7.

ALTERNATING CURRENT
INTERIORS OF TEXT BOOK
1. Define rms value of a.c.
The rms value of alternating current is defined as that value of the steady current,
which when passed through a resistor for a given time, will generate the same
amount of heat as generated by an alternating current when passed through the
same resistor for the same time.
Io
Formula: Irms = = 0.707 Io Io – maximum current
√2
2. A capacitor blocks dc but allows ac. Why?
The capacitive reactance for a capacitor depends inversely on the frequency of the
supply and the value of capacitance. As the frequency is zero for the case of dc the
capacitive reactance becomes infinite. But for ac the capacitor has a finite resistance
to offer. Hence the capacitor blocks dc and allows to pass through itself.
1 1
XC = =
ωC 2πvC
For dc ν=0
1
Hence XC = = ∞
0
3. Write any four advantages of ac over dc.
Advantages of ac over dc:
➢ The generation of ac is found to be economical than that of dc.
➢ The alternating voltages can easily be stepped up or stepped down using a
transformer.
➢ The alternating voltages can be transmitted over long distances at a very small loss
of electric power.
➢ Alternating voltages can be regulated using choke coils.
➢ The frequency of ac voltage can be changed by changing the speed of the coil in the
ac generator.
➢ Further ac can be easily converted into dc.
4. Define inductive reactance.
The resistance offered by a coil or inductor is called inductive reactance.
Formula: XL = ωL
Unit : ohm
5. Define capacitive reactance.
The resistance offered by a capacitor in a circuit.
1
Formula: XC =
ωC
Unit : ohm ( Ω )
6. What are the disadvantages of a.c.
Disadvantages of a.c.:
➢ High value of a.c. currents cannot be easily produced.
➢ For operating electronic devices a.c. cannot be used as they work on d.c.
7. How can XL and Xc be used to differentiate between a capacitive and an
inductive circuit?
If XC > XL, Φ is positive and the circuit is predominantly capacitive. Consequently, the
current in the circuit leads the source voltage.
If XC < XL, Φ is negative and the circuit is predominantly inductive. Consequently, the
current in the circuit lags the source voltage.
8. How can you obtain wattles current in the circuit?
A wattless current is obtained by pure inductive or pure capacitive circuit.
9. The emf induced across the ends of a coil rotating in a uniform magnetic field
is given as ε = 242 sin 100 πt volts. Here t is in seconds. How many rotations
dues the coil make per second?
V = 242 sin 100πt
Here ω = 100π
ω
ν = = 50 rps.
2π
10. In a series RL circuit, voltage across resistance is 80 V and across L is 60 V.
What is applied voltage?
V = √VR 2 + VL 2 = √802 + 602 = 100V.
11. A power transmission line feeds input power of 33 MW at 3300 V to a step
down transformer with its primary winding having 3000 turns. What should
be the number of turns in the secondary in order to get output power at 220
V?
Pi = 33 MW
VI = 3300V
Ni = 3000
No = ?
V0 No
=
Vi Ni
220
No = x 3000 = 200
3300
12. When an alternating current is passed through a moving coil galvanometer, it
shows no deflection. Why?
A moving coil galvanometer measures average value of current, which is zero for a.c.
Hence, no deflection is shown by galvanometer.
13. Can we define rms value of a.c. in terms of the chemical effect of current?
We cannot do so because chemical effects will get reversed when direction of
current is reversed.
14. Why is 220 V a.c. more dangerous than 220 V d.c.?
a.c. of same voltage is more dangerous than d.c. because peak voltage for a.c. is
more.
15. The frequency of a.c. is doubled. How do R, XL and XC get affected?
(i) R remains unaffected.
𝑙
(ii) XL gets doubled, because XL ∝ f (iii) XC ∝ 𝑓, so XC becomes one – half.
16. How much is the phase difference between the applied a.c. voltage and current
in the LCR circuit at resonance?
zero.
17. When current flowing in an inductive circuit is switched off, will the induced
current be in the direction of main current or in opposite direction ?
Induced current is in the same direction as the main current.
18. A capacitor of capacitive reactance 100 Ω is put across an alternating voltage
V= 200 sin 100t volts. Write an expression for the current in the circuit.
XC = 100Ω
200
∴ IO = 100 = 2A
As in capacitor current leads voltage
𝜋
∴ I = 2 sin (100𝑡 + 2 )
19. How can the power factor of a series LCR circuit be improved? Suggest any one
method.
By connecting a capacitor in parallel in the mains.
20. How does electric resistance differ from reactance?
Electrical resistance does not depend on frequency of current but reactance does.
21. A 16 Hz a.c. is passed through a bulb. Does the bulb glow continuously?
Yes, it glows continuously. Fluctuations in current will be too rapid (32 times per
second) to be noticed by an eye (due persistence of vision).
22. Give the phase difference between the applied a.c. voltage and the current in
an LCR circuit, at resonance.
The phase difference between the applied a.c. voltage and the current in a series
LCR circuit at resonance is zero.
23. What is p.f of LCR circuit at resonance?
Power factor (p.f.)of LCR circuit as resonance is equal to 1.
24. Calculate the r.m.s. value of the alternating current shown in the figure

The r.m.s value of the alternating current shown in the figure is 2A.
25. An ideal inductor is in turn put across 220 V, 50 Hz and 220 V, 100 Hz supplies.
Will the current flowing through it in the two cases be the same or different?
Current in the same inductor in the two cases will be different.
26. In a series LCR circuit, the voltages across an inductor, capacitor and resistor
are 40 V, 20 V and 20 V respectively. What is the total voltage operative across
the combination ?
Total voltage across the combination.
V = √𝑉𝑅2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 )2
With VL = 40 volts, VC = 20volts ∝
And VR = 20 volts.
V = √(20)2 + (40 − 20)2 = 20√2 volt.
27. What is the phase difference between the voltage across an inductor and a
capacitor in an ac circuit?
Phase difference = 180°.
28. Draw a labeled diagram of a step – down transformer. Mention two sources of
energy losses in a transformer.
Energy losses (i) Flux loss (ii)Hysteresis loss (iii)Huming sound loss

29. The instantaneous voltage from an a.c. source is given by E = 300 sin 314 t.
What is the rms voltage of the source?
Here, E = 300 sin sin 314 t
⟹ Eo = 300 V [As E = Eo sin ωt]
𝐸𝑜
∴ Erms = = 212.1 V
√2
30. Draw a graph to show the variation of capacitive reactance with frequency of
an a.c. source.

31. What is the power dissipation in an a.c. circuit in which voltage and current
are given by : V = 300 sin (ωt + π/2) and I = 5 sin ωt ?
 Zero as Pav = IvEv cos Φ
Here Φ = π/2. Thus Pav = 0
32. A bulb and a capacitor are connected in series to an a.c. source of variable
frequency. How will the brightness of the bulb change on increasing the
frequency of the a.c. source? Give reason.
1
Brightness will increase (∵ 𝑋𝐶 ∝𝑣)
33. In a series LCR circuit, the voltage across an inductor, capacitor and resistor
are 20 V, 20 V and 40 V respectively. What is the phase difference between
applied voltage and the current in the circuit?
0
34. What is the power dissipated in an a.c. circuit in which voltage and current are
𝝅
given by V = 230 sin (𝝎𝒕 + 𝟐 ) and I = 10 sin ωt ?
𝜋
zero [voltage is leading the current by 2 ]
35. When a lamp is connected to an alternating voltage supply, it lights with the
same brightness as when connected to a 12 V DC battery. What is the peak
value of alternating voltage source?
Vm = √2 ×12 = 17 volt
36. Peak value of emf of an a.c. source is E0. What is its r.m.s value?
No. change in brightness.
37. A solenoid with an iron core and a bulb are connected to a d.c. source. How
does the brightness of the bulb change, when the iron core removed from the
solenoid?
Eo
Erms =
√2
38. Find the capacitance of the capacitor that would have a reactance of 100 ohm
when used with an a.c. source of frequency (5/π) kHz.
5
XC = 100 Ω; f = 𝜋 kHz
1
XC =
2πfC
1 1
C = 2πfX = 2×5×103×102
C
= 10–6 Farad.
39. Find the inductance of the inductor that would have a reactance of 50 ohm
𝟐𝟓
when used with an a.c. source of frequency ( 𝝅 ) kHz.
XL = 2πvL
50×10−3
L= 25 = 10-3 H
2𝜋×( )
𝜋
40. Prove mathematically that the average value of alternating current over one
complete cycle is zero.
The, average value of alternating current over one complete cycle,
1 T I T
Ia = T ∫0 I0 sin ωt dt = T0 ∫0 sin ωt dt
I cos ωt T I
= T0 − |− | = − T0 |cos ωt|T0
ω 0
I 2π 2π
= − ωT
0
[cos × T − cos × 0]
T T
I I
= − ωT (cos 2π − cos 0) = − ωT (1 − 1) = 0
41. Distinguish between resistance reactance and impedance for an a.c. circuit.
Resistance. The resistance of an a.c. circuit is the ohmic resistance offered by a
conductor connected in the circuit. It is due to the nature of the material (resistivity)
of the conductor.
Reactance. The reactance of an a.c. circuit is the resistance offered by an inductor or
a capacitor connected in a circuit. It arises because of the fact that the alternating
 e.m.f. and the current differ in phase by 𝜋/2, when a.c. flows through an inductor or
a capacitor.
Inductance. The impedance of an a.c. circuit is the effective resistance offered by
the LR-circuit or CR-circuit or LCR-circuit.
42. The frequency of a.c. source is doubled. How do R, XL and XC ger affected?
There is no effect of doubling the frequency of the a.c. source on R.
Since, XL = 2  f L, the value of XL becomes double on doubling the frequency of the
a.c. source.
1
Further, XC = 2  𝑓 C
Therefore, the value of XC becomes half on doubling the frequency of the a.c. source.
43. Draw the graph showing the variation of reactance of (a) a capacitor and (b)
an inductor with the frequency of an a.c. circuit.
(a) Reactance of a capacitor,
1
XC = 2  𝑓 C
1
or XC 
𝑓
Graph between f and XC will be as shown in Fig.
(b) Reactance of an inductor,
XL = 2  f L
or XL  f
Graph between f and XL will be as shown in fig.

44. A lamp is connected in series with an inductor to a d.c. source. What will
happen to its glow, when it is connected directly to the same source? Explain
your answer?
The reactance of an inductor is zero for d.c. Therefore, current through the lamp will
be same, whether the inductor is connected or not. Hence, there will be no change
in the glow of the lamp.
45. A lamp is connected in series with a capacitor to a high frequency a.c. source.
How will the glow of the lamp change, when it is connected directly to the
same source? Explain your answer.
The brilliance of the lamp depends upon the current through the bulb. Let R be the
resistance of the filament of the lamp and C, the capacitance of the capacitor. Then,
current through the lamp,
E
IV =
√R2 +1/ω2 C2
When the lamp is connected directly to the same source, current through the lamp,
E
Iv =
R
Since Iv > Iv , The lamp will glow more brightly on connecting it directly to the
source.
46. A lamp is connected in series with a capacitor. Predict your observations for
d.c. and a.c. connections. What happens in each case, if the capacitance of the
capacitor is reduced?
When a lamp is connected to d.c. lines through the capacitor, it will be an open
circuit. It is because, a capacitor acts as a block for d.c. (XC = ). Therefore, lamp will
not glow, even if C is reduced.
When the lamp is connected to a.c. through the capacitor, the lamp will glow. It is
because, a capacitor has finite reactance for a.c. On reducing C, reactance due to the
 capacitor (XC = I/C) will increase. Since current becomes lesser, the lamp will shine
less brightly.
47. An alternating current of frequency f is applied across a series LCR-circuit. Let
fr be resonance frequency for the circuit. Will the current in the circuit lag,
lead or remain in phase with the applied voltage, when (i) f > f r and (ii) f < fr?
Explain your answer in each case.
We know that
XL = 2  f L i.e. XL  f
1 1
And XC = 2  𝑓 𝐶 i.e. XC  𝑓
As the frequency f is increased, XL increases and XC decreases. At the resonance
frequency fr, XL becomes equal to XC.
(i) When f > fr: Then XL will be greater than XC i.e. the circuit will be inductive in
nature. Therefore, current will lag behind the voltage.
(ii) When f < fr: The value of XL is less than XC i.e. the circuit will be capacitive in
nature. Therefore, current will lead the voltage.
48. Explain the importance of power factor.
The average power, P = Ev Iv cos 
For operating an electric appliance, the power factor of the electric circuit is kept as
low as possible. It is done so as to make the power consumption in the circuit low.
On the other hand, when power is to be transmitted, the power factor is made as
large as possible.
P
Since Iv =
Ev cos 
The large value of power factor will reduce current and hence dissipation of electric
energy in the form of heat along the line wires will be low.
49. Which is more dangerous in use: a.c. or d.c.? Explain, why.
The a.c. is more dangerous than d.c. of the same voltage. It is because, the peak value
of a.c.is more than the indicated value.
For example, a 220 V a.c. has a peak value of 220 x 2 V  311 V, whereas peak value
of a 220 d.c. is same i.e. 220 V.
50. The power factor of an a.c. circuit is 0.5. What will be the phase difference
between voltage and current in this circuit?
𝜋
( ∵ cos Φ = 0.5)
3
51. Why is resonance not possible in a RL and RC circuit?
Resonance phenomenon is exhibited by a circuit only if both L and C are present in
the circuit. Only then do the voltages across L and C cancel each other (both being
out of phase) and the current amplitude is vm/R, the total source voltage appearing
across R. This means that we cannot have resonance in a RL or RC circuit.
52. How does the value of Φ affect the various types of circuits?
Case (i) Resistive circuit: If the circuit contains only pure R, it is called resistive. In
that case Φ= 0, cos Φ= 1. There is maximum power dissipation.
Case (ii) Purely inductive or capacitive circuit: If the circuit contains only an inductor
or capacitor, we know that the phase difference between voltage and current is π/2.
Therefore, cos Φ= 0, and no power is dissipated even though a current is flowing in
the circuit. This current is sometimes referred to as wattless current.
Case (iii) LCR series circuit: In an LCR series circuit Φ= tan-1 (Xc – XL )/ R. So, Φmay
be non-zero in a RL or RC or RCL circuit. Even in such cases, power is dissipated only
in the resistor.
Case (iv) Power dissipated at resonance in LCR circuit: At resonance Xc – XL= 0, and
Φ= 0. Therefore, cos Φ = 1 and P = I 2Z = I 2 R. That is, maximum power is dissipated
in a circuit (through R) at resonance.
53. The frequency of a.c. circuit is being increased. Explain the effect of current in
each case.

(a) As frequency of a.c. is increased; R remain unchanged. Hence current will not
change.
(b) As frequency of a.c. is increased, XL starts increasing. Hence current will
decrease.
(c) As frequency of a.c. is increased, XC starts decreasing. Hence current will
increase.
54. How will you use a 100 V – 50 W bulb on 200 V a.c. mains?
V2
Resistance of the bulb (R) = = 200 Ω
P
50
Maximum value of current that can pass through the bulb (I) = 100 = 0.5 A. In order
to pass 0.5 amp current at 200 volt the resistance of the circuit must be 400 Ω. Thus,
resistance of 200 Ω is required to be connected in series with the bulb.
55. Devices A and B are connected independently to a variable frequency
alternating voltage source as shown. The current in A is ahead of the applied
voltage whereas it lags behind the voltage B.

(i) Identify the devices A and B.

(ii) How will the current in each of these devices change on decreasing the
frequency of the applied voltage? Give reason to support your answer in each
case.
(i) device A is a capacitor. Device B is an inductor. (ii) On decreasing the frequency
of applied voltage. Current through device A decreases because
1 1
XC ∝ 𝛾 and I ∝ 𝑋
𝐶
1
Current through device B increases because XL ∝ γ and I ∝ 𝑋
𝐿
56. An electric lamp can be used with both a.c. and d.c. but a.c. fan cannot be used
with d.c. Why?
Electric lamp works on heating effect of current which is independent of the
direction of current. Fan works on the magnetic effect which depends upon the
direction of flow of current.
57. When a capacitor is connected in series with a series L-R circuit, the
alternating current flowing in the circuit increases. Explain why?
The current in an a.c. circuit is determined by the impedance. When a capacitor is
connected in series with a series of L.R. circuit, the impedance of the circuit will
decrease because Z = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 now. Due to decrease is impedance current
in the circuit will increase.
58. State the conditions under which the phenomenon of resonance occurs in a
series LCR circuit. Plot a graph showing variation of current with frequency of
a.c. source in a series LCR circuit.
On increasing frequency inductive reactance (XL) increases and capacitive reactance
(XC) decreases. For a particular value of frequency XL and XC become equal. This
frequency is known as resonance frequency and LCR circuit is said to be in
resonance.
As XL = XC
1
2πvrL = 2𝜋𝑣 𝐶
𝑟
1
vr = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
59. Mention the factors on which the resonant frequency of a series LCR circuit
depends. Plot a graph showing variation of impedance of a series LCR circuit
with the frequency of the applied a.c. source.
Resonant frequency depends upon the value of inductor (L) and capacitor (C)

60. Write an expression for frequency of an ideal LC circuit. In an actual circuit,

why do the oscillations ultimately die away?
1
v = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
In actual circuit we do not find ideal inductor and capacitor. Always there is some
resistance. Thus power gets dissipated due to resistance.
61. Explain the principle on which the metal detector used at airports for security
reason works.
Metal detector works on the principle of resonance in ac circuits. Metal detector is in
fact a coil of many turns connected to a capacitor turned to resonance. When a
person walks through it with a metal impedance of the circuit changes. Change in
impedance changes current in the circuit. Change in current is reversed by an
electronic circuit which emits a sound as an alarm.
62. (i) Draw the graphs showing variation of inductive reactance and capacitive
reactance with frequency of applied a.c. source.
(ii) Can the voltage drop across the inductor or the capacitor in a series LCR
circuit be greater than the applied voltage of the a.c. source? Justify your
answer.
(i)

(ii) Yes, it can be. In series same amount of current passes through each component.
We have Z2 = R2 + (XL – XC)2. As it is the net reactance which is less than ‘Z’,
individually XL or XC might be more than ‘Z’.
63. If the frequency of the a.c. source in a LCR series circuit is increased, how does
the current in the circuit change?
With increase in frequency, current in a.c. circuit first increases, attains a maximum
value (at resonant frequency) and then decreases.
64. What role does the resistance of inductor play in LC-circuit?
Due to the resistance of the inductor, the LC – oscillations produced are damped
one. It is because, during each oscillation, a part of electric energy is dissipated in
the form of heat energy.
65. What is wattless current?
If the phase angle between e.m.f. (Ev) and current (Iv) is , then the component Iv
sin is called wattless current. It is because, the component Iv sin does not
contribute to the electric power of the circuit.
66. Why cannot transformer work on d.c.?
Or
A transformer cannot be used to step up d.c. voltage. Why?
If d.c. voltage is applied across the primary coil of a transformer, then the magnetic
flux linked with the coil will not vary with time and hence no induced e.m.f. will be
produced in the secondary circuit.
67. An alternating voltage of frequency f is applied across a series LCR circuit. Let
fr be the resonance frequency for the circuit. Will the current in the circuit lag,
lead or remain in phase with the applied voltage when (i) f > fr , (ii) f < fr ?
Explain your answer in each case.
1
We know XL ∝ f and XC ∝ 𝑓
As ‘f’ increases XC decreases and XL increases. For a particular value of frequency
called resonance frequency (fr), XL becomes equal to XC. In case we keep on
increasing frequency after this XL becomes greater than XC.
(i) Hence for f > fr circuit turns inductive in nature and current lags behind the
voltage by certain phase angle.
(ii) For f < frcircuit is capacitive in nature as XC > XL and current leads the voltage by
certain phase angle.
68. Why can’t the LC oscillations be undamped?
➢ Every inductor has some resistance. The effect of this resistance is to introduce a
damping effect on the charge and current in the circuit and the oscillations finally
die away.
➢ Even if the resistance were zero, the total energy of the system would not remain
constant. It is radiated away from the system in the form of electromagnetic waves.
In fact, radio and TV transmitters depend on this radiation.
69. What is a transformer?
Transformer is an electrical device used for converting low alternating voltage into
high alternating voltage and vice versa. It transfers electric power from one circuit
to another. The transformer is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
70. In a step up transformer the primary current is more than that of the
secondary. Why?
A step up transformer increases the magnitude of the input primary voltage. As the
output voltage is greater than the input voltage the secondary current becomes
lesser than the primary current.
ES IP
= =k
EP IS
For a step up transformer k > 1. Hence 𝐸𝑆 > 𝐸𝑃 implying that 𝐼𝑆 < 𝐼𝑃 .
71. Define alternating current and give its expression.
Alternating current is defined as an electric current which is induced when a coil is
rotated in a uniform magnetic field. Since the induced current varies in magnitude
and direction periodically it is called alternating current.
Alternating current is given by, I = Io sin ωt
72. What is resonant frequency in LCR circuit?
The particular frequency νo at which the impedance of the circuit becomes
minimum and therefore the current becomes maximum is called resonant frequency
of the circuit. Its unit is hertz (Hz).
1
Formula: νo =
2π√LC
73. Define power factor.
Cosine of the phase angle between the total current and total voltage in an AC circuit
can be defined as power factor.
Pav
Formula: cos ø =
Erms Irms
74. What happens to the value of current in RLC series circuit, If frequency of the
source is increased?
When the frequency of the source is increased, the value of current in RLC circuit
will be increased. At the resonant frequency, the current will be maximum since the
impedance of the circuit is nearly zero. On further increase of the frequency, the
value of current decreases due to a finite impedance of the circuit.
75. Can a transformer be used for stepping up a dc?
The transformer cannot be used for stepping up a DC. When the primary of the
transformer is connected to DC there will be momentary current in the secondary
circuit as the current in the primary builds up to its final value. Afterwards the
primary current will be constant and there is no change of magnetic flux. Hence
there will be no current in the secondary of the transformer.
76. What are the types of transformers?
If the secondary coil has a greater number of turns than the primary (Ns > Np), the
voltage is stepped up(Vs > Vp). This type of arrangement is called a step-up
transformer.
If the secondary coil has less turns than the primary(Ns < Np), we have a step-down
transformer. In this case, Vs < Vp and Is > Ip. That is, the voltage is stepped down, or
reduced, and the current is increased.
77. Derive an expression for power developed in a resistive circuit.
The instantaneous power dissipated in the resistor is
p = i2R = i2m R sin2 ωt
The average value of power over a cycle is
P̅ =< i2 R > = < i2m Rsin2 ωt >
P̅ = i2m R < sin2 ωt >
sin2 ωt = 1/2 (1– cos 2ωt ),
Therefore < sin2 ωt > = (1/2) (1– < cos 2ωt >)
and since < cos2ωt > = 0
1
< sin2 ωt > = 2
1 2
Thus, 𝑃̅ = 𝑖𝑚 𝑅 (P = I2R)
2
To express ac power in the same form as dc power
(P = I2R), a special value of current called, root mean square (rms) or effective
current is used and denoted by Irms or I.
The rms current is defined by
1 𝑖𝑚
I = √𝑖̅2 =√2 𝑖𝑚
2 =
√2
= 0.707 im
Therefore the average power, denoted by P is
𝟏
P=𝒑̅ = 𝒊𝟐𝒎 𝑹 = 𝐼 2 𝑅
𝟐
78. Derive the phase relation between current and voltage in a resistive circuit.

Figure shows a resistor connected to a source ε of ac voltage. Consider a source

which produces sinusoidally varying potential difference across its terminals. Let
this potential difference, also called ac voltage, be given by
v=vm sinωt ------------------------- (1)
where vm is the amplitude of the oscillating potential difference and ω is its angular
frequency. To find the value of current through the resistor, we apply Kirchhoff’s
loop rule Σε(t) = 0, to the circuit shown in Fig. to get
𝑉
vm sin t = i R or i = 𝑅𝑚 sin t
 Since R is a constant, current is represented as
i = im sin ωt ----------------------- (2)
Where the current amplitude im is given by
𝑣
im = 𝑅𝑚 -----------------------(3)
Equation (3) is just Ohm’s law which for resistors works equally well for both ac and
dc voltages. The voltage across a pure resistor and the current through it, given by
Eqs. (1) and (2) are plotted as a function of time in Fig. Note, in particular that both v
and i reach zero, minimum and maximum values at the same time. Clearly, the
voltage and current are in phase with each other.
79. Derive the phase relation between current and voltage in an inductive circuit.

Figure shows an ac source connected to an inductor. Usually, inductors have

appreciable resistance in their windings, but we shall assume that this inductor has
negligible resistance. Thus, the circuit is a purely inductive ac circuit. Let the voltage
across the source be v = vm sinωt. Using the Kirchhoff’s loop rule, Σε (t) = 0, and
since there is no resistor in the circuit,
𝑑𝑖
v − L 𝑑𝑡 = 0 ----------------- (1)
where the second term is the self-induced Faraday emf in the inductor; and L is the
self-inductance of the inductor. The negative sign follows from Lenz’s law.
di v vm
= = sin t ---------------- (2)
dt L L
Equation (2) implies that the equation for i(t), the current as a function of time,
must be such that its slope di/dt is a sinusoidally varying quantity, with the same
phase as the source voltage and an amplitude given by vm/L. To obtain the current,
we integrate di/dt with respect to time:
𝑑𝑖 𝑣𝑚
∫ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 ∫ sin(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑣
𝑖 = − 𝑚𝐿 cos(𝑡) + constant
The integration constant has the dimension of current and is time independent.
Since the source has an emf which oscillates symmetrically about zero, the current it
sustains also oscillates symmetrically about zero, so that no constant or time-
independent component of the current exists. Therefore, the integration constant is
zero.
Using
𝜋
− 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡) = sin (𝑡 − 2 )
𝜋
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑚 sin (𝑡 − 2 )-------------------------- (3)

𝑣
𝑖𝑚 = 𝑚 is the amplitude of the current. The quantity ω L is analogous to the
𝐿
resistance and is called inductive reactance, denoted by XL:
XL = ω L ---------------------- (4)
The amplitude of the current is, then
𝑣
𝑖𝑚 = 𝑚𝐿
 The dimension of inductive reactance is the same as that of resistance and its SI unit
is ohm (Ω). The inductive reactance limits the current in a purely inductive circuit in
the same way as the resistance limits the current in a purely resistive circuit. The
inductive reactance is directly proportional to the inductance and to the frequency
of the current.
A comparison of Eqs. (1) and (2) for the source voltage and the current in an
inductor shows that the current lags the voltage by π/2 or one-quarter (1/4) cycle.
Figure (a) shows the voltage and the current phasors in the present case at instant
t1. The current phasor I is π/2 behind the voltage phasor V.
80. Derive an expression for voltage and current in ac circuit consisting of
capacitor only.

Figure shows an ac source ε generating ac voltage v = vm sin ωt connected to a

capacitor only, a purely capacitive ac circuit. When a capacitor is connected to a
voltage source in a dc circuit, current will flow for the short time required to charge
the capacitor. As charge accumulates on the capacitor plates, the voltage across
them increases, opposing the current. That is, a capacitor in a dc circuit will limit or
oppose the current as it charges. When the capacitor is fully charged, the current in
the circuit falls to zero. When the capacitor is connected to an ac source, as in Fig. , it
limits or regulates the current, but does not completely prevent the flow of charge.
The capacitor is alternately charged and discharged as the current reverses each
half cycle. Let q be the charge on the capacitor at any time t. The instantaneous
voltage v across the capacitor is
𝑞
𝑣=𝐶
From the Kirchhoff’s loop rule, the voltage across the source and the capacitor are
equal,
𝑞
𝑣𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 =
𝐶
𝑑𝑞
To find the current, we use the relation 𝑖 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑖= (𝑣𝑚 𝐶 sin 𝜔𝑡) = 𝜔𝐶𝑣𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

Using the relation, cos(𝜔𝑡) = sin (𝜔𝑡 + 2), we have

𝑖 = 𝑖𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 2)
where the amplitude of the oscillating current is im = ωCvm. We can rewrite it as
𝑣𝑚
𝑖𝑚 = (1/𝜔𝐶)
Comparing it to im= vm/R for a purely resistive circuit, we find that (1/ωC) plays the
role of resistance. It is called capacitive reactance and is denoted by Xc, Xc= 1/ωC
𝑣
so that the amplitude of the current is 𝑖𝑚 = 𝑋𝑚
𝐶
 The dimension of capacitive reactance is the same as that of resistance and its SI
unit is ohm (Ω). The capacitive reactance limits the amplitude of the current in a
purely capacitive circuit in the same way as the resistance limits the current in a
purely resistive circuit. But it is inversely proportional to the frequency and the
capacitance.
A comparison of equation of source voltage with that of the current it is found that
the current is π/2 ahead of voltage.
Figure (a) shows the phasor diagram at an instant t1. Here the current phasor I is
π/2 ahead of the voltage phasor V as they rotate counter clockwise. Figure (b)
shows the variation of voltage and current with time.
81. Prove analytically that the power developed in an inductive and capacitive
circuit is zero.
Power in an inductive circuit:
The instantaneous power supplied to the inductor is
𝜋
PL = 𝑖 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 − 2 ) × 𝑣𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡)
= −𝑖𝑚 𝑣𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡) sin(𝜔𝑡)
𝑖 𝑣
= − 𝑚2 𝑚 sin(2𝜔𝑡)
So, the average power over a complete cycle is
𝑖 𝑣
PL = 〈− 𝑚2 𝑚 sin(2 𝜔𝑡)〉
𝑖 𝑣
= − 𝑚2 𝑚 〈sin(2 𝜔𝑡)〉 = 0
Since the average of sin (2ωt) over a complete cycle is zero.
Thus, the average power supplied to an inductor over one complete cycle is zero.
Power in a capacitive circuit:
The instantaneous power supplied to the capacitor is
PC = i v = im cos(t)vmsin(t)
= imvmcos(t)sin(t)
𝑖 𝑣
= 𝑚2 𝑚 sin (2t)
So, as in the case of an inductor, the average power
𝑖 𝑣 𝑖 𝑣
Pc = 〈 𝑚 𝑚 sin (2t)〉 = 𝑚 𝑚 〈sin (2t)〉 = 0
2 2
Since 〈sin (2t)〉 = 0
82. How will you prove that the power developed in an inductive circuit is zero?
When a complete cycle of ac current passes through a inductor then the following
changes can be seen:
 0-1 Current i through the coil entering at A increase from zero to a maximum value.
Flux lines are set up i.e., the core gets magnetised. With the polarity shown voltage
and current are both positive. So their product p is positive.
ENERGY IS ABSORBED FROM THE SOURCE.

1-2 Current in the coil is still positive but is decreasing. The core gets demagnetised
and the net flux becomes zero at the end of a half cycle. The voltage v is negative
(since di/dt is negative). The product of voltage and current is negative, and
ENERGY IS BEING RETURNED TO SOURCE.

2-3 Current i becomes negative i.e., it enters at B and comes out of A. Since the
direction of current has changed, the polarity of the magnet changes. The current
and voltage are both negative. So their product p is positive.
ENERGY IS ABSORBED.

3-4 Current i decreases and reaches its zero value at 4 when core is demagnetised
and flux is zero. The voltage is positive but the current is negative. The power is,
therefore, negative.
ENERGY ABSORBED DURING THE ¼ CYCLE 2-3 IS RETURNED TO THE SOURCE.

83. How will you prove that the power developed in a capacitive circuit is zero?
The flow of energy in a capacitor when a full cycle of ac current passes through the
capacitor is represented below:
0-1 The current i flows as shown and from the maximum at 0, reaches a zero value
at 1. The plate
A is charged to positive polarity while negative charge q builds up in B reaching a
maximum at 1 until the current becomes zero. The voltage vc = q/C is in phase with
q and reaches maximum value at 1. Current and voltage are both positive. So p = vci
is positive.
ENERGY IS ABSORBED FROM THE SOURCE DURING THIS QUARTER CYCLE AS THE
CAPACITOR IS CHARGED.

1-2 The current i reverses its direction. The accumulated charge is depleted i.e., the
capacitor is discharged during this quarter cycle.The voltage gets reduced but is still
positive. The current is negative. Their product, the power is negative.
THE ENERGY ABSORBED DURING THE ¼ CYCLE 0-1 IS RETURNED DURING THIS
QUARTER.

2-3 As i continues to flow from A to B, the capacitor is charged to reversed polarity

i.e., the plate B acquires positive and A acquires negative charge. Both the current
and the voltage are negative. Their product p is positive. The capacitor ABSORBS
ENERGY during this 1/4 cycle.

3-4 The current i reverses its direction at 3 and flows from B to A. The accumulated
charge is depleted and the magnitude of the voltage vc is reduced. Vc becomes zero
at 4 when the capacitor is fully discharged. The power is negative.
ENERGY ABSORBED DURING 2-3 IS RETURNED TO THE SOURCE. NET ENERGY
ABSORBED IS ZERO.
84. Derive an expression for the RMS value of current in an ac circuit.
The rms value is also called effective value of an a.c. and is denoted by Irms or Ieff.
When an alternating current i = IO sinωt flows through a resistor of resistance R, the
amount of heat produced in the resistor in a small time dt is
dH = i2 R dt
The total amount of heat produced in the resistance in one complete cycle is
𝑇 𝑇
H = ∫𝑂 𝑖 2 R dt = ∫𝑜 (𝐼𝑂 2 sin 2 𝜔𝑡) R dt
𝑇 1−cos 2𝜔𝑡 𝐼𝑜 2 R 𝑇 𝑇
= 𝐼𝑂 2 ∫𝑜 ( )dt = [∫𝑜 𝑑𝑡 − ∫𝑜 cos 2𝜔𝑡. 𝑑𝑡 ]
2 2
𝐼𝑜 2 R sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝐼𝑜 2 R sin 4𝜋 2𝜋
= [𝑡 − ] = [𝑇 − ] {.. . 𝑇 = }
2 2𝜔 2 2𝜔 𝜔
𝐼𝑜 2 RT
H = 2
But this heat is also equal to the heat produced by rms value of AC in the same
resistor (R) and in the same time (T).
(i.e) H = I2rms RT
𝐼𝑜 2 RT
... I2rms RT =
2
𝐼𝑜
Irms = = 0.707 𝐼𝑜
√2
Similarly, it can be calculated that
𝐸
E rms = 𝑜
√2
85. Establish a relation between the current and voltage of a series LCR circuit
using phasor diagram.

Figure shows a series LCR circuit connected to an ac source ε. As usual, we take the
voltage of the source to be v = vm sin ωt.
If q is the charge on the capacitor and i the current, at time t, we have, from
Kirchhoff’s loop rule:
𝑑𝑖 𝑞
𝐿 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖 𝑅 + 𝐶 = 𝑣 --------------------- (1)
We want to determine the instantaneous current i and its phase relationship to the
applied alternating voltage v.
From the circuit shown in Fig., we see that the resistor, inductor and capacitor are
in series. Therefore, the ac current in each element is the same at any time, having
the same amplitude and phase. Let it be
i = im sin(ωt+φ ) ------------------------------ (2)
where φ is the phase difference between the voltage across the source and the
current in the circuit.
 Let I be the phasor representing the current in the circuit as given by Eq. (2).
Further, let VL, VR, VC, and V represent the voltage across the inductor, resistor,
capacitor and the source, respectively. From previous section, we know that VR is
parallel to I, VC is π/2 behind I and VL is π/2 ahead of I. VL, VR, VC and I are shown in
Fig. (a) with appropriate phase relations.
The length of these phasors or the amplitude of VR, VC and VL are:
vRm = im R, vCm = im XC, vLm = im XL--------------------------- (3)
The voltage Equation (1) for the circuit can be written as
vL + vR + vC = v
The phasor relation whose vertical component gives the above equation is
VL + VR + VC = V
This relation is represented in Fig. (b). Since VC and VL are always along the same
line and in opposite directions, they can be combined into a single phasor (VC + VL)
which has a magnitude vCm – vLm. Since V is represented as the hypotenuse of a right-
traingle whose sides are VR and (VC + VL), the pythagorean theorem gives:
2 2
𝑣𝑚 = 𝑣𝑅𝑚 + (𝑣𝐶𝑚 − 𝑣𝐿𝑚 )2
Substituiting the values of of vRm, vCm and vLm the above equation can be written as
2
𝑣𝑚 = (𝑖𝑚 𝑅)2 + (𝑖𝑚 𝑋𝑐 − 𝑖𝑚 𝑋𝐿 )2
= 𝑖𝑚2 [𝑅 2
+ (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2 ]
𝑣𝑚
or, 𝑖𝑚 = 2 2
√𝑅 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )
By analogy to the resistance in a circuit, impedance Z is introduced in an ac circuit:
𝑣
𝑖𝑚 = 𝑍𝑚
Where Z = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2
Since phasor I is always parallel to phasor VR, the phase angle φ is the angle
between VR and V and can be determined from

𝑣𝐶𝑚 −𝑣𝐿𝑚
tan  = 𝑣𝑅𝑚
𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿
tan  = 𝑅 ,
If XC > XL, φ is positive and the circuit is predominantly capacitive.
Consequently, the current in the circuit leads the source voltage. If XC < XL, φ is
negative and the circuit is predominantly inductive. Consequently, the current in the
circuit lags the source voltage.
86. Provide an analytical solution for a series LCR circuit.
The voltage equation for a LCR circuit is,
di q
Ldt + Ri + C = v
= vm sin ωt
We know that,
dq
i=
dt
di d2 q
dt
=dt2
d2 q dq q
L dt2 + R dt + C = vm sin ωt ---------------------- (1)
Let q = q m sin(ωt + θ)
 dq
So that, dt = q m ω cos (ωt + θ)
d2 q
= −q m ω2 sin (ωt + θ)
dt2
Substituiting these values in equation (1)
q m ω [Rcos(ωt + θ) + (XC − XL ) sin(ωt + θ)] = vm sin ωt
Where, XC = 1/ωC, XL = ωL
Multiplying and dividing by
Z = √R2 + (XC − X L )2
We have,
R (X −X )
q m ωZ [ Z cos(ωt + θ) + C Z L sin(ωt + θ)] = vm sin ωt ------- (2)
R
Let Z = cos ϕ
(XC −XL )
And = sin ϕ
Z
X −X
So that, ϕ = tan−1 CR L
Substituiting this in equation (2)
qmωZcos(ωt + θ − ϕ)= vm sin ωt
vm = q m ωZ = im Z
Where, im=qmω
π π
and θ − ϕ = − 2 or θ = − 2 + ϕ
Therefore, the current in the circuit is
dq
i = dt = q m ω cos(ωt + θ)
=im cos(ωt + θ)
Or i = im sin(ωt + ϕ)
v v
Where im = Zm = 2 m 2
√R + (XC −XL )
−1 XC −XL
and ϕ = tan R
87. Derive an expression for sharpness of resonance or quality factor.
The amplitude of the current in the series LCR circuit is given by
𝑣𝑚
𝑖𝑚 = 2
√𝑅 2 +(𝜔𝐿− 1 )
𝜔𝐶

And is maximum when 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑜 = 1/√𝐿𝐶. The maximum value is

𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑖𝑚 = 𝑣𝑚 /𝑅
For values of ω other than ω0, the amplitude of the current is less than the maximum
value. Suppose we choose a value of ω for which the current amplitude is 1/ 2 times
its maximum value. At this value, the power dissipated by the circuit becomes half.
ω1 = ωo + Δω
ω2 = ωo − Δω
ω1 − ω2 = 2Δω is called the bandwidth of the circuit.
(𝜔𝑜 /2Δ𝜔) → sharpness of resonance
The amplitude of the current im is (1/√2) imax
m for ω1 = ωo + Δω. Therefore,
vm
at ω1 , im = 2
√R2 +(ω1 L− 1 )
ω1 C
imax vm
= m
= R√2
√2
1 2
or √R2 + (ω1 L − ) = R√2
ω1 C
1 2
or R2 + (ω1 L − ) = 2R2
ω1 C
1
ω1 L − ω1 C
=R
Which may be written as,
1
(ωo + Δω)L − (ω +Δω)C = R
o
 Δω 1
ωo L (1 + ω ) − Δω =R
o ωo C(1+ )
ωo
1
Using ω2o = in the second term on the left hand side, we get
LC
Δω ωo L
ωo L (1 + ω ) − Δω =R
o (1+ )
ωo
Δω −1 Δω Δω
We can approximate (1 + ω ) as (1 − ω ) since ω ≪ 1.
o o o
Δω Δω
Therefore, ωo L (1 + ω ) − ωo L (1 − ω ) = R
o o
2Δω
Or ωo L =R
ωo
R
Δω =
2L
The sharpness of resonance is given by,
ωo ωo L
=
2Δω R
ωo L
The ratio is also called the quality factor, Q of the circuit
R
ωo L
Q=
R
88. Derive an expression for power in an ac circuit.
The ac voltage v = vm sin 𝜔𝑡 applied to a RLC circuit drives a current in the circuit
given by i = im sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) where
𝑣 𝑋 −𝑋
im = 𝑍𝑚 and 𝜙 = tan −1 ( 𝐶𝑅 𝐿 )
The instantaneous power p supplied by the source is
p = vi = (vm sin 𝜔𝑡)× [𝑖𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)]
𝑣 𝑖
= 𝑚2 𝑚 [cos 𝜙 − cos (2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)] --------------------(1)
The average power over a cycle is given by the average of the two terms in R.H.S. of
Eq. (1). It is only the second term which is time-dependent. Its average is zero (the
positive half of the cosine cancels the negative half). Therefore,
𝑣 𝑖 𝑣 𝑖
P = 𝑚2 𝑚 cos 𝜙 = 𝑚 𝑚 cos 𝜙
√2 √2
= V I cos 𝜙
P = I2 Z cos 𝜙
So, the average power dissipated depends not only on the voltage and current but
also on the cosine of the phase angle φ between them. The quantity cos is called
the power factor.
89. Explain in detail about the principle, construction and working of a
transformer.
Principle:
Transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
Construction:
A transformer consists of two sets of coils, insulated from each other. They are
wound on a soft-iron core, either one on top of the other as in Fig.(a) or on separate
limbs of the core as in Fig.(b). One of the coils called the primary coil has Np turns.
The other coil is called the secondary coil; it has Ns turns. Often the primary coil is
the input coil and the secondary coil is the output coil of the transformer.
 Working:
When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary, the resulting current
produces an alternating magnetic flux which links the secondary and induces an emf
in it. The value of this emf depends on the number of turns in the secondary.
90. Explain the various kinds of losses in a transformer.
Energy losses in a transformer:
(i) Flux Leakage: There is always some flux leakage; that is, not all of the flux due to
primary passes through the secondary due to poor design of the core or the air gaps
in the core. It can be reduced by winding the primary and secondary coils one over
the other.
(ii) Resistance of the windings: The wire used for the windings has some resistance
and so, energy is lost due to heat produced in the wire (I 2R). In high current, low
voltage windings, these are minimised by using thick wire.
(iii) Eddy currents: The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the iron
core and causes heating. The effect is reduced by having a laminated core.
(iv) Hysteresis: The magnetisation of the core is repeatedly reversed by the
alternating magnetic field. The resulting expenditure of energy in the core appears
as heat and is kept to a minimum by using a magnetic material which has a low
hysteresis loss.
91. For a given a.c. circuit distinguish between resistance, reactance and
impedance. An a.c. source of frequency 50 Hz is connected to a 50 mH inductor
and a bulb. The bulb glows with some brightness. Calculate the capacitance of
the capacitor to be connected in series with the circuit, so that the bulb glows
with maximum brightness.
(i) Resistance, it is defined as the opposition offered by an element to the flow of
current through it. Resistance is independent of frequency and for it phase
difference between V and I is always 0O, i.e., current and voltage are always in phase.
Reactance. It is defined as the opposition offered by an element involving no
dissipation of power. It depends on frequency. The current and voltage are always
out – of – phase by 90O.
Impedance. It is defined as combined opposition of resistance and reactance. It also
depends on frequency and the phase angle is anything between – 90O to + 90O
(i) Frequency f = 50 Hz
L = 50 mH
To glow with maximum brightness
XL = XC
1 1
C = 4π2v2 L = 4×10×(50)2 ×50×10−3
(π2 = 10)
92. Show that energy remains conserved during LC oscillations in an ideal LC
circuit.
During L C oscillations energy in the circuit is partly stored in the form of electric
field in the capacitor and partly as magnetic field in the inductor. Sum of the two
forms remains constant.
Suppose charge on the capacitor at any instant of time is ‘q’ and capacitance is ‘C’.
 Energy stored in the capacitor
1 𝑞2
EC = 2𝐶
1 𝑞02
EC = 2 𝐶 cos2 ωt (∵ q = qO cos ωt)
At the moment if current through the inductor is I, the energy stared is
1
EL = 2 LI2
1
EL = 2 Lω2 𝑞𝑜2 sin2 ωt
1 𝑞2
EL = 2 𝐶0 sin2 ωt
Total energy ET = EC + EL
1 𝑞02 1 𝑞02
= cos2 ωt + sin2 ωt
2𝐶 2𝐶
1 𝑞02
ET = 2 𝐶
As the above equation is independent of time ‘t’, total energy remains conserved.
93. A capacitor is fully charged. It is allowed to discharge through an inductor.
Draw graphs showing variation of
(i) Energy stored in the capacitor.
(ii) Energy stored in the inductor and
(iii) The total energy with time.
Energy stored by
(i) an capacitor
1 𝑞02
EC = cos2 ωt
2𝐶
(ii) an inductor
1 𝑞2
EL = 2 𝐶0 sin2 ωt
(iii) and total energy
𝑞2
ET = 𝐶0
ET is independent of time ‘t’. So it is a constant.

94. The network shown in the figure is part of a complete circuit. If at a certain
instant of time the current (I) is 5A and is decreasing at a rate of 103, find out
VB – VA.

𝑑𝑖
As current through the inductor is decreasing at a rate 𝑑𝑡 = 103 A/s. So, the emf is
induced in the inductor with a polarity to support the current flowing through it.
The emf induced in the inductor is
𝑑𝐼
|𝜀| = L𝑑𝑡 = 5 × 10–3×103=5 volt
Now VA – 5 + 15 +5 = VB
VA – VB = –15
Or VB – VA = 15 volt.
95. A resistance of 40 is connected to an a.c. source of 220V, 50 Hz. Find i) the
rms current ii) the maximum instantaneous current in the resistor and iii) the
time taken by the current to change from its maximum value to the rms
value.
i) Erms = 220V, R = 40 
𝐸 220
. .. Irms = 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 40 = 5.5 A.
𝑅
ii) Maximum instantaneous current,
I0 = 2 Irms = 1.414 × 5.5 = 7.8 A
iii) Let the alternating current be given by
I = I0 sin  t
Let the a.c. take its maximum and rms values at instants t1 and t2 respectively.
Then
I0 = I0 sin  t1, which implies  t1 /2
𝐼  
and Irms = 20 = I0 sin  t2, which implies  t2 = 2 + 4
96. A 100  F capacitor in series with a 40  resistance is connected to a 110 V,
60Hz supply.
a) What is the maximum current in the circuit?
b) What is the time lag between current maximum and voltage maximum?
For a CR-circuit, if V = V0 cos t then
V0 1
I = 1
cos (t + ) where tan  = CR
√R2 + 2 2
 C

Here Vefff = 110 V,  = 2f = 2 × 60 rad s-1 , R = 40  , C = 100 F = 10-4F

a) Maximum current in the circuit is
V0 2 Veff 1.414× 110
I0 = 1
= 1
= 1
√R2 + 2 2 √R2 + 2 2 √402 + (2 × 60× 10−4 )2
 C  C
1.414× 110 155.54
= = = 3.24 A
√1600+703.62 48
b) The phase angle  is given by
1 1
tan = CR = 2 × 60× 10−4× 40 = 0.6631
33.5
. ..  = 33.5° = rad
180
 33.5 
Time lag, t =  = 180× 2 × 60 = 1.55 × 10-3 = 1.55 ms.
Here the voltage lags behind the current or the current leads the voltage.
97. A resistor of 12 ohm, a capacitor of reactance 14 ohm and a pure inductor of
inductance 0.1 henry are joined in series and placed across a 200 volt, 50 Hz
a.c. supply. Calculate i) the current in the circuit and ii) the phase angle
between the current and the voltage. Take  = 3 for purpose of calculations.
Here R = 12 , XC = 14 , L = 0.1 H
Eeff = 200 V, f = 50 Hz
Impedance, Z = √R2 + (XL − XC )2
and XL = L = 2f L = 2 × 3 × 50 × 0.1 = 30 
..
. Z = √(12)2 + (30 − 14)2 = √144 + 256 
Z = 400 = 20.
98. A 25.0 mF capacitor, a 0.10 henry inductor and a 25.0 ohm resistor are
connected in series with A.C. source whose emf is given by E = 310 sin 314 t
(volt)
i) what is the frequency of the emf? ii) What is the reactance of the circuit?
iii) What is the impedance of the circuit? iv) What is the current of the circuit?
v) What is the phase angle of the current by which it leads or lags the applied
emf?
vi) What is the expression for the instantaneous value of current in the
circuit?
 vii) What are the effective voltages across the capacitor, the inductor and the
resistor?
viii) Construct a vector diagram for these voltages.
ix) What value of inductance will make the impedance of circuit minimum?
i) Given E = 310 sin 314 t (volt)
Comparing it with E = E0 sin 2ft, we get
314 314
2f = 314 or f = 2 = 2× 3.14 = 50 Hz
1 1× 7
ii) XC 2fC = 2× 22× 50× 25× = 127.3  [... 1 F = 10-6 F]
10−6
22
XL = 2fL = 2 × 7 × 50 × 0.1 = 31.4 
As XL andXC are out of phase by 180 °, therefore,
Net reactance = XC – XC = 127.3 – 31.4 = 95.9 
And it is capacitive.
iii) Impedance, Z = √R2 + (XC − XL )2 = √(25)2 + (95.9)2
= √625 + 9196.81 = √9821.81 = 99.1
E
iv) Effective current, Ieff = Zeff
0 310
But Eeff = = = 220 V
2 2
220
. .. Ieff = 99.1 = 2.22 A
v) The phase angle  is given by
X −X 95.9
tan = C R L = 25 = 3.84
Hence  = 75.4º or 1.31 rad.
As the circuit is capacitive, the current leads the voltage by 75.4º.

vi) The instantaneous current is given by

I = I0 sin(2 ft + )

But I0 = Ieff2 = 2.222 = 3.13 A

. .. I = 3.13 sin (314 t + 1.31)

vii) Effective voltage across the capacitor is

VC = Ieff XC = 2.22 × 31.4 = 69.7 V

Effective voltage across the inductor is

VL = IeffXL = 2.22 × 31.4 = 69.7 V

Effective voltage across the resistor

VR = Ieff R = 2.22 × 25 = 55.5 V
viii) Vector diagram of voltages is shown in fig.
ix) Impedance, Z = √R2 + (XL − XC )2
Z is minimum, if XL = XC
1
or if 2f L = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
1 7 ×7
L = 4𝜋2𝑓2𝐶 = 4(22)2 (50)2×25×10−6 = 0.405 H
99. A circuit draws a power of 550 W from a source of 220 V, 50Hz. The power
factor of the circuit is 0.8. The current in the circuit lags behind the voltage.
𝟏
Show that a capacitor of about 𝟒𝟒 × 10-2 F will have to be connected to bring its
power factor to unity.
As Pav = Veff . Ieff cos ф
 𝑃𝑎𝑣 550 25
Ieff =𝑉 = = A
𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ф 220×0.8 8
𝑃𝑎𝑣 550×8×8 22×64
R =𝐼 = = Ω
𝑒𝑓𝑓 25×25 25
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ф √1−(0.8)2 0.6 3
tan ф = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ф = = 0.8 = 4
0.8
𝑋 3 22×64
But tan ф = 𝑅𝐿 ... XL = tan ф . R = 4 × = 42 Ω
25
For power factor to be unity,
1
XL = XC or ωL = ωC
1 1 1 1 1 1
or C = ω2 L = ωX = 2πf . X = 100 π . 42
L L
1
or C = 42 π × 10-2F.
100. An a.c. source of internal resistance 9000 Ω is to supply current to a load
resistor of 10 Ω. How should the source be matched to the load and what is
then the ratio of the currents passing through the load and the source?
The a.c. source should be connected to the primary of a step down transformer of
a suitable turn-ratio and the load should be connected to its secondary.
Assuming there are no energy losses, then
Output power = Input power
E2I2 = E1I1
𝐸2 2 𝐸1 2 E E
or = [...I1 = R1 , I2 = R2 ]
𝑅2 𝑅1 1 2
E2 𝑅2 10
or = √𝑅 = √9000 = 1/30
E1 1

The ratio of currents through the load and the source is

I2 E
= E1 =30 : 1
I 1 2

TEXT BOOK EXERCISES

1. An LC circuit contains a 20 mH inductor and a 50 μF capacitor with an initial
charge of 10 mC. The resistance of the circuit is negligible. Let the instant the
circuit is closed be t = 0.
(a) What is the total energy stored initially? Is it conserved during LC
oscillations?
(b) What is the natural frequency of the circuit?
(c) At what time is the energy stored
(i) completely electrical (i.e., stored in the capacitor)?
(ii) completely magnetic (i.e., stored in the inductor)?
(d) At what times is the total energy shared equally between the inductor and
the capacitor?
(e) If a resistor is inserted in the circuit, how much energy is eventually
dissipated as heat?
Here, L = 20 mH = 20 x 10-3 H; C = 50 F = 50 x 10-6 F;
Charge on the capacitor initially, q0 = 10 mC = 10 x 10-3 C
(a) Energy stored in the capacitor initially
2
q20 (10×10−3 )
= = = 1J
2C 2×50×10−6
Since the LC- circuit has negligible resistance, the energy is conserved in LC-
oscillations.
(b) Natural frequency,
1 1
f= = = 159.15Hz
2√LC 2√20×10−3 ×50×10−6
(c) Time period of LC oscillations,
1 1
T= = = 6.28 × 10−3 𝑠
f 159.15
(i) Energy stored is completely electrical at
 t = 0, T, T/2, 3T/2,…. , where T = 6.28 x 10-3 s
(ii) Energy stored is completely magnetic at
t = T/4, 3T/4, 5T/4,..... , where T = 6.28 x 10-3 s
(d) The total energy is shared equally between the inductor and the capacitor, when
the energy stored in capacitor becomes equal to one half of the total energy. If q is
charge on the capacitor at that instant, then
𝑞2 1 𝑞2 𝑞0
= 2 (2𝐶0 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑞=±
2𝐶 √2
During LC-oscillations, the charge on capacitor at any instant,
q = q0 cos t
𝑞 1
..
. ± 0 = 𝑞0 cos 𝑡 𝑜𝑟 cos 𝑤𝑡 = ±
√2 √2
Therefore, t = /4, 3/4, 5/4, ...........
Or t = T/8, 3T/8, 5T/8, ......... where T = 6.28 x 10-3 s
(e) When resistance is introduced, whole of the energy will be dissipated in the form
of heat. The introduction of resistance produces damped oscillations.
2. A coil of inductance 0.50 H and resistance 100 Ω is connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz
ac supply.
(a) What is the maximum current in the coil?
(b) What is the time lag between the voltage maximum and the current
maximum?
Here, L = 0.50 H; R = 100 ; f = 50 Hz; Ev = 240 V
Ev Ev
(a) Iv = =
√R +(L)2
2 √R +(2fL)2
2
240
=
√1002 +(2×50×0.50)2
240 240
= = = 1.289A
√10000+24674 186.21
Now, I0 = 2 Iv = 2 x 1.289 = 1.823 A
(b) For LR-circuit
L 2fL 2×50×0.50
tan Ø = = = == 1.5708
R R 100
Or ф = 57°31’ (e.m.f. leads current)
3. Obtain the answers (a) to (b) in Exercise 13 if the circuit is connected to a high
frequency supply (240 V, 10 kHz). Hence, explain the statement that at very
high frequency, an inductor in a circuit nearly amounts to an open circuit. How
does an inductor behave in a dc circuit after the steady state?
Here, R = 100 ; L = 0.50 h; f = 10 kHz = 104 Hz; Ev = 240 V
𝐸
(a) Iv = 2 𝑣
√𝑅 +(2𝑓𝐿)
2
240
=
√(100)2 +(2×104 ×0.50)2
240
= = 7.64 × 10−3 𝐴
31416.1
Now, I0 = 2 x 7.64 x 10-3 = 1.08 x 10-2 A
L 2fL 2×104 ×0.50
(b) tanØ = = = =314.16
R R 100
Or ф = 89.82° ≈ 90°
In Q. 13, it was obtained that
When f = 50 Hz, Iv = 1.289 A
However, when frequency is very high (≈ 10 kHz), the current drops to 1.08 x 10-2 A
(nearly zero). Hence, at very high frequency in an a.c. circuit, an inductor nearly
amounts to an open circuit (offers very high resistance).
For a d.c. supply, f = 0
 XL = 2 f L = 2 x 0 x 0.50 = 0
Thus, in a d.c. circuit, inductor offers no resistance i.e. it behaves like a conductor.
4. A 100 μF capacitor in series with a 40 Ω resistance is connected to a 110 V, 60
Hz supply. (a) What is the maximum current in the circuit?
(b) What is the time lag between the current maximum and the
voltage maximum?
Here, C = 100 F = 10-4 F; R = 40 ; Ev = 110 V; f = 60 Hz
Ev Ev
(a) Now, Iv = =
√R2 +(L)2 √R2 +(2fL)2
110
=
√402 +(1/2×60×10−4 )2
110 110
= = == 2.292 𝐴
√1600+703.62 48
Now, I0 = 2 Iv = 2 x 2.292 = 3.24 A
(b) For CR-circuit,
1
C 1
tan Ø = =
R 2fCR
1
= = = 0.6631
2×60×10−4 ×40
 ф = 33°33’ (e.m.f. lags behind the current)
5. Obtain the answers to (a) and (b) in Exercise 15 if the circuit is connected to a
110 V, 12 kHz supply? Hence, explain the statement that a capacitor is a
conductor at very high frequencies. Compare this behaviour with that of a
capacitor in a dc circuit after the steady state.
Here, R = 40 ; C = 100 F = 10-4 F; Ev = 110 V; f = 12 kHz = 12 x 103 Hz
Ev
(a) Iv =
√R2 +XC 2
1 1
Now, XC = = =0.133 
2fC 2×12×103 ×10−4
110
... Iv = = 2.75 𝐴
√(40)2 +(0.133)2
Hence, I0 = 2 Ip = 2 x 2.75 = 3.89 A
XC 0.133
(b) tan Ø = = = 0.0033
R 40
Or ф = 0.2° ≈ 0°
In absence of capacitor,
𝐸 110
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 = 𝑅𝑣 = 40 = 2.75 𝐴
It follows that when frequency is very high (≈ 12 kHz) current in the circuit is same,
whether capacitor is connected in the circuit or not. In other words, at very high
frequency, capacitor behaves like a conductor in an a.c. circuit.
For d.c. supply, f = 0
1 1
𝑋𝐶 = 2𝑓𝐶 = 2×0×10−4 = ∞
Thus, in d.c. circuit, a capacitor amounts to an open circuit (offers infinite
resistance).
6. Keeping the source frequency equal to the resonating frequency of the series
LCR circuit, if the three elements, L, C and R are arranged in parallel, show that
the total current in the parallel LCR circuit is minimum at this frequency.
Obtain the current rms value in each branch of the circuit for the elements and
source specified in Exercise 11 for this frequency.
From the phasor diagram, it can be obtained that when the three elements L, C and
R are arranged in parallel, the impedance of the circuit is given by
1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2
= √R2 + (X − X ) = √R2 + (C − L)
Z C L
It follows that when source frequency  is equal to resonating frequency 0 given
by
1
0 = ,
√LC
 the value of 1/Z will be minimum and hence Z will be maximum and equal to R.
Likewise, the current amplitude will be minimum.
Here, L = 5.0 H; C = 80 F = 80 x 10-6 F; R = 40 
As obtained in Q. 4.27, 0 = 50 rad s-1
The r.m.s. value of current through R
E 230
= Rv = 40 = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟓 𝐀
The r.m.s. value of current through L
E 230
=  vL = 50×5 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐 𝐀
0
The r.m.s. value of current through C
= Ev 0 C = 230 x 50 x 80 x 10-6 = 0.92 A
7. A circuit containing a 80 mH inductor and a 60 μF capacitor in series is
connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. The resistance of the circuit is negligible.
(a) Obtain the current amplitude and rms values.
(b) Obtain the rms values of potential drops across each element.
(c) What is the average power transferred to the inductor?
(d) What is the average power transferred to the capacitor?
(e) What is the total average power absorbed by the circuit? [‘Average’ implies
‘averaged over one cycle’.]
Here, L = 80 mH = 80 x 10-3 H; C = 60 F = 60 x 10-6 F; Ep = 230 V; f = 50 Hz
𝐸𝑣 𝐸𝑣
(𝑎)𝐼𝑣 = = 2𝑓𝐿−1/2
𝐿−1/𝐶 𝑓𝐶
230
= 2×50×80×10−3−1/2×50×60×10−6
230 230
= 25.13−53.05 = 27.92 = 𝟖. 𝟐𝟒 𝑨 [𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 (25.13 − 53.05]
 I0 = 2 Iv = 2 x 8.24 = 11.65 A
(b) The r.m.s. potential drop across L
= Iv L = Iv x 2 f L
= 8.24 x 2 x 50 x 80 x 10-3 = 207.1 V
The r.m.s. potential drop across C
1 1
𝐼𝑣 𝐶 = 𝐼𝑣 2𝑓𝐶
1
= 8.24 × 2×50×60×10−6 = 𝟒𝟑𝟕. 𝟏 𝑽
(c) As an inductor, e.m.f. leads current by /2,

𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝐸𝑣 𝐼𝑣 cos 2 = 𝟎
(d) As in a capacitor, e.m.f. lags current by /2,

𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝐸𝑣 𝐼𝑣 cos (− 2) = 𝟎
8. Suppose the circuit in Exercise 18 has a resistance of 15 Ω. Obtain the average
power transferred to each element of the circuit, and the total power
absorbed.
Here, R = 15 ; L = 80 mH = 80 x 10-3 H; C = 60 F = 60 x 10-6 F;
Ev = 230 V; f = 50 Hz
Now, XL = 2 f L = 2 x 50 x 80 x 10-3 = 25.13 
1 1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋𝐶 = 2𝑓𝐶 = 2×50×60×10−6 = 53.05 
Therefore, impedance of the circuit,
Z = √R2 + (XL − XC )2
= √152 + (25.13 − 53.05)2 = √225 + 779.53
= √1004.53 = 31.7 
The r.m.s. value of current in the circuit,
230
𝐼𝑣 = 31.7 = 7.26 𝐴
Average power transferred to R
= Iv2 R = (7.26)2 x 15 = 790.6 W
 Average power transferred to both L and C is zero. It can be checked that the
average power of the circuit is equal to the average power transferred to R.
9. A series LCR circuit with L = 0.12 H, C = 480 nF, R = 23 Ω is connected to a 230 V
variable frequency supply.
(a) What is the source frequency for which current amplitude is maximum.
Obtain this maximum value.
(b) What is the source frequency for which average power absorbed by the circuit
is maximum. Obtain the value of this maximum power.
(c) For which frequencies of the source is the power transferred to the circuit half
the power at resonant frequency? What is the current amplitude at these
frequencies?
(d) What is the Q-factor of the given circuit?
Here, L = 0.12 H; C = 480 nF = 480 x 10-9 F; R = 23 ; Ev = 230 V
(a) Current amplitude is maximum at resonant frequency is given by
1 1
0 = = √0.12×480×10−9
√LC
= 4166.7 rad s-1
Ev
Now, Iv =
√R2 +(L−1/C)2
√2 Ev
or I0 =
√R2 +(L−1/C)2
√2 E √2×230
I0 (at 0 ) = R v = 23 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟏𝟒 𝐀 (∵ 0 L − 1/0 C = 0)
(b) Average power will also be maximum at resonant frequency i.e. at 4166.7rad s-1
R
Now, Pav = Ev Iv . cos ф = Ev Iv × 2 2 √R +(L−1/C)
R
 Pav (at 0 ) = Ev Iv × √R2
+02
14.14
= 𝐸𝑣 𝐼𝑣 = 230 × = 𝟐𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝑾
√2
(c) Let ’ be the source frequency at which the power transferred to the circuit is
half the power at resonant frequency. Then,
R 1
Ev Iv × 2 2
= 2 Ev Iv
√R +(′L−1/′C)
Or R2 + (’L – 1/’C)2 = 4R2
1
Or ′ L − ′ C = ±√3R
Or LC’2  3 RC ’ – 1 = 0
It is a quadratic equation in ’. The values of L, C and R are known. On solving this
quadratic equation, it can be obtained that
’ = 4336 rad s-1 or 4004 rad s-1
(d) The Q-factor of the circuit,
1 𝐿 1 0.12
Q = 𝑅 √𝐶 = 23 √480×10−9 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟕𝟒
10. Obtain the resonant frequency and Q-factor of a series LCR circuit with L = 3.0
H, C = 27 μF, and R = 7.4 Ω. It is desired to improve the sharpness of the
resonance of the circuit by reducing its ‘full width at half maximum’ by a factor
of 2. Suggest a suitable way.
Here, R = 7.4 ; L = 3 H; C = 27 F = 27 x 10-6 F
The resonant angular frequency 0 is given by
1 1
0 = = √3×27×10−6 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟏 𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝒔−𝟏
√𝐿𝐶
The Q-factor of the circuit,
1 𝐿 1 3
𝑄 = 𝑅 √𝐶 = 7.4 √27×10−6 = 𝟒𝟓
The simplest way to improve the sharpness of the resonance of the circuit by
reducing its ‘full width at half maximum’ by a factor of 2 is to reduce the value of R
to R/2 i.e. by making
 7.4
𝑅 = 2 = 𝟑. 𝟕 
11. Answer the following questions:
(a) In any ac circuit, is the applied instantaneous voltage equal to the
algebraic sum of the instantaneous voltages across the series elements of
the circuit? Is the same true for rms voltage?
(b) A capacitor is used in the primary circuit of an induction coil.
(c) An applied voltage signal consists of a superposition of a dc voltage and an
ac voltage of high frequency. The circuit consists of an inductor and a
capacitor in series. Show that the dc signal will appear across C and the ac
signal across L.
(d) A choke coil in series with a lamp is connected to a dc line. The lamp is
seen to shine brightly. Insertion of an iron core in the choke causes no
change in the lamp’s brightness. Predict the corresponding observations if
the connection is to an ac line.
(e) Why is choke coil needed in the use of fluorescent tubes with ac mains?
Why can we not use an ordinary resistor instead of the choke coil?
(a) Yes, the applied instantaneous voltage is equal to the algebraic sum of the
instantaneous voltages across the series elements of the circuit. It is because,
voltages across different elements are not in phase.
No, it is not true for the r.m.s. voltages. It is because, r.m.s. voltages across different
elements are not in phase with each other.
(b) At the break, a large induced e.m.f. is produced. In case capacitor is not
connected, sparking will take place. But when capacitor is used, the large induced
e.m.f. produced at break is used up in charging the capacitor and no sparking takes
place.
(c) We know, XL = L and XC = 1/C
XL has zero value for d.c. and a high value for a.c., while XC has an infinite value for
d.c. and a low value for a.c. When the voltage signal consisting of superposition of a
d.c. voltage and a.c. voltage is applied to the series combination of a capacitor and an
inductor, the inductor will oppose a.c., whereas it will allow easy path to d.c.
Therefore, a.c. voltage will appear across L. For similar reason, d.c. voltage will
appear across C.
(d) When a choke coil in series with a lamp is connected to a d.c. line, L has no effect
on the steady value of the current. Therefore, brightness of the lamp is not affected
on the insertion of iron core in the choke. On a.c. line, the lamp will shine dimly due
to the impedance of the choke coil. The brightness of the lamp will further go dim on
the insertion of iron core, which increases the impedance of the choke coil.
(e) The choke coil is used to reduce the current. As its power factor is zero, it
reduces the current without wasting the power. If an ordinary resistor is used
instead of the choke coil, it will waste power in the form of heat.
12. A power transmission line feeds input power at 2300 V to a step down
transformer with its primary windings having 4000 turns. What should be the
number of turns in the secondary in order to get output power at 230 V?
Here, ep = 2300 V; Np = 4000; es = 230 V
𝑒 𝑁
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑒 𝑠 = 𝑁𝑠
𝑝 𝑝
𝑒 230
 𝑁𝑠 = 𝑁𝑝 × 𝑒𝑠 = 4000 × 2300 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝑝
13. At a hydroelectric power plant, the water pressure head is at a height of 300 m
and the water flow available is 100 m3s–1. If the turbine generator efficiency is
60%, estimate the electric power available from the plant (g = 9.8 ms–2 ).
Here, h = 300 m; g = 9.8 ms-2;
Volume of water flowing per second = 100 m3s-1;
Now, density of water,  = 1000 kgm-3;
Therefore, mass of water flowing per second = 100 x 1000 = 105 kgs-1
 Potential energy of the water made use of per second
= 105 x 9.8 x 300 = 2.94 x 108 Js-1 = 2.94 x 108 W
Efficiency of turbine = 60 %
Therefore, electric power available from the plant
2.94×108 ×60
= = 1.764 × 108 𝑊
100
= 176.4 MW
14. A small town with a demand of 800 kW of electric power at 220 V is situated
15 km away from an electric plant generating power at 440 V. The resistance
of the two wire line carrying power is 0.5 Ω per km. The town gets power from
the line through a 4000-220 V step-down transformer at a sub-station in the
town.
(a) Estimate the line power loss in the form of heat.
(b) How much power must the plant supply, assuming there is negligible
power loss due to leakage?
(c) Characterise the step up transformer at the plant.
Here, length of the wire line = 15 x 2 = 30 km;
Resistance of the wire line, R = 30 x 0.5 = 15 
Voltage at which power is transmitted = 4000 V;
Power transmitted, P = 800 kW = 8 x 105 W
Now, P = es Is
𝑃 8×105
 𝐼𝑠 = 𝑒 = 4000
= 200 𝐴
𝑠
(a) Line power loss = Is2 R = (200)2 x 15 = 6 x 105 W = 600 kW
(b) Power that must be supplied by the plant = 800 + 600 = 1400 kW
(c) Voltage drop across the wire line = 200 x 15 = 3000 V
Step up transformer at the plant is 440V – 7000V
15. Do the same exercise as above with the replacement of the earlier transformer
by a 40,000-220 V step-down transformer (Neglect, as before, leakage losses
though this may not be a good assumption any longer because of the very high
voltage transmission involved). Hence, explain why high voltage transmission
is preferred?
Here, Length of the wire line = 15 x 2 = 30 km
Resistance of the wire line = 30 x 0.5 = 15Ω
Power transmitted , P = 800 kW = 8 x 105 W
Now, P = es Is
𝑃 8×105
 𝐼𝑠 = 𝑒 = 40000 = 20 𝐴
𝑠
(a) Line power loss = Is2 R = (20)2 x 15 = 6 x 103 W = 6 kW
(b) Power that must be supplied by the plant = 800 + 6 = 806 kW
(c) Voltage drop across the wire line = 15 x 20 = 300 V
6
Therefore, percentage power loss = 806 × 100 = 0.74 %
600
In Q. 25, the percentage power loss = 1400 × 100 = 42.86 %
Since the power loss at high voltage transmission is negligible as compared to that
at low voltage, the high voltage emission of power is preferred.

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