EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE QUARTER 2

REVIEWER

Theories on the origin of life

1. Special Creation Theory: This theory posits that a supreme being created all life on Earth.
The Bible's book of Genesis is cited as a source supporting this view, detailing a seven-day
creation process. This theory is primarily based on religious beliefs and interpretations of
sacred texts, rather than scientific evidence. It's not directly testable through scientific methods.

2. Spontaneous Generation Theory: This theory suggests that life can arise spontaneously
from non-living matter. Ancient thinkers like Aristotle believed that organisms like frogs and
maggots could originate from water and decaying meat, respectively. However, Francesco
Redi, an Italian physician, conducted an experiment in 1668 to challenge this theory. He left
meat in open containers and sealed containers. Maggots only appeared in the open containers,
suggesting that they developed from flies laying eggs, not spontaneously from the meat itself.
Redi's experiment provided evidence against spontaneous generation.

The experiments described challenge the idea of spontaneous generation of microorganisms:

- John Needham's Experiment: Needham boiled broth infused with plant and animal matter,
sealed the flask, and waited. He observed microbial growth, concluding that the broth
spontaneously generated microorganisms. However, his boiling might not have been sufficient
to kill all pre-existing microbes.
- Lazzaro Spallanzani's Experiment: Spallanzani, unconvinced by Needham's results, heated
broth in sealed and unsealed jars for a longer time. Only the unsealed jars showed microbial
growth, suggesting that microorganisms entered from the air. This addressed Needham's
criticism of insufficient boiling.
- Louis Pasteur's Experiment: Pasteur designed swan-necked flasks to allow air exchange but
prevent airborne microorganism entry. Sterilized broth in these flasks remained free of
microorganisms unless the neck was broken, enabling microbe entry and subsequent growth.
This definitively showed that microorganisms do not spontaneously arise but come from pre-
existing ones. Pasteur's famous statement, "Omne vivum ex vivo" ("All life comes from life"),
summarizes this conclusion.

3. Cell theory-establishes that all life is cellular, with cells as the basic units of structure and
function, and that new cells arise from pre-existing cells.

4. The primordial soup theory- suggests that life began in Earth's early oceans from simple
inorganic molecules that reacted to form complex organic molecules, eventually giving rise to
the first life forms.
Key experiments supporting this theory include the Miller-Urey experiment. Stanley Miller and
Harold Urey simulated Earth's early atmosphere (methane, ammonia, water, hydrogen) and
subjected it to electrical discharges. This produced amino acids, the building blocks of proteins,
supporting the idea that organic molecules could form under early Earth conditions.

The characteristics of life, as described in the text, are:

1. Response to the environment/ability to respond to stimuli: Living things detect and

respond to changes in their surroundings.
2. Growth and development: Living organisms increase in size and complexity over time.
3. Reproduction: Living things produce offspring.
4. Regulation and homeostasis: Living things maintain a stable internal environment.
5. High degree of organization: Living things have complex chemistry and structure.
6. Energy processing: Living things acquire and use energy for metabolic activities.
7. Built of cells: All life is composed of cells.

•Cytology- the study of cell.

-The earliest life forms were prokaryotic, lacking a nucleus. This is because oxygen was scarce
in the early Earth's atmosphere, making anaerobic (oxygen-free) life necessary. Microscopic
fossils found in 3.5-billion-year-old rocks support this. Some of these early prokaryotes were
photosynthetic, using the sun's energy and carbon dioxide to produce food.

-Photosynthetic organisms, particularly cyanobacteria, evolved early, increasing atmospheric

oxygen and enabling the evolution of oxygen-breathing organisms.

-Multicellular organisms evolved from unicellular eukaryotes through a process of colony

formation, aggregation, and cell specialization.

Unifying themes in the study of life

1).hierarchical organization of life, starting from the smallest unit and progressing to the
broadest:

1. Atoms: The fundamental building blocks of matter.

2. Molecules: Atoms combine to form molecules.
3. Cells: The basic units of life.
4. Tissues: Groups of similar cells with a shared function.
5. Organs: Structures composed of different tissues working together.
6. Organ Systems: Groups of organs performing a coordinated function.
7. Organisms: Individual living entities.
8. Populations: Groups of individuals of the same species.
9. Communities: All populations in a given area.
10. Ecosystems: Communities and their non-living environment.
11. Biosphere: The entire planet and all its living things.

Reductionism: This approach simplifies complex systems by breaking them down into smaller,
more manageable components for study. In the context of the figure, reductionism might
involve studying individual cells or tissues to understand the function of an organ.

Systems Biology: Systems biology, in contrast, focuses on understanding the dynamic

interactions among the components of a biological system as a whole. It attempts to model the
behavior of the entire system based on the interactions of its parts. For example, systems
biology would study how the interactions between different organ systems affect the overall
health of an organism.

2). Organisms interact with other organisms and the physical environment
Organisms within an ecosystem continuously interact, exchanging energy and matter. For
example, plants utilize sunlight and carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and food, which animals
then consume. Decomposers recycle nutrients back into the environment. However, human
activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, release excessive carbon dioxide, contributing
to global warming and other environmental problems.

2).life requires energy transfer and transformation

Producers, such as plants, capture light energy from the sun through photosynthesis. This light
energy is converted into chemical energy stored in sugar molecules. Consumers, such as
animals, obtain energy by consuming producers (or other consumers). This energy transfer
allows organisms to perform life's essential functions, such as movement, growth, and
reproduction.

3). The continuity of life is based on heritable information in the form of DNA
DNA, the genetic material, is a double-helix molecule containing genes that encode traits
passed from parents to offspring. It directs an organism's development and functions as a
central database of genetic information. Genomics is the field of studying entire genomes,
providing insights into the complete set of genetic instructions within an organism.

4.)The Core Theme: Evolution Accounts for the Unity and Diversity of Life
•Darwin's theory of evolution centers on descent with modification, explaining the unity and
diversity of life through common ancestry and the accumulation of changes over time.
•Natural selection, the proposed mechanism, favors individuals with advantageous traits,
leading to their increased prevalence in populations over generations.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

In plants, sexual reproduction occurs within flowers. The stamen produces pollen (containing
sperm cells), while the carpel contains ovules (female gametes). Pollination involves
transferring pollen to the stigma, after which sperm cells fertilize the ovules. The fertilized
ovules develop into seeds within the mature ovary, which develops into the fruit.

Advantages include genetic variability, dispersal, large numbers of offspring, and adaptation to
unstable environments; disadvantages include energy expense, the need for a pollinator,
proneness to predation, and time constraints.

Asexual Reproduction in Plants

Asexual reproduction in plants can occur through fragmentation (where parts of the plant
separate and grow into new plants), apomixis (seed production without fertilization), and
vegetative propagation/grafting (natural and artificial methods of producing new plants from
vegetative parts or by joining plant parts).

Advantages include no need for pollinators, passing all good genetic material as clones, rapid
growth in stable environments, strong seedlings, prevention of predation, and energy economy;
disadvantages include susceptibility of clones to disease and predation, inability to disperse
long distances, and proneness to fluctuating environmental conditions.

Reproduction in Animals & Other Organisms

Sexual reproduction in animals involves the fusion of sperm and egg cells (gametes) to form a
zygote, which develops into a new organism. Asexual reproduction, in contrast, does not
involve the fusion of gametes; offspring are produced through mitosis, creating clones of the
parent. Asexual reproduction is common in microorganisms but also occurs in some animals.

Types of Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

Sexual Reproduction:

1. Syngamy (or fertilization): This is sexual reproduction through the union of gametes (sperm
and ovum).
2. Conjugation: This involves two organisms of the same species with similar appearances but
different biochemical compositions. They fuse, exchange micronuclear materials, and then
separate. Bacteria and protozoans reproduce this way.

Asexual Reproduction:

1. Budding: Individuals arise from outgrowths of a parent. This happens in animals without
reproductive organs, such as flatworms, hydras, yeasts, sponges, jellyfish, sea anemones, and
corals.
2. Binary Fission: An organism separates/divides to form individuals of approximately the
same size. The organism duplicates its DNA and undergoes binary fission, where both new
bodies receive a copy of the original organism's DNA. This is observed in animal-like protists,
Synechoccus (a unicellular cyanobacterium).
3. Fragmentation and Regeneration: An animal's body breaks into different parts, which later
regenerate to form several individuals. Sponges, annelids, fungi, sea stars, cnidarians, and
tunicates use this method.
4. Parthenogenesis: A reproductive strategy involving the development of a female (rarely
male) gamete without fertilization. This is exhibited by ants, aphids, bees, wasps, lizards, and
sharks

Reproduction and the Genetic Make-up

The text explains that DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a double-helix structure like a twisted
ladder. It's a nucleic acid composed of nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three
components: a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

The nitrogenous bases are categorized into purines (adenine and guanine, with double rings)
and pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine, and uracil, with single rings). Uracil is found in RNA and
replaces thymine in DNA.

Complementary base pairing is crucial:

- In DNA: Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T), and Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C).
- In RNA: Uracil (U) replaces Thymine (T), so Adenine (A) pairs with Uracil (U), and Guanine (G)
pairs with Cytosine (C).

The order of nitrogenous bases determines the genetic code.

Genes store instructions for cells to carry out protein synthesis. Proteins are essential organic
molecules made up of amino acids. Humans can produce some amino acids but obtain others
from their diet.

Proteins are important for cell walls, organelles, and various body parts (hair, bones, muscles,
teeth, blood). They also function as enzymes, which are proteins needed for bodily processes
(e.g., digestion).

The central dogma illustrates the flow of genetic information:

1. Replication: DNA replicates itself to pass genetic information to new cells.

2. Transcription: DNA's genetic code is transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA).
3. Reverse Transcription: mRNA can be converted back into DNA (though this is less
common).
4. Translation: mRNA's code is translated into a specific protein.

Protein synthesis involves transcription (creating an RNA copy of DNA) and translation (using
the RNA code to build a chain of amino acids in the ribosome). Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a
genetic disorder where a defective gene prevents the breakdown of phenylalanine. The
resulting buildup of phenylalanine can cause severe health issues. Dietary management is
crucial for individuals with PKU.

Genetic Engineering and its Applications

Genetic engineering modifies an organism's DNA by inserting, replacing, removing, or mutating

genes to introduce desirable traits. This affects protein synthesis and the organism's overall
characteristics. Applications include creating golden rice (enhanced nutritional value), Bt corn
(pest resistance), and other crops with improved yields and resistance to environmental
stresses. Genetic engineering has also produced new animal breeds with enhanced traits.

Risks of Using GMOs

Risks associated with GMOs include potential food allergies (if proteins from allergenic sources
are used), decreased nutritional value (due to reduced levels of beneficial compounds), harmful
additives in GMO-derived foods, and unknown long-term health effects. Further concerns exist
regarding environmental impacts, such as harm to wildlife, increased pesticide/herbicide use,
and the development of herbicide-resistant superweeds.

step-by-step process of genetic engineering:

1. Identifying the target gene: Locate the specific gene to be transferred.

2. Isolate the gene.
3. Insert the gene into the vector.
4. Clone the gene in a host cell.
5. Transfer the gene into the target organism.
6. Select successful organisms.
7. Testing and verification.
8. Field testing and approval.

Major Organ Systems of the Human Body

1. Digestive System: This system is responsible for taking in food and breaking it down into a
usable form for cells. It involves ingestion, digestion, absorption, transport, and excretion. The
endocrine system plays a role in regulating appetite and nutrient usage.
2. Respiratory System: This system facilitates gas exchange with the environment. It filters
particles from incoming air, controls temperature and water content, and aids in speech
production. Respiration (breathing) involves inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide.
3. Circulatory System: This system transports oxygen and nutrients to cells and removes
waste products like carbon dioxide. It's like a network of highways and streets connecting
different parts of the body. The heart pumps blood through blood vessels.

4. Homeostasis is the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment. This includes
regulating salt and water balance (through mechanisms like vasopressin release) and removing
waste products (through the integumentary and excretory systems).

5. Regulating salt and water balance (through mechanisms like vasopressin release) and
removing waste products (through the integumentary and excretory systems). The excretory
system filters liquid waste, while the integumentary system protects the body and helps
regulate temperature.

These processes are essential for maintaining overall health and survival.

6. The immune system protects the body from invaders.

7. The endocrine system uses hormones to regulate various bodily functions and maintain
homeostasis.

8. The nervous system transmits signals throughout the body, controlling sensory and motor
functions and maintaining homeostasis.

9. The Body in Motion:

*The musculoskeletal system- provides structure, support, and movement.
*The skeletal- system forms the body's framework, protecting organs and storing minerals.
*The muscular system- enables movement, transports substances, and helps maintain body
temperature.
Three muscle types exist: skeletal (voluntary), smooth (involuntary), and cardiac (heart).

The evidence of evolution

-Evolution is the gradual change in heritable traits over generations.

Comparative anatomy, which studies similarities and differences in the anatomy of different
species, provides strong evidence for evolution. Homologous structures, like the similar bone
structure in the forelimbs of various mammals despite different functions, indicate shared
ancestry and support the theory of evolution.
Vestigial structures- are features in an organism that have lost all or most of their original
function through evolution.

Embryology- is the study of the development of embryos from fertilization to birth (or hatching).
It examines the processes by which a single-celled zygote develops into a multicellular
organism.

fossil record- the history of life as documented by fossils—the remains or imprints of

organisms from earlier geological periods preserved in sedimentary rock or other media.

Molecular Biology- Uses DNA and protein comparisons (e.g., cytochrome c) to reveal
evolutionary relationships based on genetic similarities.

Biogeography-is the study of the distribution of plants and animals on Earth. It examines how
organisms are distributed across geographical areas and how their distribution patterns reflect
evolutionary history and environmental factors.

Evolution by natural selection- is a process where organisms with traits better suited to their
environment survive and reproduce more successfully, passing those advantageous traits to
their offspring.

Speciation- is the evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct species.

Major mass extinction events.

- End-Ordovician Extinction
- Late Devonian Extinction
- Permian-Triassic Extinction ("Great Dying")
- Triassic-Jurassic Extinction
- Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction

Ecosystem : An ecosystem is a functional unit encompassing all living organisms (biotic

factors: plants, animals, microorganisms) and non-living components (abiotic factors: sunlight,
water, nutrients) interacting within a specific environment.

Biotic Components: The living parts of an ecosystem are categorized as:

- Producers (Autotrophs): Organisms (mainly plants) that produce their own food through
photosynthesis.
- Consumers: Organisms that obtain energy by consuming other organisms (herbivores,
carnivores, omnivores).
- Decomposers: Organisms (bacteria and fungi) that break down dead organic matter, returning
nutrients to the environment.
Abiotic Components: The non-living parts of an ecosystem, such as sunlight, temperature,
water, and nutrients. These factors influence the type and structure of the ecosystem.

Three Major Principles Governing Ecosystems:

1. Nutrient Cycling: The continuous movement of chemical elements between living organisms
and their environment.
2. Energy Flow: The transfer of energy through the ecosystem, starting with producers and
moving through consumers.
3. Structure: The pattern of relationships between organisms within the ecosystem.

Factors Affecting Population Explosion: Population growth depends on biotic potential (a

species' ability to increase under ideal conditions) and environmental resistance (limiting factors
that restrict population growth).

Biotic potential is defined as a population's ability to increase under ideal conditions; it reflects
how well a species is adapted to survive. Several factors determine biotic potential:

1. Number of Reproductive Events:

- Semelparity: Organisms reproduce once and die (e.g., some insects, salmon).
- Iteroparity: Organisms reproduce repeatedly (e.g., most vertebrates, trees).
2. Number of Offspring per Reproductive Event: The more offspring produced per event, the
higher the biotic potential. Examples given are a lemming (6-8 offspring) versus a blue whale (1
offspring).
3. Number of Offspring Surviving to Reproductive Age: Higher survival rates to reproductive
age lead to higher biotic potential.
4. Age at First Reproduction: Organisms that reproduce earlier have a higher biotic potential
(e.g., a lemming is sexually mature at three weeks, while a blue whale is at ten years).

environmental resistance- the factors that prevent a population from growing endlessly.

These factors lower reproduction chances, affect organism health, and increase death rates.
They are categorized as biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living):

Biotic Factors:

- Predation: One species (predator) kills and eats another (prey). Predator numbers increase
as prey numbers increase.
- Competition: Individuals of different species compete for resources, limiting growth and
survival. Increased population density intensifies competition.
- Disease: Diseases like influenza and tuberculosis spread more easily in densely populated
areas.
- Parasitism: One organism (parasite) benefits at the expense of another (host), affecting the
host's survival and reproduction.

Abiotic Factors: These include drought, fire, temperature, and insufficient sunlight.

Terrestrial Ecosystems: The diversity of animal and plant life in terrestrial ecosystems is
controlled by abiotic environmental conditions and the productivity of the dominant vegetation.
Examples listed include:

- Arctic and Alpine Tundra

- Temperate Deciduous Forest
- Desert
- Tropical savanna
- Temperate rainforests
- Boreal Coniferous Forest (Taiga)
- Grassland
- Chaparral
- Tropical rainforest
- Coniferous forests

Aquatic Ecosystems: Aquatic organisms are primarily affected by water depth, temperature,
flow, and dissolved nutrients. Oceans, covering about 75% of the Earth's surface, have a
significant impact. Characteristics of aquatic biomes are based on vertical stratification of
physical and chemical variables:

- Photic Zone: Sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis.

- Aphotic Zone: Sunlight cannot penetrate.
- Benthic Zone: The bottom, composed of sediment. Animals in this zone are called benthos.

Two types of aquatic ecosystems are described:

1. Freshwater: Includes standing bodies of water (lakes, ponds), moving bodies of water (rivers,
streams), and wetlands.
2. Marine: Covers about three-fourths of the Earth's surface, including deep-sea/oceanic
communities, near-shore communities (coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangrove forests), and
estuaries.