Faculty of Engineering

School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications

ELEC 1111 – Topic 9

AC Analysis II

Dr. Inmaculada (Inma) Tomeo-Reyes

Lecturer
School
0 of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, UNSW
 Topic 9 Content
This lecture covers:
• Steady-state analysis of AC circuits in frequency domain.
‒ Nodal analysis.
‒ Mesh analysis.
• Application of superposition principle in frequency domain.
‒ Circuits operating at a single frequency.
‒ Circuits operating at different frequencies.
• Application of source transformation in frequency domain.
• Application of Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems in AC circuits.

Corresponds to Chapter 10
of your textbook

1
 Topic 8 recap
• A sinusoid is a signal (voltage or current) in the form of sine or cosine
function.
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑉𝑚 : Amplitude.
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓: Angular frequency (𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠).
(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙): Argument of the sinusoid.
𝜙: Phase (in degrees or radians).

• A phasor is a complex quantity that represents both the magnitude and the
phase of a sinusoid.
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 ⇔ 𝐕 = 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜙

• An electric circuit is called AC circuit mostly when it is operated by sinusoidal

voltage or current sources.
‒ They can be analyzed in what is known as sinusoidal steady-state.
‒ All voltages and currents can be written in phasor domain rather than time domain.

2
 Topic 8 recap
• Circuit elements have a fixed relationship between voltage and current phasors.
• Given 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙𝑣 ⇔ 𝐕 = 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜙𝑣 as the voltage across an element
and 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙𝑖 ) ⇔ 𝐈 = 𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜙𝑖 as the current through the element:
‒ For resistor 𝑅, voltage and current are in phase:
𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖 ⇒ 𝐕 = 𝑅𝐈 = 𝑅𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜙𝑖 = 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜙𝑣 ⇒ 𝜙𝑣 = 𝜙𝑖
‒ For inductor 𝐿, current lags voltage by 90°:
𝑑𝑖
𝑣=𝐿 ⇒ 𝐕 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐈 = 𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 ∠ 𝜙𝑖 + 90° = 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜙𝑣 ⇒ 𝜙𝑣 = 𝜙𝑖 + 90°
𝑑𝑡

‒ For capacitor 𝐶, current leads voltage by 90°:

1 1 𝐼𝑚
𝑣= න 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝐕 = 𝐈= ∠ 𝜙𝑖 − 90° = 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜙𝑣 ⇒ 𝜙𝑣 = 𝜙𝑖 − 90°
𝐶 𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝜔𝐶

3
 Topic 8 recap
• Impedance 𝐙 of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor voltage across it to
the phasor current through it.
𝐕
𝐙= = 𝑅 𝜔 + 𝑗𝑋 𝜔 Ω, 𝑅: Resistance, 𝑋: Reactance.
𝐈

• Admittance 𝐘 is the reciprocal of impedance.

1 𝐈
𝐘= = = 𝐺 𝜔 + 𝑗𝐵 𝜔 S, 𝐺: Conductance, 𝐵: Susceptance.
𝐙 𝐕

• Impedances of circuit elements:

‒ For resistor 𝑅: 𝐙𝑅 = 𝑅
‒ For inductor 𝐿: 𝐙𝐿 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿
‒ For capacitor 𝐶: 𝐙𝐶 = 1/𝑗𝜔𝐶 = −𝑗/𝜔𝐶
• Impedances are combined in series and parallel in the same way as
resistances in series and parallel.
• Basic circuit laws (Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s) apply to AC circuits in the
same manner as DC circuits, as well as voltage and current divisions.
• 𝐕 = 𝐙𝐈 (Ohm’s law)
• σ 𝐈𝑘 = 0 (KCL) and σ 𝐕𝑘 = 0 (KVL)

4
 Analysing AC circuits
• When a circuit is operated by a sinusoidal source, its steady-state response
can be obtained by using phasors.
• Transforming the circuit to phasor/frequency domain makes the analysis much
simpler as we would no longer require to solve differential equations.
• Analyzing AC circuits usually require three steps:

1. Transform the circuit to phasor/frequency domain.

2. Solve the problem using circuit analysis techniques (nodal or mesh
analysis, superposition, source transformation, etc.).
3. Transform the resulting phasors back to time domain (if required).

AC circuit analysis is performed in the same manner as

DC circuit analysis except that complex numbers are involved.

5
 Nodal analysis in AC circuits
• We use KCL to write nodal equations in an AC circuits as we did in DC circuits.
‒ The only difference is that voltage phasors at each node should be used.
• Always convert a time-domain circuit to phasor/frequency domain (if the
circuit is not given in phasor domain) by calculating all the impedances of the
circuit elements at the operating frequency and replacing the sinusoids (in
cosine form) with their phasors.
• We deal with voltage sources in nodal analysis the same way as in DC:

1. Voltage source between non-reference node and reference node (i.e. ground):
‒ Assign the node voltage to the source voltage phasor.
2. Voltage source between two non-reference nodes:
‒ Form a supernode.
‒ Apply KCL at the supernode using the already assigned phasor voltages at
nodes inside supernode.
‒ Write the extra equation relating node voltages inside supernode and the
source voltage phasor.

6
 Exercise
Find 𝑖𝑥 in the circuit given below using nodal analysis.
Solution in Exercises_solution_Topic_9.pdf

7
 Exercise
Compute 𝐕1 and 𝐕2 in the circuit below using nodal analysis.
Solution in Exercises_solution_Topic_9.pdf

8
 Exercise
Compute 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 in the circuit below using nodal analysis
• For practice!
• Answer: 𝑣1 𝑡 = 28.31 cos(2𝑡 + 60.01°) V
𝑣2 𝑡 = 82.56 cos 2𝑡 + 57.12° V

9
 Mesh analysis in AC circuits
• We use KVL to write mesh equations in an AC circuits as we did in DC circuits.
‒ The only difference is that current phasors in each mesh should be used.
• Always convert a time-domain circuit to phasor/frequency domain (if the
circuit is not given in phasor domain) by calculating all the impedances of the
circuit elements at the operating frequency and replacing the sinusoids (in
cosine form) with their phasors.
• We deal with current sources in mesh analysis the same way as in DC:

1. Current source belonging to ONLY one mesh/loop:

‒ The mesh current in that mesh/loop is equal to the source current phasor.
2. Current source shared between two meshes:
‒ Form a supermesh.
‒ Apply KVL in the supermesh using the already assigned mesh current phasors
in the supermesh.
‒ Write the extra equation relating mesh currents in the supermesh and the
source current phasor.

10
 Exercise
Determine current 𝐈𝑜 in the circuit below using mesh analysis.
Solution in Exercises_solution_Topic_9.pdf

11
 Exercise
Find the voltage 𝐕𝑜 in the circuit below using mesh analysis.
Solution in Exercises_solution_Topic_9.pdf

12
 Exercise
Calculate 𝐈𝑜 in the circuit below using mesh analysis.
• For practice!
• Answer: 𝐈𝑜 = 5.97∠65.45° A

13
 Superposition theorem in AC circuits
• Since AC circuits are linear, it is also possible to apply the principle of
superposition in AC circuits with multiple sources.
• This becomes particularly important if the circuit has sources operating at
different frequencies.
• The complication is that each source must have its own frequency-domain
equivalent circuit because:
‒ Impedances depend on frequency which means each element has a different
impedance at different frequency (Z = 𝑅 𝜔 + 𝑗𝑋 𝜔 Ω).
‒ Phasor voltages and phasor currents resulting from each different-frequency
source CANNOT be added to each other in frequency domain, instead they all
must be converted back to time domain before being added.

Check the frequency of all sources in the circuit before applying

superposition to make sure whether you need to recalculate the
impedances for each frequency-domain equivalent circuit.

14
 Exercise
Find 𝑖𝑜 in the circuit shown below using superposition.
Note: This is an example of the use of superposition with sources operating at different
frequencies (AC source at 4 rad/s and DC source at 0 rad/s).
Solution in Exercises_solution_Topic_9.pdf

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 Exercise
Use superposition to calculate 𝑖𝑜 in the following circuit.
• For practice!
• Answer: 𝑖𝑜 = 39.5 cos(103 𝑡 − 18.43°) mA

16
 Source transformation
Source transformation in the frequency domain involves transforming a voltage
source in series with an impedance to a current source in parallel with an
impedance or vice versa.

𝐕𝑠
𝐕𝑠 = 𝐙𝑠 𝐈𝑠 𝐈𝑠 =
𝐙𝑠

17
 Exercise
Calculate 𝐕𝑥 in the circuit shown below using source transformation.
Solution in Exercises_solution_Topic_9.pdf

18
 Exercise
Use source transformation to find 𝐈𝑜 in the following circuit.
• For practice!
• Answer: 𝐈𝑜 = 1.97∠99.46° A

19
 Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems
• Both Thevenin and Norton’s theorems are applied to linear AC circuits the
same way as in DC linear circuits.
‒ The only difference is the fact that the calculated values will be complex.
• The two equivalent circuits are related through source transformation.

𝐕Th = 𝐙𝑁 𝐈𝑁
𝐙Th = 𝐙𝑁
𝐕Th
𝐈𝑁 =
𝐙Th

𝐕Th : Open-circuit voltage across terminals a-b.

𝐈𝑁 : Short-circuit current through terminals a-b.
𝐙Th = 𝐙𝑁 : Equivalent or input impedance seen
from terminals a-b.

20
 Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems
• Finding the 𝐙Th = 𝐙𝑁 = 𝐙eq = 𝐙in is the same as in DC circuits:
1. Turn off all independent sources and calculate equivalent impedance from terminals
(not possible if there is any dependent source).
2. Use definition of Thevenin resistance:

𝐕Th
𝐙Th =
𝐈𝑁
3. Connect an external source (only possibility if there are ONLY dependent sources).

• Connect a constant voltage source in • Connect a constant current source in

phasor form 𝐕𝑜 = 1∠0° V across the phasor form 𝐈𝑜 = 1∠0° A across the
terminals (turn off independent sources if terminals (turn off independent sources if
any). any).
• Find the phasor current 𝐈𝑜 through the • Find the phasor voltage 𝐕𝑜 across the
external voltage source external current source
𝐕𝑜 1∠0° 𝐕𝑜 𝐕𝑜
• 𝐙eq = = (Passive sign convention) • 𝐙eq = = (Passive sign convention)
𝐈𝑜 𝐈𝑜 𝐈𝑜 1∠0°

The value of the constant external source does not have to be one. It is just for simplicity.

21
 Exercise
Obtain the Thevenin equivalent circuit at the terminals a-b in the circuit below.
Solution in Exercises_solution_Topic_9.pdf

22
 Exercise
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seem from the terminals a-b in the
circuit below.
Solution in Exercises_solution_Topic_9.pdf

23
 Exercise
Obtain the Norton equivalent circuit at the terminals a-b in the circuit below.
• For practice!
• Answer: 𝐙𝑁 = 12.4 − 𝑗3.2 = 12.8∠ − 14.47° Ω, 𝐈𝑁 = 3.703∠ − 37.1° A

24
 Exercise
Determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit at the terminals a-b in the circuit below.
• For practice!
• Answer: 𝐙Th = 4.47∠ − 7.64° = 4.43 − 𝑗0.594 Ω, 𝐕Th = 5.06∠145.31° V

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 Question? Questions?

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