when 𝑡 ≥ 0+ ?
(f) How long after the switch is in position b does the capacitor voltage
equal zero?
(g) Plot 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) and 𝑖(𝑡) versus t.

10
A General Solution for Step and Natural Responses
Solution of the example :
a) The switch has been in position a for a long time, so the capacitor looks
like an open circuit (for inductor, it looks like a short circuit). Therefore
the voltage across the capacitor is the voltage across the resistor. From
60
the voltage divider rule, the voltage across the resistor is 40 × ( ),
60+20
or 30 V. As the reference for is positive at the upper terminal of the
capacitor, we have 𝑣𝐶 0 = −30 V.
b) After the switch has been in position b for a long time, the capacitor will
look like an open circuit in terms of the 90 V source. Thus the final value
of the capacitor voltage is 𝑣𝐶𝑓 = +90 V.
c) The time constant when the switch is in position b is
𝜏 = 𝑅 × 𝐶 = (400 × 103 ) × 0.5 × 10−6 = 0.2 s
d) Substituting the appropriate values for 𝑣𝐶𝑓 , 𝑣𝐶 0 and t into the general
solution equation yields
𝑣𝐶 𝑡 = 90 + −30 − 90 𝑒 −5𝑡 = 90 − 120𝑒 −5𝑡 V, 𝑡≥0
11
A General Solution for Step and Natural Responses
Solution of the example :
e) Here the value for 𝜏 doesn’t change. Thus we need to find only the initial
and final values for the current in the capacitor. When obtaining the
initial value, we must get the value of 𝑖(0+ ) because the current in the
capacitor can change instantaneously. This current is equal to the current
90−(−30)
in the resistor, which from Ohm’s law is = 300 𝜇A. Note that
400×103
when applying Ohm’s law we recognized that the capacitor voltage
cannot change instantaneously. The final value of 𝑖 𝑡 = 0, so

𝑖 𝑡 = 0 + 300 − 0 𝑒 −5𝑡 = 300𝑒 −5𝑡 𝜇A, 𝑡 ≥ 0+

We could have obtained this solution by differentiating the solution in (d)

and multiplying by the capacitance. You may want to do so for yourself.
Note that this alternative approach to finding 𝑖 𝑡 also predicts the
discontinuity at 𝑡 = 0.

12
A General Solution for Step and Natural Responses
Solution of the example :
f) To find how long the switch must be in position b before the capacitor
voltage becomes zero, we solve the equation derived in (d) for the time
when 𝑣𝐶 𝑡 = 0:
−5𝑡 5𝑡
120 1 4
120𝑒 = 90 or 𝑒 = ⇒ 𝑡 = ln( ) ≈ 57.54 ms
90 5 3
Note that when and the voltage drop across the resistor is 90 V.
g) The graphs of 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) and 𝑖(𝑡) versus t are:

13
1. In the RC circuit of Figure 1(a), the source produces a step voltage, as
discussed in lectures. The height of the step is 10 V. Sketch, using a graph
with labelled axes, the capacitor voltage 𝑣𝐶 as a function of time. Your
sketch need not be accurate, but it should show the main features of the
charging process including the voltage reached at a time equal to one time-
constant, and the initial rate of increase of voltage, and it should be
carefully labelled. Calculate the charge stored in the capacitor at t = 2 s.
R 1 kΩ VS VS
C 10 10
VS VC
1 nF Vstep Vstep
0 =10 V 0 =10 V

t=0 t t=0 t = 1 μs t

(a) (b)
Figure 1

14
1. In the RC circuit of Figure 1(a), the source produces a step voltage. The
height of the step is 10 V. Sketch the capacitor voltage 𝑣𝐶 as a function of
time. Calculate the charge stored in the capacitor at t = 2 s.
Solution :
Initial voltage: 𝑉𝐶0 = 0 V Final voltage: 𝑉𝐶𝑓 = 10 V
Time constant: 𝜏 = 𝑅 × 𝐶 = 103 × 10−9 = 10−6 s
𝑡 𝑡
−𝜏 − −6
Capacitor voltage: 𝑉𝐶 𝑡 = 𝑉𝐶𝑓 + 𝑉𝐶0 − 𝑉𝐶𝑓 𝑒 = 10 × (1 − 𝑒 10 )

6.3

15
1. In the RC circuit of Figure 1(a), the source produces a step voltage. The
height of the step is 10 V. Sketch the capacitor voltage 𝑣𝐶 as a function of
time. Calculate the charge stored in the capacitor at t = 2 s.
Solution :
𝑉𝐶𝑓 −𝑉𝐶0 𝑡
𝑑𝑉𝐶 𝑡 −
Initial rate of increase of voltage: = 𝑒 𝜏
𝑑𝑡 𝜏
𝑉𝐶𝑓 −𝑉𝐶0
when 𝑡 = 0, it is: = 107 V/s
𝜏

when 𝑡 = 2 s, the capacitor can be regared as fully charged, therefore:

𝑉𝐶 2 = 10 V 𝑄𝐶 2 = 𝐶 × 𝑉𝐶 2 = 10−9 × 10 C = 10−8 C

6.3

16
2. Consider again the situation of Question 1 but suppose now that the source
voltage returns to 0 V at a time 1μs after the step (Figure 1(b)). Sketch the
corresponding capacitor voltage 𝑣𝐶 as a function of time. Only a rough
sketch is required: the idea of this question is to make you think about the
qualitative behaviour of the circuit. You will need to adapt what you have
learned about the process of capacitor charging and apply it to the process
of discharging:

R 1 kΩ VS VS
C 10 10
VS VC
1 nF Vstep Vstep
0 =10 V 0 =10 V

t=0 t t=0 t = 1 μs t

(a) (b)
Figure 1

17
2. Consider again the situation of Question 1 but suppose now that the source
voltage returns to 0 V at a time 1μs after the step (Figure 1(b)). Sketch the
corresponding capacitor voltage 𝑣𝐶 as a function of time.
Solution :
Initial voltage: 𝑉𝐶0 = 6.3 V Final voltage: 𝑉𝐶𝑓 = 0 V
Time constant: 𝜏 = 𝑅 × 𝐶 = 103 × 10−9 = 10−6 s
𝑡−𝑡0 𝑡−10−6
−
Capacitor voltage: 𝑉𝐶 𝑡 = 𝑉𝐶𝑓 + 𝑉𝐶0 − 𝑉𝐶𝑓 𝑒 𝜏 = 6.3 × 𝑒− 𝜏

Discharging
2.3
Charging

18
3. Consider the RL circuit of Figure 2. Supposing the switch S is closed for a
sufficiently long time (>>1ms), what current will flow through the inductor?
What now happens if the switch is opened? Sketch the voltage v2 appearing
across the 1 MΩ resistor R2, as the switch is opened.

R1 1 kΩ
L
VS + 1H
12 V -
R2 1 MΩ

S
Figure 2

19
3. Consider the RL circuit of Figure 2. Supposing the switch S is closed for a
sufficiently long time (≫1ms), what current will flow through the inductor?
What now happens if the switch is opened? Sketch the voltage v2 appearing
across the 1 MΩ resistor R2, as the switch is opened.
Solution : R1 1 kΩ R1 1 kΩ
L L
VS + VS + 1H
1H 12 V -
12 V -
R2 1 MΩ

S
𝐿 1H
Time constant when S is closed: 𝜏= = = 1 ms
𝑅1 1000 Ω

Therefore, when t >>1ms, the inductor is essentially a short-circuit,

the current flow through the circuit is: 𝑉S 12 V
𝐼𝐿0 = = = 12 mA
𝑅1 1000 Ω
𝑉S 12 V
The final current after S is opened: 𝐼𝐿𝑓 = = 3 6 ≈ 12 μA
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 10 Ω + 10 Ω
20
3. Consider the RL circuit of Figure 2. Supposing the switch S is closed for a
sufficiently long time (>>1ms), what current will flow through the inductor?
What now happens if the switch is opened? Sketch the voltage v2 appearing
across the 1 MΩ resistor R2, as the switch is opened.
𝐿
Solution : 𝜏 2 = ≈ 1 μs
𝑅1 +𝑅2
After S is opened, the current flow through the circuit is :
𝑡 𝑡
−𝜏2 −
𝑖𝐿 𝑡 = 𝐼𝐿𝑓 + 𝐼𝐿0 − 𝐼𝐿𝑓 𝑒 = 12 × 10−6 + 12 × 10−3 − 12 × 10−6 𝑒 10−6 A
𝑡
−
The voltage across R2 is : 𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑖𝐿 𝑡 𝑅2 ≈ 12 × 10−3 𝑒 10−6 × 106 V

4.4

21
4. (a) In the circuit of Figure 3, suppose the voltage source produces a time-
varying voltage 𝑣S (𝑡) which rises, at a uniform rate, from 𝑣S = 0 V at
𝑡 = 0 s to 𝑣S = 2.5 V at 𝑡 = 10 s . Write down the charge q stored in the
capacitor at 𝑡 = 0 s, the charge q stored at 𝑡 = 10 s.

(b) Hence, for the situation given in part (a), deduce the value of the current
𝑖C flowing in the circuit over the time between 𝑡 = 0 s and 𝑡 = 10 s.
iC (t)

C
VS (t) 2 μF

Figure 3

22
4. (a) In the circuit of Figure 3, suppose the voltage source produces a time-
varying voltage 𝑣S (𝑡) which rises, at a uniform rate, from 𝑣S = 0 V at
𝑡 = 0 s to 𝑣S = 2.5 V at 𝑡 = 10 s . Write down the charge q stored in the
capacitor at 𝑡 = 0 s, the charge q stored at 𝑡 = 10 s.
(b) Hence, for the situation given in part (a), deduce the value of the current
𝑖C flowing in the circuit over the time between 𝑡 = 0 s and 𝑡 = 10 s.
Solution (a):
iC (t)
𝑣𝐶 0 = 0 V, 𝑣𝐶 10 = 2.5 V
Charge q stored in the capacitor is: 𝑞 =𝐶×𝑉
C
Therefore: 𝑞 0 = 2 × 10−6 ×0=0 VS (t) 2 μF
𝑞 10 = 2 × 10−6 × 2.5 C = 5 𝜇C

Solution (b):
2.5 − 0 𝑑𝑣𝐶 𝑡
𝑣𝐶 𝑡 = 𝑡 V = 0.25𝑡 V ⇒ 𝑖𝐶 𝑡 = 𝐶 = 2 × 10−6 × 0.25 = 0.5 𝜇A
10 − 0 𝑑𝑡
5−0 𝑑𝑞𝐶 𝑡
Or: 𝑞𝐶 𝑡 = 𝑡 𝜇C = 0.5𝑡 𝜇C ⇒ 𝑖𝐶 𝑡 = = 0.5 𝜇A
10 − 0 𝑑𝑡
23
A General Solution for Step and Natural Responses
• Next, we integrate the equation. To obtain a general solution, we
use time 𝑡0 as the lower limit and 𝑡 as the upper limit. Time 𝑡0
corresponds to the time of change, it can be either switch on or off.
Using 𝑢 and 𝑣 as symbols of integration, we get
𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑡 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑣𝑡
න = − න 1 𝑑𝑣 ⇒ ln(𝑢 − 𝑥𝑓 )ቚ =− ฬ
𝑥(𝑡0 ) 𝑢 − 𝑥𝑓 𝜏 𝑡0 𝑥(𝑡0 ) 𝜏 𝑡0

which gives
𝑡−𝑡0
−
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑓 + [𝑥 𝑡0 − 𝑥𝑓 ]𝑒 𝜏

the unknown the final the initial time of switching

variable as a value of the value of the
function of time variable variable time constant

𝐿
For RC circuits: 𝜏 = 𝑅 × 𝐶 For RL circuits: 𝜏 =
𝑅
24
 Reference resource
• For Inductance and Capacitance

• For Response of First-Order Circuits

• For Impedance and Reactance

25