BY CYNTHIA MWANSA OBJECTIVES • Sources of A.C. currents • Define the R.M.S. current and voltage • Resistor and capacitors in A.C. circuits • Circuits containing inductors • RLC series circuits • Resonance in RLC circuits • Power in A.C. circuits • Function of a transformer AC SOURCES An AC circuit consists of circuit elements and a power source that provides an alternating voltage ∆v. This time-varying voltage is described by
∆v = ∆Vmax sin ꞷt
where ∆Vmax is the maximum output voltage of the AC source, or the voltage amplitude. The angular frequency of the AC voltage is 2π ꞷ = 2π𝑓 = 𝑇 where f is the frequency of the source and T is the period. The source determines the frequency of the current in any circuit connected to it. Commercial electric-power use a frequency of 60 Hz, which corresponds to an angular frequency of 377 rad/s. AC SOURCE IS SINUSOIDAL The voltage supplied by an AC source is sinusoidal with a period T. The voltage is positive during one half of the cycle and negative during the other half, as in Figure below. Because the output voltage of an AC source varies sinusoidally with time,. Likewise, the current in any circuit driven by an AC source is an alternating current that also varies sinusoidally with time. A.C. CIRCUIT EPERESENTATION Consider a simple AC circuit consisting of a resistor and an AC source. At any instant, the algebraic sum of the voltages around a closed loop in a circuit must be zero (Kirchhoff’s loop rule). Therefore, ∆v + ∆vR = 0, so that the magnitude of the source voltage equals the magnitude of the voltage across the resistor: SYMBOLS AND ILLUSTRATION INSTANTANEOUS VOLTAGE AND CURRENT The magnitude of the voltage across the resistor is: ∆v = ∆vR = ∆Vmax sin ꞷt where ∆vR is the instantaneous voltage across the resistor. The instantaneous current in the resistor is:
where Imax is the maximum current:
Hence, the instantaneous voltage across the resistor is
Ohm’s Laws in Resistor Ohm’s law for an ac circuit is :
∆𝑽𝑹 = 𝑰𝑹
That is; rms voltage across a resistor is equal to
the rms current in the circuit times the resistance. RELATION BETWEEN I AND R IN AC CIRCUITS PLOT OF V AND I VERSUS TIME IN A.C. CIRCUITS
• At point a, the current has a maximum value in one direction, arbitrarily called the positive direction. Between points a and b, the current is decreasing in magnitude but is still in the positive direction. • At b, the current is momentarily zero; it then begins to increase in the negative direction between points b and c. At c, the current has reached its maximum value in the negative direction. • The current and voltage are in step with each other because they vary identically with time. Because iR and ∆vR both vary as sin ꞷt and reach their maximum values at the same time, as shown in the Figure above and are said to be in phase POWER IN A.C. CIRCUIT An alternating voltage from a generator is given by :
∆𝒗 = ∆𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒕
The power in a resistor connected in an A.C. circuit is given by
𝑷 = 𝒊𝟐 𝑹
Note : The current and voltage in an A.C. circuit are in phase and reach there maximum values at the same time R.M.S VALUES OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT The rms (root mean square) current is the direct current that would dissipate the same amount of energy in a resistor as it is dissipated by the actual alternating current.
𝐼𝑚 𝐼= = 0.707𝐼𝑚 2
Similarly rms. voltage is :
∆𝑉𝑚 ∆𝑉 = = 0.707𝑉𝑚 2 EXAMPLE 1 PURELY RESISTIVE CIRCUIT An ac voltage source has an output of ∆v= 200V sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 . This source is connected to a 100 - Ω resistor.
(a)Find the rms current in the resistor.
(b)Find the maximum current in the circuit.
SOLUTION The general form equation is ∆v = ∆Vmax sinꞷt, hence ∆Vmax = 200 V. Thus, the rms voltage is
And the rms current is
ELECTRIC FIELDS AND CANCER TREATMENT • The alternating electric fields are thought to affect the process of mitosis, which is the dividing of the cell nucleus into two sets of identical chromosomes. • Alternating electric fields produced by alternating currents in the range of 100 kHz can disrupt the cell division cycle, either by slowing the division or by causing a dividing cell to disintegrate. • Electric field therapy is especially promising for the treatment of brain tumors because healthy brain cells don’t divide and therefore would be unharmed by the alternating electric fields. Research on such therapy is on-going. INDUCTOR IN A.C. CIRCUIT Inductance is a measure of how much opposition a coil offers to a change in the current in the coil. Model of Inductor Circuit is Illustrated below.
(a) Plots of the instantaneous current iL and instantaneous voltage ∆vL across an inductor as functions of time. The current lags behind the voltage by 90°. (b) Phasor diagram for the inductive circuit, showing that the current lags behind the voltage by 90° INDUCTORS IN A.C. CIRCUIT The voltage and current in inductor in a.c. circuit are out of phase due to aback emf in the coil:
∆𝑰 ∆𝒗𝑳 = 𝑳 ∆𝒕
The Inductive reactance Dividing potential difference by charge gives
𝑿𝑳 ≡ 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑳
Ohm’s law for voltage across inductor is:
∆𝑽𝑳 = 𝑰𝑿𝑳
An inductor is a component that allows DC, but not AC, to flow through it. The inductor stores electrical energy in the form of magnetic energy APPLICATION OF INDUCTORS The airport detector
An airport metal detector contains a large coil of wire around the frame. This coil has a property called inductance. When a passenger carries metal through the detector, the inductance of the coil changes, and the change in inductance signals an alarm to sound. EXAMPLE 2 Purely Inductive Circuit
In a purely inductive ac circuit, L = 25.0 mH and the rms voltage is 150V.
(i)Find the inductive reactance and rms current in the circuit if the frequency is 60.0 Hz.
(ii) Calculate the inductive reactance and rms current in the circuit if the frequency is 60 kHz.
Solution (i) (ii) CAPACITOR IN A.C. CIRCUIT
(a) A circuit consisting of a capacitor of capacitance C connected to an AC source.
RELATION BETWEEN Ic AND ∆Vc IN AC CIRCUITS
(a) Plots of the instantaneous current iC and instantaneous voltage ∆vC across a capacitor as functions of time. The voltage lags behind the current by 90°.
(b) Phasor diagram for the capacitive circuit, showing that the current leads the voltage by 90 Capacitive Reactance in A.C. circuit The resistance due to the capacitor is called capacitive reactance and is given by: 𝟏 𝑿𝒄 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪
The current in capacitor in a.c. circuit are out of phase due to a fact that it lags behind the voltage Ohm’s law for voltage across Capacitor is: ∆𝑽𝑪 = 𝑰𝑿𝑪 EXAMPLE 3 PURELY CAPCITIVE CIRCUIT An 8.00µF capacitor is connected to the terminals of an ac generator with an rms voltage of 150 V and frequency of 60.0 Hz . Find the (i) capacitive reactance and (ii) the rms current in the circuit SOLUTION ꞷ = 2πf = 2π x 60Hz = 377 /s THE SERIES RLC CIRCUIT The RLC Series circuit comprises all three circuit elements, Resistor, Capacitor and Inductor INSTANTANEOUS VOLTAGE ACROSS RESISTOR, CAPACITOR AND INDUCTOR
The instantaneous voltages across the three circuit elements as
The instantaneous voltage ∆v across the three elements equals the sum IMPEDANCE IN RLC CIRCUITS The voltage and current in inductor in a.c. circuit are out of phase due to a back emf in the coil: ∆𝑽 = ∆𝑽𝟐𝒓 + (∆𝑽𝒍 − ∆𝑽𝒄 )𝟐
By using Ohm’s Law for different elements we can get 𝑽 = 𝑰 𝑹𝟐 + (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 )𝟐
From which we define impedance as:
𝒁≡ 𝑹𝟐 + (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 )𝟐 PHASE ANGLE RLC CIRCUITS The phase angle ∅, between the current and voltage RLC circuits is :
𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 𝒕𝒂𝒏 ∅ = 𝑹 From Pythagorean theorem An impedance triangle for a series RLC circuit 𝒁= 𝑹𝟐 + (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 )𝟐 gives the relationship PHASE ANGLES IN RLC CIRCUITS Illustration of phase angle in RLC ac circuits
The vector sum of the voltage amplitudes ∆VR, ∆VL , and ∆VC equals a phasor whose length is the maximum applied voltage ∆Vmax, and which makes an angle - with the current phasor Imax. The voltage phasors ∆VL and ∆VC are in opposite directions along the same line, so we can construct the difference phasor ∆VL - ∆VC, which is perpendicular to the phasor ∆VR. Overall Phase Angle in ac Circuit The phase angle in RLC circuits IMPEDANCE AND PHASE ANGLE IN RLC EXAMPLE 4 A series RLC circuit for which R=425 Ω, L=1.25 H, C = 3.50 µC, f= 60 Hz, and ∆V=150 V.
a) Determine the inductive reactance, the capacitive reactance, and the impedance of the circuit.
b) Find the maximum current in the circuit.
c) Find the phase angle between the current and voltage.
d) Find both the maximum voltage and the instantaneous voltage across each element. SOLUTION TO EXAMPLE 4 (a) (d)
(b)
(c) POWER IN AN ac CIRCUIT No power losses are associated with capacitors and pure inductors in an ac circuit. 𝟏 𝑷𝑬𝒄 = 𝑪(∆𝑽𝒎 )𝟐 𝟐 The capacitor charges in one cycle and discharges in the other cycle
𝟏 𝟐 𝑷𝑬𝑳 = 𝑳𝑰𝒎 𝟐 In an inductor the energy stored is returned in the circuit during the second cycle in ac circuit
In this way the capacitor and inductors in ac circuit does not dissipate energy
Only the Resistor Dissipates Energy in ac circuits
𝑷𝒂𝒗 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 RESONANCE IN A SERIES RLC CIRCUIT A series RLC circuit is said to be in resonance when current I is maximum. ∆𝑽 ∆𝑽 𝑰= = 𝒁 𝑹𝟐 + (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝒄 )𝟐 This shows that resonance occurs when current is maximum 𝟏 𝟐 𝑷 = 𝑳𝑰𝒎 𝟐 In an inductor the energy stored is returned in the circuit during the second cycle in ac circuit
In this way the capacitor and inductors in ac circuit does not dissipate energy
Only the Resistor Dissipates Energy in ac circuits
𝑷𝒂𝒗 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 RESONANCE IN A SERIES RLC CIRCUIT MAXIMUM RMS CURRENT FOR THREE DIFFERENT MAXIMUM RMS CURRENT FOR TWO RESISTANCE VALUES DIFFERENT RESISTANCE VALUES
(a) The rms current versus frequency for a series RLC circuit, for three values of R. The current reaches its maximum value at the resonance frequency ꞷ0. (b) Average power delivered to the circuit versus frequency for the series RLC circuit, for two values of R. TRANFORMER AND POWER TRANSMISION Ideal Transformer Circuit Diagram of Transformer
An ideal transformer consists of two coils wound on the same iron core. An alternating voltage ∆V1 is applied to the primary coil, and the output voltage ∆V2 is across the resistor of resistance R. RECTIFIERS AND FILTERS The process of converting alternating current to direct current is called rectification, and the converting device is called a rectifier. The diode acts as a half-wave rectifier because current is present in the circuit during only half of each cycle. A diode is a circuit element that conducts current in one direction only. • Rectifier connection • Filtered Rectified Wave
(a) A half-wave rectifier with an optional filter capacitor.
(b) Current versus time in the resistor. The solid curve represents the current with no filter capacitor, and the dashed curve is the current when the circuit includes the capacitor. FILTER CIRCUIT AND WAVE A plot of the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage as a function of the logarithm of angular frequency shows that at low frequencies ∆Vout is much smaller than ∆Vin, whereas at high frequencies the two voltages are equal. Because the circuit preferentially passes signals of higher frequency while blocking low-frequency signals, the circuit is called an RC high-pass filter. At low frequencies, the reactance of the capacitor and the voltage across the capacitor is high. As the frequency increases, the voltage across the capacitor drops. Thus, this is an RC low- pass filter. • Low Pass Filter • High Pass Filter RECTIFICATION OF A.C. CURRENT FULL WAVE RECTIFIER Smoothing is achieved by an RC circuit in electronics A full wave diode rectifier circuit is also possible when two or four diodes are connected. COMPARING ELECTRICITY AND MECHANICS REFERENCES
• Serway and Faughn,(1999), College Physics,5ed., Brooks/Cole-
Thompson Learning.
• Serway, Physics for Scientists and Engineers, e- Book.
• Fundamentals of Physics, David Halliday, Robert-Resnick, Jearl-
