DC Circuits

OHM’S LAW
• Formulated by Georg Simon Ohm in 1827
• Describes the relationship between voltage,
current, and resistance

• Current – flow of charge

• Voltage – force that drives movement of
charge Source: Adapted from https://dlb.sa.edu.au/rehsmoodle/file.php/466/kpsec.freeuk.com/electron.htm

• Resistance – opposes the motion of charge

• The current is directly proportional to the

potential difference and inversely
proportional to the resistance of a circuit.

Source: Adapted from https://www.circuitbread.com/tutorials/ohms-law-tutorial-with-easy-practice-problems

 𝑉
𝐼= Voltage (volts, V)
𝑅

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
Current Resistance
(amperes, A) (ohms, Ω)

𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
Series DC Circuit

a connection, in which the resistances are

connected end-to-end so that there is only one
path for the current flow.

It = total current in the circuit

Et = total voltage or source applied to the circuit
Rt = total resistance of the circuit

Current relation: 𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3
Voltage relation: 𝐸𝑡 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3
Resistance relation: 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
Power relation: 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3
Examples:
Find the current of the given
series circuit:
Examples:
A 3-Ω, a 5-Ω, and a 4-Ω resistors are connected in series across battery. If the voltage drop across
the 3-Ω resistor is 6 V, find the total battery voltage.
Examples:
If the current drawn by a 7-Ω load across a 12-V battery is 1.6 A, solve the internal resistance of
the battery.
Parallel DC Circuit

a circuit connection, in which the

resistances are connected across each
other so that there are as many paths
for current to flow as to the number of
resistance

It = total current in the circuit

Et = total voltage or source applied to
the circuit
Rt = total resistance of the circuit

Current relation:
𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
Voltage relation:
𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3
Resistance:
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅1 −1 + 𝑅2 −1 + 𝑅3 −1 −1

Power relation:
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3
Examples:
Three resistors R1= 2 Ω, R2=3 Ω and R3 Ω are connected in parallel. The current drawn by R3 is 2
A. If the equivalent resistance of the parallel resistors is 1 ohm, what is the total current drawn
by these three resistors?
Examples:
An unknown resistance is connected in parallel with a 75-Ω resistance. If a total current of 0.8 A
flows when a 12-V battery is applied across the combination, find the value of the unknown
resistance. Neglect resistance of the battery.
Series-Parallel Circuits – the circuit is a combination
of series and parallel connections, but when
simplified the final circuit is a series circuit.

Parallel-Series Circuits – the circuit is combination

of series and parallel connections, but when
simplified the final circuit is a parallel circuit.
Find the total resistance and total current
of the given circuit:

𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
Given the same circuit, find the voltage
across R1, R2, and R3.

𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
AC Circuits
Two types of AC
- Single phase AC - Three phase AC
Fundamentals of a Sinusoidal Wave
Sinusoidal wave – an alternating wave whose magnitude is proportional to the trigonometric
sine function
Fundamentals of AC
Frequency - number of cycles that occur in one second. Unit of frequency is Hertz or cycles/sec

Period (T) – time taken in seconds for the wave to complete one cycle.
Fundamentals of a Sinusoidal Wave
y = instantaneous value
Am = amplitude or maximum value
w = angular velocity of the wave, radian/sec
(rps)
w = 2πf
f = frequency, in Hertz (Hz) or cycles per
second
t = time, in seconds (s)
Instantaneous value – magnitude of an
alternating quantity at any instant of time or
angle.
Examples:
A 25-Hz sinusoidal emf has a maximum value of 100 V. Solve the instantaneous value of the emf,
5 ms after the wave passes through zero in a positive direction.
Example:
An alternating current is given by 𝑖 = 10 sin 314𝑡. How long will it take to generate two cycles
of current?
Vector or Phasor Representations of an
Alternating Wave
Fundamental sine wave:
Vector or Phasor Representations of an
Alternating Wave
Leading sine wave:
Vector or Phasor Representations of an
Alternating Wave
Lagging sine wave:
AC Circuit Loads
❑Impedance - the effective resistance of an electric circuit or component to alternating current,
arising from the combined effects of ohmic resistance and reactance.

𝐸
𝑍=
𝐼

❑Reactance - is a measurement of capacitance and inductance's resistance to current

 AC Circuit Loads
❑Resistance
𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝐸𝑚
𝑅=
𝐼𝑚

Note: current passing thru the resistor is in phase with

voltage across the said resistor.
Example:
An AC circuit consist of a pure resistance of 10 Ω and is connected across a 230-V, 50-Hz source.
Solve the current and power consumed in watts.
 AC Circuit Loads
❑Inductance
𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 90

𝐸𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑒
𝑋𝐿 =
𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑖

𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿

Note: current passing thru the inductor is out of phase by 90

degrees (lagging) with voltage across the said resistor.
Example:
A pure inductive coil allows a current of 10 A to flow from a 230-V, 50-Hz supply. Find the
inductance of the coil.
 AC Circuit Loads
❑Capacitance
𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 90

𝐸𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑒
𝑋𝐶 =
𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑖

1
𝑋𝐶 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶

Note: current passing thru the capacitor is out of phase by 90

degrees (leading) with voltage across the said resistor.
Example:
A 318 μF capacitor is connected across a 230-V, 50-Hz system. Determine the value of the current.
AC Circuit Loads
❑Series RLC circuit:

𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶
OR
𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 2
Examples:
A series RLC circuit contains R = 25 Ω, L = 0.08 H and a capacitor C. The circuit is connected across
a 200-V, 50-Hz supply. If the current drawn is 4 A leading, solve the value of C.
Examples:
A series RLC circuit has a current which lags the applied voltage by 30º. The inductor voltage is 10
V and the capacitor voltage is 5 V. If the resistance R is 20 Ω and w = 1000 rad/s, find the value of
L.
AC Circuit Loads
❑Parallel RLC circuit:

1
𝑍𝑡 =
1 1 1
+ +
𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑍3
OR
𝑍𝑡 = 𝑍1 −1 + 𝑍2 −1
+ 𝑍3 −1 −1
Complex Powers
True Power (P) – the power which is actually
consumed in the circuit. This power is consumed
only in the resistance. Sometimes called Active
Power.
Reactive Power (Q) – the power consumed in
the inductor or capacitor during a quarter of the
cycle is returned to the source in the next
quarter cycle. This circulating power (back and
forth) reacts upon itself. Therefore, the unit
reactive volt-ampere arise.
Apparent Power (S) - the product of voltage and
current, VA (complex power).
Complex Powers
❑Power factor - is an expression of energy
efficiency
𝑃
𝑝𝑓 = cos 𝜃 =
𝑆

❑Real power:
𝑃 = 𝑆 𝑝𝑓
❑Reactive power:
𝑄 = 𝑆 sin 𝜃
❑Complex/Apparent power:
𝑆 = 𝐸𝐼
Power Factor
❑Power factor has been used to measure how efficiently electrical equipment utilizes the
amount of power supplied to it.
❑The higher the power factor, the better the equipment's performance. Equipment with low
power factor means that power has not been efficiently used and hence power losses occur.
❑Direct current has no power factor because it is accompanied by zero frequency.
❑For alternating current voltages, power factor is a norm and ranges between zero and one,
where one is the perfect system, and zero is the bad system.
Power Factor
❑Poor power factor means the system is drawing more power from the source for it to do the
same quantity of work, and therefore, a larger cable is needed. This will increase the cost of
electrical installation more than usual.
❑When a power factor is too low, expect a penalty charge or a reactive power charge from the
electric company.
❑Sometimes poor power factor causes losses in equipment, for example, transformers, due to
high heat gains associated with it. It also leads to voltage drop, which interferes with the life
expectancy of some equipment.
❑The most common problem encountered is the lagging power factor. For poor power factor
correction, capacitors and sometimes inductors must be added to the circuit system. The
capacitors and the inductors will help realign the voltage and the current into the required
phase and convert the power factor to one or closer.
Examples:
A 240-V, 60 cycle source is connected to a coil of wire that has a resistance of 7.5 ohms and an
inductance of 0.0477 H. Solve the real power drawn.
Examples:
A resistance R and reactance L in series are connected to a 115-V, 60-Hz voltage supply.
Instruments are used to show that the reactor voltage is 75 V and the total power supplied to the
circuit is 190 W. Find L.
Examples:
Calculate the capacitance of a condenser to be connected in series with a 100-V, 80-W, lamp to
enable it to be used on a 200-V, 50-Hz supply.
Examples:
Two loads are connected in parallel to a source of emf whose voltage is (110 + j63.5) volts. If the
branch currents are I1 = (8 – j8) and I2 = (7.5 + j10), amps. Calculate the total real power drawn in
watts.
Examples:
Three single-phase loads are connected in parallel across a 1200-V, 60-Hz single-phase supply:
Load A: inductive load, 125 kVA at 0.28 pf; Load B: capacitive load, 10 kW and 40 kVAR; Load C:
resistive load of 15 kW. Solve the total current.