EECE 326-01

INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEMS
LECTURE 2: ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
COMPONENTS

BY:
PROF. AMIN

Slides by: Dr. Mahmoud Amin

ECE Dep., Manhattan College
Conductors and insulators

➢ Conductors
o Any material through which electrical current

flows easily. Most metals are good electrical

conductors, with silver the best and copper
second. Their atomic structure allows free
movement of the outer most orbital electrons.
Conductors and insulators

➢ Semiconductors
o Carbon is considered a semiconductor, conducting
less than metal conductors but more than insulators.
o In the same group are germanium and silicon,
which are commonly used for transistors and other
semiconductor components.
o Practically all transistors are made of silicon.
 Conductors and insulators

➢ Superconductors
o A property of certain materials for which the electrical resistance of
becomes exactly zero below a characteristic temperature.
o The electrical resistivity of a metallic conductor decreases gradually as the
temperature is lowered.
o However, in ordinary conductors such as copper and silver, this decrease is
limited by impurities and other defects.
o Even near absolute zero (0 K = -273oC), a real sample of copper shows
some resistance.
o In 1986, it was discovered that some ceramic materials have critical
temperatures above 90 K (−183 °C).
 Conductors and insulators

➢ Insulators
o Any material that resists or prevents the flow of electric charge, such as
electrons.
o The resistance of an insulator is very high, typically hundreds of mega ohms or
more.
o An insulator provides the equivalent of an open circuit with practically infinite
resistance and almost zero current.
o It is from a material with atoms in which the electrons tend to stay in their own
orbits and hence cannot conduct electricity easily.
o In addition, for applications requiring the storage of electric charge, as in
capacitors, a dielectric material must be used because a good conductor cannot
store any charge.
o An insulating material, such as glass, plastic, rubber, paper, air, or mica, is also
called dielectric, meaning it can store electric charge.
Resistors

➢ The resistor is a two terminal electrical component that

opposes the flow of either direct or alternating current,
employed to protect, operate, or control the circuit.
➢ It is a measure of how strongly a material opposes the
flow of electric current.
➢ The resistance of a wire conductor is directly
proportional to its length and inversely proportional to
𝑙
its cross sectional area. 𝑅 = 𝜌
𝐴
➢ Resistance changes with temperature and how it does is
indicated by a temperature coefficient with symbol
alpha (α). 𝑅𝑚 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇0 )
 Example

➢ At 20o Celsius, we get 12.5 volts across the load and

a total of 1.5 volts (0.75 + 0.75) dropped across
the wire resistance. If the temperature were to rise
to 35o Celsius, we could easily determine the change
of resistance for each piece of wire. Assuming the
use of copper wire (α = 0.004041) we get:

𝑅𝑚 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇0 )
 Resistor Limit Current

➢ In a typical application, a resistor is connected in series with an LED.

➢ Enough current flows to make the LED light up, but not so much that
the LED is damaged.
➢ You are now ready to calculate a value for the resistor used in series
with an LED.
➢ A typical LED requires a current of 10 mA and has a voltage of 2 V
across it when it is working.
➢ The power supply for the circuit is 9 V. What is the voltage across the
resistor? The answer is 9-2=7 V.
Capacitors

➢ A capacitor (formerly known as

condenser) is a passive electronic
component consisting of a pair of
conductors separated by a dielectric
(insulator).
➢ When there is a potential difference
(voltage) across the conductors, a static
electric field develops in the dielectric
that stores energy and produces a
mechanical force between the conductors.
𝑄 𝑑𝑞
➢ An ideal capacitor (C= or ) is
𝑉 𝑑𝑣
characterized by a single constant value,
capacitance, measured in farads.
 Capacitor Usage

➢ Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for

blocking direct current while allowing alternating
current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the
output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that
tune radios to particular frequencies and for many
other purposes.
➢ The effect is greatest when there is a narrow separation
between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor
conductors are often called "plates", referring to an
early means of construction.
➢ In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a
small amount of leakage current and also has an
electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown
voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an
undesired inductance and resistance.
➢ In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one
coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage
of one volt across the device.
Energy Storage

➢ Work must be done by an external influence to "move"

charge between the conductors in a capacitor.
➢ When the external influence is removed, the charge
separation persists in the electric field and energy is
stored to be released when the charge is allowed to
return to its equilibrium position.
➢ The work done in establishing the electric field, and
hence the amount of energy stored, is given by:
𝑄 𝑄
𝑞 1 𝑄2 1 2 1
𝑊 = න 𝑉𝑑𝑞 = න 𝑑𝑞 = = 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑉𝑄
𝑞=0 𝑞=0 𝑐 2 𝐶 2 2
 Current-Voltage Relation

➢ The current i(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the
rate of flow of a charge q(t) passing through it, but actual charges,
electrons, cannot pass through the dielectric layer of a capacitor, rather an
electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one that leaves the
positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive
charge on one electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated
negative charge on the other.
➢ Thus the charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as
well as proportional to the voltage as discussed above.
➢ As with any antiderivative, a constant of integration is added to represent
the initial voltage v(t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation,
𝑞(𝑡) 1 𝑡
𝑣 𝑡 = = ‫ 𝜏𝑑 𝜏 𝑖 𝑡׬‬+ 𝑣(𝑡0 ).
𝐶 𝐶 0
➢ Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative
form,
𝑑𝑞(𝑡) 𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
𝑖 𝑡 = =𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 DC Circuits

➢ A series circuit containing only a resistor, a capacitor, a switch

and a constant DC source of voltage V0 is known as a
charging circuit.
➢ If the capacitor is initially uncharged while the switch is open,
and the switch is closed at t = 0, it follows from Kirchoff's
voltage law that
1 𝑡
𝑉0 = 𝑣𝑅 𝑡 + 𝑣𝐶 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑡 𝑅 + න 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝐶 0
➢ Taking the derivative and multiplying by C, gives a first-
order differential equation,
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
𝑅𝐶 +𝑖 𝑡 =0
𝑑𝑡
➢ At t = 0, the voltage across the capacitor is zero and the
voltage across the resistor is V0.
➢ The initial current is then i (0) =V0/R.
➢ With this assumption, the differential equation yields,
𝑉0
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏0 ; 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉0 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏0 )
𝑅
➢ Where 𝜏0 = 𝑅𝐶 is the time constant of the system.
 AC Circuits

➢ Impedance, the vector sum of reactance and resistance, describes the phase
difference and the ratio of amplitudes between sinusoidally varying voltage and
sinusoidally varying current at a given frequency.
➢ Fourier analysis allows any signal to be constructed from a spectrum of frequencies
whence the circuit's reaction to the various frequencies may be found. The
reactance and impedance of a capacitor are respectively
1 1 1 𝑗 𝑗
𝑋=− =− ;𝑍 = =− =−
𝜔𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝜔𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
➢ where j is the imaginary unit and ω is the angular velocity of the sinusoidal signal.
➢ The - j phase indicates that the AC voltage V = Z I lags the AC current by 90°: the
positive current phase corresponds to increasing voltage as the capacitor charges;
zero current corresponds to instantaneous constant voltage, etc.
➢ Note that impedance decreases with increasing capacitance and increasing
frequency.
➢ This implies that a higher-frequency signal or a larger capacitor results in a lower
voltage amplitude per current amplitude—an AC "short circuit" or AC coupling.
➢ Conversely, for very low frequencies, the reactance will be high, so that a capacitor
is nearly an open circuit in AC analysis—those frequencies have been "filtered
out".
 Equivalent Circuit

➢ An ideal capacitor only stores and releases electrical energy, without dissipating any.
➢ In reality, all capacitors have imperfections within the capacitor's material that create
resistance.
➢ This is specified as the equivalent series resistance or ESR of a component.
➢ This adds a real component to the impedance:
1
𝑅𝐶 = 𝑍 + 𝑅𝐸𝑆𝑅 = + 𝑅𝐸𝑆𝑅
𝑗𝜔𝐶
➢ As frequency approaches infinity, the capacitive impedance
(or reactance) approaches zero and the ESR becomes significant.
➢ As the reactance becomes negligible, power dissipation approaches
𝑃𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 2/𝑅𝐸𝑆𝑅
➢ Similarly to ESR, the capacitor's leads add equivalent series inductance or ESL to the
component. This is usually significant only at relatively high frequencies.
➢ As inductive reactance is positive and increases with frequency, above a certain
frequency capacitance will be canceled by inductance. High-frequency engineering
involves accounting for the inductance of all connections and components.
 Capacitor Types

➢ Practical capacitors are available commercially in Multilayer ceramic,

many different forms. ceramic disc, multilayer
➢ The type of internal dielectric, the structure of the polyester film, tubular
plates and the device packaging all strongly affect the ceramic, polystyrene,
characteristics of the capacitor, and its applications. metalized polyester film,
➢ Values available range from very low (PF range; while aluminum electrolytic.
arbitrarily low values are in principle possible, stray
(parasitic) capacitance in any circuit is the limiting
factor) to about 5 kF super capacitors.
➢ Above approximately 1 µF electrolytic capacitors are
usually used because of their small size and low cost
compared with other technologies, unless their
relatively poor stability, life and polarized nature
make them unsuitable.
➢ Very high capacity supercapacitors use a porous
carbon-based electrode material.
 Capacitor Markings

➢ Most capacitors have numbers printed on their bodies to indicate

their electrical characteristics.
➢ Larger capacitors like electrolytics usually display the actual
capacitance together with the unit (for example, 220 μF).
➢ Smaller capacitors like ceramics, however, use a shorthand consisting
of three numbers and a letter, where the numbers show the
capacitance in pF (calculated as XY x 10z for the numbers XYZ) and
the letter indicates the tolerance (J, K or M for ±5%, ±10% and
±20% respectively).
➢ Additionally, the capacitor may show its working voltage,
temperature and other relevant characteristics.
Example:
➢ A capacitor with the text 473K 330V on its body has a capacitance
of 47 x 103pF = 47 nF (±10%) with a working voltage of 330 V.
Applications of Capacitors

➢ Capacitors have many uses in electronic and

electrical systems. They are so common that it is a
rare electrical product that does not include at least
one for some purpose:
➢ Energy Storage
➢ Pulsed Power and Weapons
➢ Power Conditioning
➢ Power Factor Correction
➢ Noise filters and Snubbers 𝜀𝐴
➢ Motor Starters 𝐶=
𝑑
 Supercapacitors - Electric Double-Layer
Capacitors

➢ An electric double-layer capacitor (EDLC), also known as

supercapacitor, supercondenser, pseudocapacitor, electrochemical
double layer capacitor, or ultracapacitor, is an electrochemical
capacitor with relatively high energy density.
➢ Compared to conventional electrolytic capacitors the energy density
is typically on the order of thousands of times greater (capacities up
to 5,000 farads).
➢ In comparison with conventional batteries or fuel cells, EDLCs also
have a much higher power density.
 Passive Hybrid Active Hybrid

• On the other hand, super capacitors have a high power density

of 1000-5000W/kg and a very low energy density of 1-10
Wh/kg.
• In order to get the benefits of both, a hybrid Li-ion/super
capacitor storage system is utilized in this study to mitigate
pulse loads and use the batteries for relatively longer time for
supplying normal loads as well.
 Super capacitors are available in sizes up to 5000F
 WIMA - SCSRA1B200RB00MV00 - SUPERCAPACITOR, 400F, 2.5V
✓ $129.56
 WIMA - SCSRA1B200RB00MV00 - SUPERCAPACITOR, 200F, 2.5V
✓ $72.57

• Maxwell 2000F 2.7V Battery Back Up Capacitor K2 Series Ultra Capacitors

 Homework 2

1. Why the elements named as "conductors" conduct electricity

easily?
2. Express the resistance of a wire in terms of its length and
diameter.
3. No. 14 gage copper wire is used for house wiring. It's
weight is 18.5 gram/meter. It's resistance is 0.00827 Ω/m
at 20 o C. The temperature coefficient of copper is 0.004
/oC.
a. What will be the resistance of 10 m wire at 20 oC
and at 60 oC
b. How much is the voltage drop across the wire in the
above question if the current is 4 A at 20 oC and at
60 oC
 Homework 2

4. Explain the behavior of a capacitor in AC and DC

circuits.
5. Describe the capacitor marking commonly used in
identifying the capacitors with examples.
6. List applications of capacitors and mark the most
advanced one.
7. How you can select the proper capacitor for a
given application?
8. What is a supercapacitor and how it differs from a
regular electrolytic capacitor?