Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO)

DSO is an electronic device that stores and analyses the signal in the digital format. The
input signal given to the DSO is processed, stored in the memory in digital format, and displayed on
the screen. It can display the waveform or signal both numerically and visually. It is often referred
to as the Digital Sampling Oscilloscope. Rather than using analog techniques, it uses digital
processing techniques to capture, analyze, process, store, and display the signal on the screen.

Block Diagram & Working

The block diagram of the Digital Storage Oscilloscope is shown below.

The analog input signal is amplified by the amplifier and its output is digitized by the
digitizer and stored in the memory. The digitization is done by taking the sample input signals at
periodic intervals. The analyzer circuit analyses the digital output and it can be reconstructed to
visualize the final waveform using the interpolation technique.

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 The output is displayed on the Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) screen. The CRT has a vertical input
and a horizontal input. The time base circuit is triggered by the trigger and clock input signal, it
generates the time base ramp signal. The ramp signal is amplified by the horizontal amplifier and is
applied to the horizontal plate. On the CRT screen, the waveform of the input signal versus time is
displayed.

The maximum frequency of the signal which can be measured by the digital oscilloscope
depends on the two factors. (i) Sampling rate (ii) Nature of converter
Sampling rate: The sampling rate should be twice the input signal’s highest frequency.
Nature of converter: Flash type analog to a digital converter with fast conversion rate is required.

DSO Operation Modes

The digital storage oscilloscope works in three modes of operation.

1. Roll Mode: DSO displays the fast fluctuating input signals on the screen. It is the basic
modes of DSO and similar to the operation of CRO. It monitors the characteristics of the
given input signal to process and displays its trace on the screen.
2. Store Mode: The signals are stored in the memory.
3. Hold or Save Mode: The signal will be held for some time and then stored in memory.

Waveform Reconstruction

For visualizing the wave, the DSO uses the technique of interpolation. The interpolation is
the process of creating new data points with the help of the known data points. Linear interpolation
and sinusoidal interpolation are the two techniques used.

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Advantages

 Portable
 Have the highest bandwidth
 User interface is simple
 Speed is high
 Prevents signal degradation (Data storage and analysis in the digital format)

Disadvantages

 Complex
 High cost

Applications

 Used in circuit debugging

 Used in testing during manufacturing
 Used in Radio Broadcasting
 Used in Research and medical field
 Used in video and audio recording equipment

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 Waveform Analyser

In electronics and communications, the periodic signal is represented in the form of DC component and some sinusoidal
harmonics. It is necessary to analyze the harmonics present in the signal. So, wave analyzers are used to measure the
amplitude of the harmonics in the domain of frequency with the help of tuned filters and voltmeters. The wave analyzer can
be tuned to analyze the frequency of the harmonic component of the signal whose amplitude is to be measured. Here is a
complete description of the Wave Analyzer.

Wave Analyzer Definition

An electronic instrument that analyzes the signal or wave by measuring the amplitude of the frequency components or
harmonics is called a Wave Analyzer. It is also known as signal analyzer or carrier frequency voltmeters or frequency-
selective voltmeters, or selective level voltmeters. This instrument uses a set of filters for tuning and voltmeters to analyze
the signal in the frequency domain. The wave analyzers are available in the RF range (low) and 50 MHz below range and also
runs through AF range with high-frequency resolution.

Block Diagram

The wave analyzer block diagram is shown below. It contains a primary detector, full-wave rectifier, and PMMC
galvanometer.

 Primary Detector: It is made up of an LC circuit. By adjusting the values of ‘L’ (inductor) and ‘C’, the particular
frequency component of the signal is allowed to measure.
 Full-wave Rectifier: The input AC signal is converted into the DC signal and the average value of the signal is
obtained
 PMMC Galvanometer: It is used to indicate the value of the signal i.e, the output of the full-wave rectifier.

Types of Wave Analyzer

There are two types of wave analyzers used to analyze the frequency components in the signal.

Basic Wave Analyzer

The basic wave analyzer circuit diagram is shown below. The basic wave analyzer works as a frequency selective voltmeter
because it is tuned to a particular frequency component and rejects all other components of the signal, which is to be
analyzed. The CRO or a voltmeter is used as an indicator to measure the amplitude. A switch is used to connect the set of
tuned filters with the indicator.
Principle and Working

The basic wave analyzer works on the principle of the frequency-selective voltmeter. It should be tuned to any one frequency
component of the signal and all other components are rejected. The particular selected frequency component of the
wave/signal is calibrated in the form of amplitude and its value indicated by a voltmeter or CRO.

From the circuit, the LC circuit is used as a primary detector to adjust the resonance to measure the desired frequency
component of the harmonics of the signal. The average DC value of the input signal is obtained by the full-wave rectifier. The
output of the full-wave rectifier is calibrated in the form of peak value and it is indicated by a DC voltmeter.

Based upon Frequency Ranges

Based on the frequency ranges, the wave analyzers are divided into two types.

Heterodyne Wave Analyzer

The electronic instrument that analyzes the periodic signal in the RF range and above MHz ranges, is called heterodyne
wave analyzer. It is also known as a superheterodyne wave analyzer. Its working principle is heterodyne (mix) of high IF
(intermediate frequency range) with the input signal, which is to be analyzed. The frequency components of the signal are
fed to the passband IF amplifier due to the tuning of the local oscillator. The IF amplifier is rectified and applied to the meter
circuit to display the output.

The block diagram of the heterodyne wave analyzer is shown below.

 The input RF signal that is to be analyzed is given to an input attenuator to attenuate the amplitude of the signal.
The output signal will be in the range of 0-18 MHz.
 The output of the input attenuator is fed to the untuned amplifier to amplify the RF signal and its output is fed to
the first mixer.
 The signal of the first mixer is heterodyned with the signal from the local oscillator in the frequency range of 30-
48MHz. The output of the first mixer will be in the 30MHz frequency range i.e., IF signal.
The IF amplifier amplifies the IF signal obtained from the first mixer.
 This amplified IF signal of 30MHz is heterodyned (mixed) with the Crystal oscillator signal frequency 30MHz in the
second mixer. As the frequencies of the signals are the same, the output frequency of the second mixer is 0 Hz.
  This output signal with 0 Hz is applied to an active low pass filter which has a frequency range of 0-1500MHz.
 The output of the active LPF is fed to the meter circuit to display the reading of the selected RF signal in the range
of volts or decibels.

Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer

> Principle: The frequency selective wave analyzer is one of the types of wave analyzer works on the
principle of the frequency-selective voltmeter. It is operated to measure the frequency in the audio range
of 20 Hz – 20 kHz. It uses a narrow-pass band filter and it is tuned to the desired frequency components
to measure. The block diagram of the frequency selective wave analyzer is shown below. The frequency
distortion is very low and bandwidth is also low nearly 1% of the selected frequency.

The AF input signal that is to be analyzed is given to an input attenuator. The signal contains maximum
amplitude and it is attenuated by the input attenuator. It works as a range multiplier because a high range
of amplitude of the signal is measured.

The output of the input attenuator is amplified by the driver amplifier and its output is fed to the high-Q filter section.

The high Q-filter section selected the particular frequency component and rejects the remaining unwanted frequencies of
the signal. It contains two RC sections, two amplifier filters, connected in cascade. By varying the value of the capacitor, the
frequency range can be changed. By varying the value of the resistor, the desired frequency can be changed within the
desired range.

The output of the High Q-filter is fed to the meter range attenuator to select the AF input signal. The AF input signal is
attenuated by a meter range attenuator. The output of the meter range attenuator is amplified by the output amplifier. The
output buffer drives the AF signal to the output devices such as counters, recorders, etc. The meter circuits display the
reading output of the AF signal in the range of volts and decibels.

Applications of Wave Analyzer

 The applications of wave analyzer are

 Measures the harmonic distortion of the signal.
 Desired frequency components of the signal can be selected to analyze the signal
 Used in harmonics analyzation whose signal is to be analyzed.
  Measuring the amplitude of the selected frequency component in the signal.
 Used to analyze the DC component in the periodic signal
 Used to reduce sound and vibration produced by the electrical machines in the industries.
 Used to measure the amplitude of the signal along with noise and interfering signals.
 Used as a harmonic distortion analyzer
 Used as an automatic frequency controller.
 Used in electrical measurements

Ref

https://www.watelectronics.com/what-is-wave-analyzer-working-its-applications/

https://www.elprocus.com/wave-analyzer-types-working/
 Digital Frequency Meter
A digital frequency meter is an electronic instrument that can measure even the smaller value of
frequency up to 3 decimals of a sinusoidal wave and displays it on the counter display. It counts the
4 9
frequency periodically and can measure in the range of frequencies between 10 to 10 hertz.

Functional Block diagram of Digital Frequency Meter

Working principle of Digital frequency meter

1. The unknown frequency signal is fed to the Schmitt trigger. The signal may be amplified before being
applied to Schmitt trigger.

2. In a Schmitt trigger, the signal is converted into a square wave with very fast rise and fall times, then
differentiated and clipped.

3. As a result, the output from a Schmitt trigger is a train of pulses, one pulse, for each cycle of the signal.

4. The output pulses from the Schmitt trigger are fed to a start/stop gate when this gate opens (start), the
input pulses pass through this gate and are fed to an electronic counter which starts registering the input
pulses.

5. When the gate is closed (stop), the input of pulses to counter ceases and it stops counting.

6. The counter displays the number of pulses that have passed through it in the time interval between the
start and stop. If this interval is known, the pulse rate and hence the frequency of the input signal can be
known. The frequency (f) of an unknown signal is given by
 f=N/t
where
f = frequency of an unknown signal
N = number of counts displayed by the counter
t = time interval between the start and stop of the gate

Applications of Digital frequency meter

1. It is used for testing radio equipment.
2. It is used for measuring vibration, strain

Ref

https://electricalvoice.com/digital-frequency-meter-block-diagram-working/

https://electricalworkbook.com/digital-frequency-meter/

https://www.elprocus.com/what-is-digital-frequency-meter-and-its-working/
 Harmonic Distortion Meter

Harmonic distortion is the interference in an AC power signal created by frequency multiples of the
sine wave. The non-linear characteristics of components cause harmonic distortion.

A Harmonic Distortion Analyzer measures the total harmonic power present in the test wave. The
simplest method is to suppress the fundamental frequency by means of a high pass filter whose cut
off frequency is a little above the fundamental frequency. This high pass allows only the harmonics
to pass and the total harmonic distortion can then be measured. Different types of Harmonic
Distortion Analyzer are given below.

1. Employing a Resonance Bridge:

The bridge shown in figure is balanced for the fundamental frequency, i.e. L and C are tuned to the
fundamental frequency. The bridge is unbalanced for the harmonics, i.e. only harmonic power will be
available at the output terminal and can be measured. If L and C are fixed components, then this method is
suitable only when the test wave has a fixed frequency.

2. Wien’s Bridge Method:

When a continuous adjustment of the fundamental frequency is desired, a Wien bridge arrangement is
used as shown in Figure. The bridge is balanced for the fundamental frequency. The fundamental energy is
dissipated in the bridge circuit elements. Only the harmonic components reach the output terminals. The
harmonic distortion output can then be measured with a meter. For balance at the fundamental frequency,
C1 = C2 = C, R1 = R2 = R, R3 = 2R4.

3. Bridged T-Network Method:

In the Figure, the L and C’s are tuned to the fundamental frequency, and R is adjusted to bypass
fundamental frequency. Only harmonic components will reach the output terminals and the distorted
output can be measured by the meter.

Harmonic Distortion Analyzer using the bridged T-network is shown below.

The switch S is first connected to point A so that the attenuator is excluded and the bridge T-network is
adjusted for full suppression of the fundamental frequency, i.e. minimum output. Minimum output indicates
that the bridged T-network is tuned to the fundamental frequency and that the fundamental frequency is
fully suppressed.

The switch is next connected to terminal B, i.e. the bridged T-network is excluded. Attenuation is adjusted
until the same reading is obtained on the meter. The attenuator reading indicates the total rms distortion.
Ref

https://www.eeeguide.com/harmonic-distortion-
analyzer/#:~:text=A%20Harmonic%20Distortion%20Analyzer%20measures,little%20above%20the%20fundam
ental%20frequency.

https://www.elprocus.com/harmonic-distortion-types-and-its-causes/
 Spectrum Analyzer or Frequency Analyzer

An oscilloscope is used for time-domain representation of the input signal. Whereas, a

spectrum analyzer is employed to analyze the frequency components present in the input signal.

Spectrum analyzer graphically displays the amplitude spectrum of radio signals with
respect to frequency. The amplitude is represented vertically on a logarithmic scale. While the
frequency can be represented on logarithmic or normal scale horizontally.

Block Diagram

There are three basic types of analyzers: the swept-tuned spectrum analyzer, the vector
signal analyzer, and the real-time spectrum analyzer.

The swept-tuned receiver is the commonly used spectrum analyzer. It is one of the most
used frequency measurement tools. This type of analyzer performs sweeping across the frequency
range, and display the amplitude of the frequency components.

The figure below shows the block diagram representation of a spectrum analyzer with
digital display.

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 1. RF Input Attenuator: When an increased range of broadband signals are applied to the
system, there might be the chance of overloading, distortion, and gain reduction.
Attenuation provides a suitable level of input signal to the system. It acts as a protective
device to the whole system.
2. Low Pass Filter: LPF restricts out of the range high-frequency signals. This blocks the
system from delivering unwanted signals. A few spectrum analyzers include pre-selector
where for blocking all the undesired frequency components.
3. Mixer: The mixer section functions as a frequency translator and transforms RF (Radio
Frequency) signals to IF (Intermediate Frequency) signals. The input signal and the output
of the local oscillator signal are the mixer input signals.
4. IF gain: It is a variable gain amplification device. This is utilized for correcting the signal’s
vertical position. It is constructed along with the input attenuator device in order to
eliminate any difference in the reference limit.
5. IF Filter: It is a BPF (Band pass Filter) which is centered at the intermediate frequency. The
bandwidth of the IF filter is termed as the resolution bandwidth of the entire device.
Minimizing the resolution bandwidth will increase the selectivity and SNR (Signal to Noise
Ratio); but it reduces the speed of the sweep.
6. Log Amp: Logarithmic Amplifier is used to display the amplitude on a logarithmic scale.
This is done to increase the range of amplitude that can be displayed.
7. Detector: The functionality of the detector is to transform the intermediate frequency wave
into video or baseband signal. This converted signal will get more digitized through the
analog to digital converter and it is represented on the vertical axis of the display. To detect
noise components, normal detection mode (also termed as rise and fall approach) is
employed. An abrupt fall and rise levels in the signal is considered as noise.
8. Video Filter: This unit is generally a LPF. It is utilized for smoothening the traces which are
to be shown on the display. The output signal drives the vertical axis of the display.
9. Local Oscillator: It is generally a voltage-regulated oscillator. It is employed for tuning the
analyzer. It is tuned using a sweep generator; and with this, frequency will be varied as per
the ramp signal voltage levels.

Types
There are mainly two types of spectrum analyzers where those are classified depending on
the signal’s spectrum. (i) Swept-Tuned Analyzer (ii) Fourier Transform Analyzer.

Advantages

 Swept type operates up to frequencies in many GHz.

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  FT spectrum analyzer can analyze signals very faster and sample by sample.
 FT spectrum analyzer also captures and analyzes phase related information of the signal.

Disadvantages

 Swept type can detect only continuous wave signals without any phase information.
 FT analyze cannot work at higher RF frequencies due to limitations on sampling rate of
ADC.

Applications

 Used in applications to calculate power levels of the signals

 Assess noise levels of the signals
 Used in the examination of wireless transmitters
 Used in telecommunication components
 Mobile communications
 Broadcasting devices
 Microwave communication systems
 Cable TV networks
 Radar systems

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Logic State Analyser

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Page 2 of 3
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 IEEE 488 General Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB)

GPIB is an interface bus or connection system used primarily to link electronics test equipment to a
central control to run automated tests. It can also be used for many data communication
requirements including general computer communications.

Most bench electronics test equipment has either a GPIB option or are fitted with it as standard.

The IEEE specification defines the basic mechanical electrical and protocol parameters. The IEEE
488.2 standard defines the related software specifications.

The GPIB or IEEE 488 bus is a very flexible system, allowing data to flow between any of the
instruments on the bus, at a speed suitable for the slowest active instrument. Up to fifteen
instruments may be connected together with a maximum bus length not exceeding 20 m; with no
more than 2 m between two adjacent test instruments.

Devices have a unique address on the bus. Test instruments are allocated addresses in the range 0 to
30.

Within IEEE 488, the equipment on the bus falls into three categories:

 Controller: As the name suggests, the controller is the entity that controls the operation of the
bus. It is usually a computer and it signals that instruments are to perform the various functions.
 The GPIB controller also ensures that no conflicts occur on the bus. It is possible for multiple
controllers to share the same bus; but only one can act as a controller at any particular time.
 Listener: A listener is an entity connected to the bus that accepts instructions from the bus. An
example of a listener is an item such as a printer that only accepts data from the bus. It could also
be a test instrument that does not take measurements.
 Talker: This is an entity on the bus that issues instructions / data onto the bus.

Many items of test equipment will fulfil more than one function. For example a voltmeter which is
controlled over the bus will act as a listener when it is being set up, and then when it is returning the
data, it will act as a talker. As such it is known as a talker / listener.

Advantages
 Simple & standard hardware interface
 Interface present on many bench instruments
 Rugged connectors & connectors used (although some insulation displacement cables appear
occasionally).
 Possible to connect multiple instruments to a single controller

Disadvantages
 Bulky connectors
 Cable reliability poor - often as a result of the bulky cables.
 Low bandwidth - slow compared to more modern interfaces
 Basic IEEE 422 does not mandate a command language (SCPI used in later implementations but
not included on all instruments.

Ref

https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/test-methods/gpib-ieee-488-bus/what-is-gpib-
ieee488.php