CHAPTER 7

ALTERNATING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS

Alternating current (ac) is characterized by alternating flow in two directions, because practically
all modern power systems use alternating current. An alternating current system is one in which
the direction of flow changes periodically. The electron movement is first in one direction, then
in the outer. Most commonly the variation is of a sine wave form. A sine wave voltage, shown
in Figure 9.10, is a graph of the equation

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑝𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
where V= the instantaneous voltage
𝑉𝑝𝑘 = maximum voltage
𝜃= angle

The instantaneous voltage, e, depends upon the sine of the angle. It rises to a maximum as the
angle reaches 90o, and then falls to zero at 180o. It becomes negative and reaches a negative peak
at 270o, the returns to zero again at 360o. In the 360o it has completed one cycle, which is then
repeated.

Figure 9.10 Sine Wave Voltage

The frequency (f) of an alternating current or voltage is the number of complete cycles occurring
in each second. Frequency is generally given in units of hertz (Hz), one hertz equaling one cycle
per second. In Malaysia, 50Hz is the most common frequency used, while in States, 50Hz may
be in used. The unit of Hertz is in Honor of German physicist Heinrich Rudolph Hertz (1857-
1894) who advanced the understanding of electromagnetics.
One of the most frequently measured characteristics of the sine wave is its amplitude. In contrast
to the dc measurement, the magnitude of alternating current or voltage can be measured in
several ways. One method is to measure the maximum amplitude of either the positive or the
negative part of the cycle. The value obtained is called the peak voltage or peak current.
A more common measurement is to determine the effective or rms (root mean square) value. The
rms value of a sine wave is the value equivalent to the constant dc magnitude that would provide
the same amount of power.

𝐸𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2

and

𝐼𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2

Example 9.1
If the rms value of voltage is 240V for a sine wave, what is the peak value?

Solution:
𝐸𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 × √2 = 240𝑉 × 1.414 = 33.9.4𝑉

Instantaneous power in the circuit can be determined by multiplying voltage and current at any
instant in time. True or effective power is the product of the rms voltage and current. The
significant of this type of power is that it converts electrical energy into another useful energy
form. True power in an ac circuit can be calculated by

𝑃 = 𝐸𝐼 cos ∅

Where E=voltage, V
I=current, A
∅=phase-shift angle

Note that when phase-shift angle is zero as in purely resistive circuit or a dc circuit, the cosine of
the phase shift is one. Therefore for pure resistance or dc circuit, we return to the form

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐸𝐼

Example 9.2
Determine the true power of an ac circuit with a voltage 120V, a current of 10A, and a phase
shift of 20 degree between the voltage and current.

Solution:
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
= 120𝑉 × 10𝐴 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠20𝑜 = 1128𝑊

In an ac circuit, we may refer to the apparent power as well as the true power. Apparent power is
the product of voltage and current in rms value and has units of volt-amperes (VA)

𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 , 𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝐴

The ratio of true power to apparent power for a circuit is defined as the power factor.

𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑃) 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟(𝑝𝑓) = cos ∅ = =
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑆) 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 × 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠

Example 9.3
Determine the power factor and phase-shift angle for a circuit where the true power is measured
and found to be 3840W, the voltage 240V and the current 20A.

Solution:
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑃) 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟(𝑝𝑓) = cos ∅ = =
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑆) 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 × 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
3840𝑊
= = 0.8
240𝑉 × 20𝐴
= 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = cos ∅
Therefore,
∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (0.8) = 36.90
9.1 Inductance and Inductive Reactance

Although some loads can be described as purely resistive, most real circuits contain load that are
not purely resistive. These loads will add elements of inductance and capacitance to the circuit.
Resistive, capacitive, and inductive elements make up the three basic types of elements in all
circuits.

A coiled wire, such as a motor or transformer winding, is an important part of many pieces of
electrical equipment. The coil is an inductor. The following examples indicate various uses of an
inductor (coil) in electrical applications.

 A mechanical relay, commonly used in switching circuits, has an iron core inside a coil
of wire. When a current is applied to the coil it acts as an electromagnet closing or
opening the contact points.
 A transformer operates on the principle that an alternating current in one coil of wire will
induce a voltage in a second coil.
 Motor and generator windings are used to produce magnetic field or to induce currents
that allow development of mechanical force from electrical energy or vice versa.

The usefulness of the coil is based upon the magnetic field around its conductors. Every
conductor with current flowing through it has a magnetic field around it. This magnetic field is a
form of energy. Two important things to recognize about the magnetic field are, first, the
strength of the magnetic field is directly proportional to the magnitude of the current flowing in
the conductor, and second the north-south polarity of the magnetic field is determined by the
direction of current flow. Figure 9.2 demonstrates the conventions for the assumed direction of
the lines of the magnetic field around a conductor relative to the direction of current flow.

Figure 9.2 Electromagnetic Fields Around A Conductor Carrying Current

When wires are wound in the form of a coil, all the magnetic lines of flux pass through the center
of the coil in the same direction. This forms an electromagnet. The strength of the magnet will
depend upon a number of factors including the number of turns of wire and the magnitude of the
current. Placing a soft iron core within the core strengthens the electromagnet by reducing the
opposition to movement of the magnet lines of force within the coil.

Figure 9.3 shows the schematic of a relay. Relays use electromagnets. When current flows
through the coil, the magnetic action pulls down the bar and closes the contact points. When turn
off, the spring force opens the contact again. The only time the magnetic action occurs is while
current is flowing through the coil.

Figure 9.3 Schematic of a relay

Consider the ac current wave shown in Figure 9.4. At the starting point, the current is zero and
there is no magnetic field. As the current increases during the first quarter cycle the strength of
the magnetic field around the wires increases and energy is stored in the field. This continues
until the current reaches a maximum at the top of the sine wave. As the current then decreases,
energy stored in the magnetic field is returned to the circuit. When the current goes through zero
and reverses direction the polarity of the magnetic field must reverse. The important factor is that
creating the magnetic field, and thereby storing energy, requires time, as does the return of the
energy when the field is reduced. This time requirement acts electrically the same as the inertia
of a flywheel acts in a physical system. Electrically, the inertia of the magnetic field causes the
current to lag behind the voltage, which causes the current to flow just as the flywheel continues
to spin after input torque stops. The inertia or inductance creates an apparent counter-voltage or
counter-emf that opposes the source voltage. This is stated in Lenz’s Law as the induced voltage
in a coil is always in a direction so as to oppose the effect that is producing it.
 Figure 9.4 AC current waveform

This property of creating an opposition to change in current flow is called inductance. The
amount of opposition to current change is called the inductive reactance and is a function of the
frequency of the source and the inductance. Because inductance is dependent upon the change in
current flow, its primary applications are with alternating current where current varies cyclically
with time.

Inductance is measured in units of henries (H). A circuit or coil has an inductance of one henry
when current varying at a rate of one ampere persecond induces a counter-emf of one volt across
the terminals of the coil.

The amount of opposition to current flow, the inductive reactance XL, is measured in units of
ohms. The following formula is used to calculate the inductive reactance:

𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 𝑜ℎ𝑚

Where f=frequency in hertz, Hz

L=inductance in henries, H
𝜋=3.1416

Voltage across and current through an inductor are described by Ohm’s Law for an inductor as

𝐸 = 𝐼𝑋𝐿
Example 9.4
If a coil known to have an inductance of 0.1H is connected to a 60Hz source, what is the
inductive reactance?

Solution:
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = (2𝜋)(60𝐻𝑧)(0.1𝐻) = 37.7𝑜ℎ𝑚

Example 9.5
Find the current flow in the circuit with the pure inductor shown below:

120V
60Hz L=0.3H

Solution:
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
= (2𝜋)(60𝐻𝑧)(0.3𝐻)
= 113.1𝑜ℎ𝑚
Then apply Ohm’s Law
𝐸 120𝑉
𝐼= =
𝑋𝐿 113.1𝑜ℎ𝑚
= 1.06𝐴

Current in an ac circuit with pure inductance (negligible resistance) will lag the voltage by 90 o.
Figure 9.5 shows the current, voltage and power waveforms for a pure inductance circuit. Note
that the total power output of the circuit for any complete cycle is zero. This is also apparent
from the ac power formula 𝑃 = 𝐸𝐼 cos ∅, where for this case the phase angle ∅ = 90𝑜 , therefore
the 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 0𝑜 and the true power output equals zero.

Figure 9.6 illustrate how we can express the voltage and current for a pure inductance ac circuit
in phasor form. The counterclockwise position of the current from the voltage is a convention to
show the current lagging the voltage. The phasor form will be useful in later work with
impedance matching for power factor improvement.
The total of inductances in series and parallel can be obtained by the following rules:

1 1 1 1 1
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = + + +⋯+
𝐿𝑇 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3 𝐿𝑛
𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝐿𝑇 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑛

Figure 9.5 Phase and power relation for pure inductive circuit

Figure 9.6 Phasor diagram for AC pure inductance

9.2 Capacitance and capacitive reactance

Capacitors are basic electrical element found in controls, motors, and welders circuits, and many
other places. A capacitor consists of two plates of electrical conducting material separated by an
insulating material called the dielectric. Materials such as air, paper, mica, and oil can be used as
dielectrics.
When a capacitor is placed across a source, an electric charge will build up on the plates of the
capacitor. This charge buildup represents storage of energy. The plates of the capacitor will be
charged, as shown in Figure 9.7, with the polarity of the source connected to each plate. Since
electrons cannot cross the dielectric, once the capacitor is fully charged no current will flow in
the circuit.

Figure 9.7 Capacitor on a DC source

A sample application of a capacitor in a dc system is a photo flashgun. Using the simplified

schematic (Figure 9.8), we can see when the switch is open the battery will charge the capacitor.
Action of the camera then closes the switch, thereby discharging the capacitor. Discharging the
capacitor produces a large current flow for a short period of time.

Figure 9.8 The flashgun, a DC application of a capacitor

Connected to an ac source, a capacitor charges and discharges during each half-cycle (Figure
9.9). A capacitor in an ac circuit will limit, but not block the current flow. The effect of the
capacitor on the ac circuit will be discussed further later in this section.
 Figure 9.9 Capacitor on an ac source

The amount of electrical charge that a capacitor can store for each volt of applied potential
defines its capacitance. Capacitance is measured in units of farads, F, in honor of Michael
Faraday (England, 1791-1867), the discover of electro-magnetic induction, electro-magnetic
rotations (the principle behind the electric motor), the magneto-optical effect, diamagnetism,
field theory, and much else. The Farad is a very large unit of capacitance. A one-farad capacitor
could store one coulomb of charge for each volt of applied potential. Practical devices are more
often rated in terms of microfarad, µF.

1𝐹
1 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 1𝜇𝐹 = 10−6 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 =
1000000

A capacitor in an ac circuit limits the current flow an a manner similar to a resistor. The amount
of opposition to current flow is qualified as the capacitive reactance. Capacitive reactance, 𝑋𝐶 , is
measured in units of ohms and can be calculated from the frequency of the source and
capacitance using the following formula:

106
𝑋𝐶 = 𝑜ℎ𝑚
2𝜋𝑓𝐶

Where f=frequency in hertz, Hz

C=capacitance in microfarad, µF

Example 9.6
Find the capacitance of a 13µF capacitor connected to a 60Hz source
Solution:
106 106
𝑋𝐶 = = = 204𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 (2𝜋)(60𝐻𝑧)(13𝜇𝐹)
Because of the time required to charge and discharge the capacitor, in ac circuit with pure
capacitance loading the current will lead the voltage by 90o. Figure 9.10 shows the current
leading the voltage in waveform and in phasor form. Note that just as for a pure inductor, the
phase angle shift of 90o yields a power factor of zero and therefore a true power output of zero.
The ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy but simply stores it in the form of the electric field
and can return it to the system. The capacitor is an energy storing element and not a dissipative
one like resistor.

Total capacitance of a number of capacitors in series or parallel can be found using these rules:

𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯ 𝐶𝑛
1 1 1 1 1
𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = + + + ⋯+
𝐶𝑇 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶𝑛

Ohm’s law can be applied in the form 𝐸 = 𝐼𝑋𝑐 for capacitors.

Figure 9.10 Current and voltage realations for pure capacitance

Example 9.4
Find the current flow in the circuit shown

120V C=106.1uF
60Hz

Solution:
Find the capacitive reactance:
 106 1
𝑋𝐶 = = = 25𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 (2𝜋)(60𝐻𝑧)(106.1𝜇𝐹)
Apply Ohm’s Law:
𝐸 120𝑉
𝐼= = = 4.8𝐴
𝑋𝐶 25𝑜ℎ𝑚

9.3 Combination of inductance, capacitance and resistance

A generalized Ohm’s Law is used to solve circuit problems which may contain all three
elements: resistors, inductors, and capacitors. These circuits are sometimes called RLC circuits.
The general form of Ohm’s Law applied to RLC circuits states:

Voltage = Current x Total Impedance

E=IZ

Where I=current, A
Z=total impedance, ohms

Total impedance is the result of combining impedance of the resistive, inductive, and capacitive
components of the circuit.

RLC circuits that are simple series circuits or simple parallel circuits will be studied in the
following sections, first for ac and then dc sources.

For a simple series ac circuit, as shown in Figure 9.11, the total impedance is a vector sum of the
resistance, capacitive reactance, and inductive reactance. Due to the phase shifts caused by
capacitance and inductance, the impedances for a series circuit add vectorially in the orientation
shown in Figure 9.11.

The magnitude of the total impedance, z, can be calculated as:

𝑍 = (𝑅2 + [𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 ]2 )0.5 𝑜ℎ𝑚

The angle between the pure resistance, R, and the total impedance, z, is the phase shift angle, ∅.
If Z is counterclockwise from R, the phase angle is considered lagging, and the current would be
lagging the voltage by the angle ∅. Conversely, if Z is clockwise from R, as in Figure 9.11, the
phase angle is considered leading and the current would lead the voltage by the angle ∅. For a
series RLC circuit, the voltages of each element will also add vectorially in the same orientation
as the impedances (Figure 9.12)

Figure 9.11 simple series RLC circuit

Figure 9.12 vector addition of voltages for RLC series circuit.

The magnitude of the sum of the voltages can be calculated as

0.5
𝐸𝑇 = (𝐸𝑅 2 + [𝐸𝐶 − 𝐸𝐿 ]2 ) 𝑉

Again, the angle between the resistance voltage drop, ER and the total voltage, ET represents the
phase shift angle with the same leading and lagging conventions.

Using the generalized Ohm’s Law and vector addition of impedances and voltages, problems
involving ac series RLC circuits can be solved. Total impedance, current flow, phase shift angle,
voltage drops for each element, and true and apparent power can all be determined. The
following set of examples helps develop experience in working with ac series RLC circuit.
Example 9.5
Solve for the current flow, power factor, and true apparent power for the circuit below
132ohm

220V C=15.07uF
60Hz

Solution:
Determine the capacitive reactance
106 106
𝑋𝐶 = = = 176𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 (2𝜋)(60𝐻𝑧)(15.07𝜇𝐹)
Use vector sum to determine the total impedance and power factor

R=132ohm 0.5
𝑍 = (𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑐 2 ) = 220𝑜ℎ𝑚

132𝑜ℎ𝑚
cos ∅ = = 0.6 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
220𝑜ℎ𝑚
Xc=176ohm Z
∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝑂. 6) = 53.10

Applying the general Ohm’s Law,

𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐸𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = (220𝑉)(1𝐴)(0.6) = 132𝑊 Commented [A1]: I= E/Z
= 220V/220 ohm
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐸𝐼 = (220𝑉)(1𝐴) = 220𝑉𝐴 =1A

Example 9.6
If the current of 10 amperes was measured in the circuit below, determine voltage drop across
each element, source voltage, power factor, and total impedance for the circuit.
I=10A R=5ohm

XL=10ohm

Solution:
Ohm’s Law can be applied to each element of the circuit to determine voltage drops
𝐸𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 = 10𝐴 × 5𝑜ℎ𝑚 = 50𝑉
𝐸𝐿 = 𝐼𝑋𝐿 = 10𝐴 × 10𝑜ℎ𝑚 = 100𝑉
The source voltage can be found by vector summation of the two voltages, EL and ER

EL=100V

Es 0.5
𝐸𝑆 = (𝐸𝐿 2 + 𝐸𝑅 2 ) = 112𝑜ℎ𝑚

50𝑜ℎ𝑚
cos ∅ = = 0.446 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
112𝑜ℎ𝑚
∅
ER=50V

Drawing the total impedance diagram,

XL=10ohm

Z 0.5
𝑍 = (𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 ) = 11.2𝑜ℎ𝑚

50𝑜ℎ𝑚
cos ∅ = = 0.446 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
112𝑜ℎ𝑚

∅ R=5ohm

Note the source voltage can also be determined using total impedance and current flow.
𝐸𝑆𝑂𝑈𝑅𝐶𝐸 = 𝐼𝑍 = 10𝐴 × 11.2𝑜ℎ𝑚 = 12𝑉

Example 9.7
Determine the total impedance and current flow for the circuit shown
R=80ohm

XL=90ohm
100V
60Hz

Xc=30ohm

Solution:
Obtain the total impedance through vector addition and power factor from the angle between
total impedance and resistance
 XL=90ohm

Z 𝑍 = (𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐶 + 𝑋𝐿 )2 )0.5 = 100𝑜ℎ𝑚

80𝑜ℎ𝑚
cos ∅ = = 0.8 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
100𝑜ℎ𝑚
∅
R=80ohm
XC=30ohm

Determine the current flow,

𝐸 100𝑉
𝐼= = = 1𝐴
𝑍 100𝑜ℎ𝑚

When a circuit contains resistors, capacitors and inductors in parallel, total current flow is
obtained by vector addition of current flow for each element (Figure 9.13). Currents is this case
add vectorially in the same orientation as the voltage in the series circuit.

Figure 9.13 Simple Parallel RLC Circuit

In this case, the angle between the current due to pure resistance, IR and the total or source
current is the phase shift angle, ∅ for the circuit.

NOTE: for parallel RLC circuit, impedance does not add vectorially as in the series case. Total
impedance must be obtained by dividing source voltage by total current.
Example 9.8
For the circuit shown, determine the current flow in each element, the source current, the true
power, and the apparent power.

XL=20ohm Xc=30ohm
R=30ohm
120V

Solution:
Use Ohm’s Law for each element of the parallel combination. (Note the voltage across each
element is the same for parallel connected loads.)
𝐸𝑅 𝐸𝐿 𝐸𝐶
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝐶 =
𝑅 𝑋1 𝑋𝐶
120𝑉 120𝑉 120𝑉
= = =
30𝑜ℎ𝑚 20𝑜ℎ𝑚 30𝑜ℎ𝑚
= 4𝐴 = 6𝐴 = 4𝐴

Determine the source current and phase angle by vector addition.

IC=4A

Z 0.5
𝐼 = (𝐼𝑅 2 + (𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐿 )2 ) 𝐴 = 4.48𝐴
IR=4A
∅
IS 4
cos ∅ = = 0.89 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
4.48
IL=6A 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐸𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
= 120𝑉 × 4.48𝐴 × 0.89
= 478.5𝑊
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑆 = 𝐸𝐼 = 120𝑉 × 4.48𝐴
= 537.6𝑉𝐴

9.4 Power Factor Improvement

The optimum situation for transferring power in ac system exists when the power factor of the
load equals unity that is, when the phase shift between current and voltage is zero, ø=0. From the
ac power formula,

𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑃 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

Losses due to the resistance of the conductors in a circuit or a transmission line can be
minimized by improving the power factor.

Power factor improvement could be accomplished by addition of capacitors either in series or

parallel. However since capacitors in series would also change the current through the existing
load elements, only parallel connected capacitors are commonly used.

Example 9.9
Given a 220V single phase 60Hz induction motor that draws 7.6 amperes with a power factor of
0.787, calculate the size of a parallel connected capacitor required to return the power factor to
unity (1.0)

Is IM=7.6A

Ic

220V
60Hz
M
P.f=0.787

Solution:
Given the power factor, the phase angle of the motor current can be calculated.

𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = ∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (0.787) = 38𝑜

Using the phase angle and motor current to draw a current diagram, the motor current can be
subdivided inductive and resistive currents.

IR
E=220V
o
Ø=38

IM=IS=7.6A
IL
If a capacitive current equal in magnitude to the inductive current of the motor, IL, is added, the
circuit is balanced and the source current is now equal to just the resistive component of the
motor current.

IR=Is
E=220V
Ø=0o

IM=7.6A
IL

Since the current through the capacitor must be equal to the inductive motor current to exactly
balance the circuit,

𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑀 sin ∅ = 7.6𝐴 × sin 38𝑜

𝐼𝐿 = 4.68𝐴 = 𝐼𝐶

Using Ohm’s Law to find capacitive reactance,

𝐸 220𝑉
𝑋𝑐 = = = 47.0𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝐼𝑐 4.68𝐴

Capacitance necessary to obtain 𝑋𝑐 = 47.0𝑜ℎ𝑚 with a 60Hz source is

1 1
𝐶= = = 56.4𝜇𝐹
2𝜋𝑓𝑋𝑐 (2𝜋)(60𝐻𝑧)(47.0𝑜ℎ𝑚)

9.5 Resonance in Electrical Circuit

Resonance in AC circuits implies a special frequency determined by the values of the resistance,
capacitance, and inductance. Resonance occurs in any system that has a complex conjugate pair
of poles; it is the cause of oscillations of stored energy from one form to another. It is the
phenomenon that allows frequency discrimination in communications networks. Resonance
occurs in any circuit that has at least one inductor and one capacitor.

9.4.1 Series Resonance

For series resonance, the condition of resonance is straightforward and it is characterized by
minimum impedance and zero phase.

The resonance of a series RLC circuit occurs when the inductive and capacitive reactance are
equal in magnitrude but cancel each other because they are 180o apart in phase.

Resonance is a condition in an RLC circuit in which the capacitive

and inductive reactances are equal in magnitude, thereby resulting
in a purely resistive impedance.

Consider the series RLC circuit shown in Figure 9.14 in the frequency domain. The input
impedance is:

Figure 9.14 A series resonant circuit

1 1
𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 + or 𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗(𝜔𝐿 − )
𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝜔𝐶

Resonance results when the imaginary part of the transfer function is zero, or

1
𝐼𝑚(𝑍) = 𝜔𝐿 − =0
𝜔𝐶

The value of 𝜔 that satisfies this condition is called the resonant frequency, 𝜔𝑜 . Thus, the
resonance condition is

1 1
𝜔𝑜 𝐿 = or 𝜔𝑜 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝜔𝑜 𝐶 √𝐿𝐶
Since 𝜔𝑜 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑜

1
𝑓𝑜 = 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

The frequency response of the circuit’s current magnitude

𝑉𝑚
𝐼 = |𝐈| =
2
√𝑅2 + (𝜔𝐿 − 1 )
𝜔𝐶

is shown in Figure. 9.15; the plot only shows the symmetry illustrated in this graph when the
frequency axis is a logarithm. The average power dissipated by the RLC circuit is

Figure 9.15 The current amplitude versus frequency for the series resonant circuit

1
𝑃(𝜔) = 𝐼 2 𝑅
2

𝑉𝑚
The highest power dissipated occurs at resonance, when 𝐼 = so that
𝑅

1 𝑉𝑚2
𝑃(𝜔𝑜 ) =
2𝑅

At certain frequencies 𝜔 = 𝜔1 , 𝜔2 , the dissipated power is half the maximum value; that is,

2
(𝑉𝑚 ⁄√2) 𝑉𝑚2
𝑃(𝜔1 ) = 𝑃(𝜔2 ) = =
2𝑅 4𝑅
Hence, 𝜔1 and 𝜔2 are called the half-power frequencies. The half-power frequencies are
obtained by setting Z equal to √2R, and writing

1 2
√𝑅2 + (𝜔𝐿 − ) = √2𝑅
𝜔𝐶

Solving for, we obtain

Example 9.9
In the series resonance circuit shown below,𝑅 = 2Ω, 2𝑚𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = 0.4𝜇𝐹. (a) Find the resonant
frequency and the half-power frequencies. (b) Determine the amplitude of the current at ,
𝜔1 , 𝜔2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔0 .

Solution:
(a) The resonance frequency is:

1 1 50𝑘𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜔0 = = =
√𝐿𝐶 √10−3 × 0.4 × 10−6 𝑠

The lower half frequency is:

𝑅 𝑅 2 1
𝜔1 = − + √( ) +
2𝐿 2𝐿 𝐿𝐶
 2 2 2 1
=− −3
+ √( ) + 1×10−3×0.4×10−6 = 49𝑘𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
2×10 2×10−3

The upper half frequency is:

𝑅 𝑅 2 1 51𝑘𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜔1 = + √( ) + =
2𝐿 2𝐿 𝐿𝐶 𝑠

(b) At 𝜔 = 𝜔0 ,

𝑉𝑚 20
𝐼= = = 10𝐴
𝑅 2

At 𝜔 = 𝜔1 , 𝜔2,

𝑉𝑚 10
𝐼= = = 7.071𝐴
√2𝑅 √2

9.4.2 Parallel Resonance

The parallel circuit in Figure 9.17 is the dual of the series RLC circuit.

Figure 9.17 The parallel resonance circuit

1 1 1 1
𝑌 = + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 + or 𝑌 = + 𝑗(𝜔𝐶 − )
𝑅 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝑅 𝜔𝐿

Resonance results when the imaginary part of Y is zero, or

 1
𝐼𝑚(𝑌) = 𝜔𝐿 − =0
𝜔𝐶
1 1
𝜔𝑜 𝐿 =
𝜔𝑜 𝐶
or 𝜔𝑜 =
√𝐿𝐶
𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠

The current amplitude vs frequency for parallel circuit:

𝐼𝑚 𝑅
|𝐼𝐿 | =
𝜔0 𝐿

|𝐼𝐿 | = 𝜔0 𝐶𝐼𝑚 𝑅

By replacing R, L and C in the expression for series circuit with 1/R, C and L respectively we
obtained for the parallel circuit.

Example 9.10
In the parallel RLC circuit below, let R=8kΩ, L=0.2mH and C=8µF. Calculate 𝜔0 , 𝜔1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔2

L C
R
10 sin wt

Solution:
 1
𝜔𝑜 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
√𝐿𝐶
1 105
= = = 25𝑘𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
√0.2 × 10−3 × 8 × 10−6 4

1 1 2 1
𝜔1 = − + √( ) + 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
2𝑅𝐶 2𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶
2
1 1 1
=− + √( ) + = 24,992𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
2 × 8𝑘 × 8𝜇 2 × 8𝑘 × 8𝜇 0.2𝑚 × 8𝜇

𝜔2 = 25,008𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠

References:

Robert J. Gustafson and Mark T.Morgan. 2004. Fundamentals of Electricity for Agriculture. 3rd
Edition, The American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, USA
Charles K. Alexander and Matthew N.O. Sadiku. 2013. Fundamentals of Electric Circuit. 5th
Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY