ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

B. Tech – 2nd Year 1st Semester

Unit - II
Prepared By: Dr. Suman Mishra – Professor & Head of the Department
Department of ECE, CMR Engineering College
 Unit-2
Bipolar Junction Transistor
(BJT)

Principle of Operation, Common Emitter, Common Base and Common

Collector Configurations, Transistor as a switch, switching times
Transistor Biasing and Stabilization - Operating point, DC & AC load lines,
Biasing – Fixed Bias, Self Bias, Bias Stability, Bias Compensation using
Diodes.
 Introduction
•The basic of electronic system nowadays is semiconductor device.
• The commonly used device is the BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor).
• It can be used as amplifier and logic switches.
• Transistors are the building blocks of memory devices.
• BJT consists of three terminals; Emitter: E; Base: B; Collector: C
• Two types of BJT: NPN transistor and PNP transistor
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)

NPN PNP
Position of the terminals and symbol of BJT.

• Base is located at the middle

and more thin from the level
of collector and emitter
• The emitter and collector
terminals are made of the
same type of semiconductor
material, while the base of the
other type of material
Transistor Structures
 The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) has three
separately doped regions and contains two pn junctions.
 Bipolar transistor is a 3-terminal device.
 Emitter (E)
 Base (B)
 Collector (C)

 The basic transistor principle is that the

voltage between two terminals controls the
current through the third terminal.
 Current in the transistor is due to the flow of both electrons
and holes, hence the name bipolar.
 Transistor Structures
 There are two types of bipolar junction transistor: npn and
pnp.
 The npn bipolar transistor contains a thin p-region
between two n-regions.

 The pnp bipolar transistor

contains a thin n-region
sandwiched between two p-
regions.
Transistor Construction

• 3 layer semiconductor device consisting of: 2 n-type and 1 p-type layers of

material forms npn transistor, 2 p-type and 1 n-type layers of material forms pnp
transistor.
• The term bipolar reflects the fact that holes and electrons participate in the
injection process into the oppositely polarized material.
• A single pn junction has two different types of bias:
- forward bias
- reverse bias
• Thus, a two-pn-junction device has four types of bias.
BJT Cross-Sections

NPN PNP
 Transistor Currents

-The arrow is always drawn to represent

the emitter.

-The arrow always point toward the

n-type

-The arrow indicates the direction of

IC = the collector current the emitter current
IB= the base current
IE= the emitter current
PNP transistor: Emitter to the Base
NPN transistor: Base to the Emitter
 The transistor can be imagined to be constructed by joining two diodes
together.
 It can be concluded that the function of transistor is based on the function
of the diodes.
3 Regions of Operation
 Active
Operating range of the amplifier.
Base-Emitter Junction forward biased.
Collector-Base Junction reverse biased

 Cutoff
The amplifier is basically off. There is
voltage but little current.
Both junctions reverse biased

 Saturation
The amplifier is full on. There is little
voltage but lots of current.
Both junctions forward biased
OPERATIONS - npn
ACTIVE MODE
+
VBE
 The base-emitter (B-E)
-
junction is forward biased and
the base-collector (C-B)
junction is reverse-biased,.
 Since the B-E junction is
forward biased, electrons
from the emitter are injected
iB
across the B-E junction into
the base  IE
 Once in the base region, the Some electrons, in passing
electrons are quickly through the base region,
accelerated through the recombine with majority carrier
base due to the reverse- holes in the base. This produces
biased C-B region  IC the current IB
TO ILLUSTRATE

B E
C -
VBE
+

•Imagine the marbles as electrons

•A flat base region with gaps where the
marbles may fall/trapped – recombine
•A sloping collector region represents
high electric field in the C-B region
•Hence, when enough energy is given
to the marbles, they will be accelerated
towards to base region with enough
momentum to pass the base and
straight ‘fly’ to the collector
MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSIONS
IC

IB

+
IE
VBE
-

Based on KCL: IE = IC + IB
No. of electrons crossing the base region and then directly into the
collector region is a constant factor  of the no. of electrons exiting the
base region
I C =  IB
No. of electrons reaching the collector region is directly proportional to
the no. of electrons injected or crossing the base region.
Ideally  = 1, but in reality it is between 0.9
IC =  I E and 0.998.
Based on KCL: IE = IC + IB IC =  IB IC =  IE

IE =  IB + IB = IB(  + 1) IE = IB(  + 1)

Now
With IC =  IB  IB = IC / 
Hence,
IE = [ IC / ] (  + 1)
IC = I E [  /  + 1 ]

Comparing with IC =  IE =[ /+1]

 C

OPERATIONS - pnp
IB
FORWARD ACTIVE MODE IC
B
-
 The emitter – base (E- B)
VEB IE
junction is forward biased and
the base-collector (B- C) +
junction is reverse-biased,. E

**Notice that it is VEB

Based on KCL: IE = IC + IB
pnp Transistor- Active mode
SUMMARY: Circuit Symbols and
Conventions
Based on KCL: IE = IC + IB
npn bipolar transistor simple
block diagram and circuit symbol.
Arrow is on the emitter terminal
that indicates the direction of
emitter current (out of emitter
terminal for the npn device)

pnp bipolar transistor simple

block diagram and circuit symbol.
Arrow is on the emitter terminal
that indicates the direction of
emitter current (into of emitter
terminal for the pnp device)
NPN PNP

IC =  IB

IC =  IE

IE = IB(  + 1)

=[ /+1]  = [ / 1 -  ]

Based on KCL: IE = IC + IB
Common Base Connection (CB Configuration)
The configuration in which the base of the transistor is common between emitter and collector circuit
is called a common base configuration. The common base circuit arrangement for NPN and PNP
transistor is shown in the figure below. In common base-emitter connection, the input is connected
between emitter and base while the output is taken across collector and base.
 Current Amplification factor (α)

The ratio of output current to input current is known as a current amplification factor. In the
common base configuration, the collector current IC is the output current, and the emitter current
IE is the input current. Thus, the ratio of change in emitter current to the collector at constant
collector-base voltage is known as a current amplification factor of a transistor in common base
configuration. It is represented by α (alpha).
Where ΔIC is the change in the
collector and ΔIE is changed in
emitter current at constant VCB.
Now,

The value of current amplification factor is less than unity. The

value of the amplification factor (α) reaches to unity when the
base current reduces to zero. The base current becomes zero
only when it is thin and lightly doped. The practical value of the
amplification factor varies from 0.95 to 0.99 in the commercial
transistor.
Collector Current

The base current flows because of the recombination of the electrons and holes in the base region.
The collector current increase slightly because of the leakage current flows due to the minority
charge carrier. The total collector current consists;
1.The large percentage of emitter current that reaches the collector terminal, i.e., αIE.
2.The leakage current is Ileakage.
3.The minority charge carrier current flows because of the flow of minority charge carrier across
the collector-base junction as the junction is reverse biased.
4. Its value is much smaller than αIE.
Total collector current,

The leakage current is also abbreviated as ICO i.e., the collector current with emitter circuit open.
Characteristics of Common Base (CB) Configuration

The characteristic diagram of determining the common base characteristic is shown in the figure
below.

The emitter to base voltage VEB can be varied by adjusting the potentiometer R1. A series resistor
RS is inserted in the emitter circuit to limit the emitter current IE. The value of the emitter current
change to a large value even the value of a potentiometer slightly change. The value of collector
voltage changes slightly by changing the value of the potentiometer R2. The input and output
characteristic curve of the potentiometer explains below in details.
Input Characteristic
The curve plotted between emitter current IE and the emitter-base voltage VEB at constant
collector base voltage VCB is called input characteristic curve. The input characteristic curve is
shown in the figure below.

The following points are taken into consideration from

the characteristic curve.
1. For a specific value of VCB, the curve is a diode
characteristic in the forward region. The emitter
junction is forward biased.
2. When the value of the input voltage increases the
value of emitter current increases slightly. The
junction behaves like a diode. The emitter and
collector current is independent of the collector base
voltage VCB.
3. The emitter current IE increases with the small
increase in emitter-base voltage VEB. It shows that
input resistance is small.
Input Resistance
The ratio of change in emitter-base voltage to the resulting change in emitter current at constant
collector base voltage VCB is known as input resistance. The input resistance is expressed by the
formula
The value of collector base voltage
VCB increases with the increases in
the collector-base current. The
value of input resistance is very
low, and their value may vary from
a few ohms to 10 ohms.

Output Characteristic Curve

In common base configuration, the curve
plotted between the collector current and
collector base voltage VCB at constant emitter
current IE is called output characteristic. The
CB configuration of PNP transistor is shown in
the figure below. The following points from
the characteristic curve are taken into
consideration.
1.The active region of the collector-base junction is reverse biased, the collector current IC is
almost equal to the emitter current IE. The transistor is always operated in this region.
2.The curve of the active regions is almost flat. The large charges in VCB produce only a tiny
change in IC The circuit has very high output resistance ro.
3.When VCB is positive, the collector-base junction is forward bias and the collector current
decrease suddenly. This is the saturation state in which the collector current does not depend on
the emitter current.
4.When the emitter current is zero, the collector current is not zero. The current which flows
through the circuit is the reverse leakage current, i.e., ICBO. The current is temperature depends
and its value range from 0.1 to 1.0 μA for silicon transistor and 2 to 5 μA for germanium
transistor.
Output Resistance
The ratio of change in collector-base voltage to the change in collector current at constant
emitter current IE is known as output resistance.

The output characteristic of the change in collector current is very little with the change in VCB.
With the change in collector-base voltage. The output resistance is very high of the order of
several kilo-Ohms.
Common Emitter Connection (or CE Configuration)
The configuration in which the emitter is connected between the collector and base is
known as a common emitter configuration. The input circuit is connected between emitter
and base, and the output circuit is taken from the collector and emitter. Thus, the emitter
is common to both the input and the output circuit, and hence the name is the common
emitter configuration. The common emitter arrangement for NPN and PNP transistor is
shown in the figure below.
Current Amplification Factor (β)
The current amplification factor is defined as the ratio of the output and input current in a common
emitter configuration. In common emitter amplification, the output current is the collector current
IC, and the input current is the base current IB.
In other words, the ratio of change in collector current with respect to base current is known as the
base amplification factor. It is represented by β (beta).

Relation Between Current Amplification Factor (α) & Base Amplification Factor (β)

The relation between Β and α can be derived as below. We Know that,

Now,

Substituting the value of ΔIE in equation (1), we get,

 The above equation shows that the when the α reaches to unity, then the β reaches to infinity.
In other words, the current gain in a common emitter configuration is very high, and because
of this reason, the common emitter arrangement circuit is used in all the transistor
applications.

Collector Current
In CE configuration, the input current IB and the output current IC are related by the equation shown
below.
If the base circuit is open (i.e., IB = 0). The collector
current is current to the emitter, and this current is
abbreviated as ICEO that means collector - emitter current
with the base open.

Comparing equations (4) and (5), we get,

As,
Characteristics of Common emitter (CE) Configuration
The characteristic of the common emitter transistor circuit is shown in the figure below. The base to
emitter voltage varies by adjusting the potentiometer R1. And the collector to emitter voltage
varied by adjusting the potentiometer R2. For the various setting, the current and voltage are taken
from the milliammeters and voltmeter. On the basis of these readings, the input and output curve
plotted on the curve.
Input Characteristic Curve

The curve plotted between base current IB and the base-emitter voltage VEB is called Input
characteristics curve. For drawing the input characteristic the reading of base currents is taken
through the ammeter and emitter voltage VBE at constant collector-emitter voltage. The curve for
different value of collector-base current is shown in the figure below.
The curve for common base configuration is similar to a
forward diode characteristic. The base current
IB increases with the increases in the emitter-base
voltage VBE. Thus the input resistance of the CE
configuration is comparatively higher that of CB
configuration.
The effect of CE does not cause large deviation on the
curves, and hence the effect of a change in VCE on the
input characteristic is ignored.
Input Resistance: The ratio of change in base-emitter
voltage VBE to the change in base current ∆IB at
constant collector-emitter voltage VCE is known as input
resistance, i.e.,
 Output Characteristic
In CE configuration the curve drawn between collector current IC and collector-emitter voltage
VCE at a constant base current IB is called output characteristic. The characteristic curve for the
typical NPN transistor in CE configuration is shown in the figure below.
In the active region, the collector current increases
slightly as collector-emitter VCE current increases. The
slope of the curve is quite more than the output
characteristic of CB configuration. The output
resistance of the common base connection is more
than that of CE connection.

The value of the collector current IC increases with the

increase in VCE at constant voltage IB, the value β of
also increases.

When the VCE falls, the IC also decreases rapidly. The

collector-base junction of the transistor always in
forward bias during saturation. In the saturation
region, the collector current becomes independent and
free from the input current IB

In the active region IC = βIB

Output Resistance: The ratio of the variation in collector-emitter voltage to the collector-
emitter current is known at collector currents at a constant base current IB is called output
resistance ro.

The value of output resistance of CE configuration is more than that of CB Configuration.

Common Collector Connection (or CC Configuration)
The configuration in which the collector is common between emitter and base is known as CC
configuration. In CC configuration, the input circuit is connected between collector and base and
the output is taken from the collector and emitter. The collector is common to both the input
and output circuit and hence the name common collector connection or common collector
configuration.
Current Amplifier Factor (Y)

The current amplification factor is defined as the ratio of the output current to the input current.
In common emitter configuration, the output current is emitter current IE, whereas the input
current is base current IB.
Thus, the ratio of change in emitter current to the change in base current is known as the current
amplification factor. It is expressed by the Y.

Relation Between Υ and α

The Y is the current amplification factor of common collector configuration and the α is current
amplification factor of common base connection.
and,

Substituting the value of ΔIB in above first equation, we get,

The relation shows that the value of Y is nearly equal to β. This circuit
is mainly used for current amplification, because of this arrangement
input resistance is high, and output resistance is very low. The voltage
gain of the resistance is very low (almost equal to 1). This circuit
arrangement is mainly used for impedance matching.
Collector Current
We know that,

Input Characteristic Curve

The input characteristic of the common collector configuration is drawn between collector base
voltage VCE and base current IB at constant emitter current voltage VCE. The value of the output
voltage VCE changes with respect to the input voltage VBC and IB With the help of these values,
input characteristic curve is drawn. The input characteristic curve is shown above.
Output Characteristic Curve
The output characteristic of the common emitter circuit is drawn between the emitter-collector
voltage VEC and output current IE at constant input current IB. If the input current IB is zero, then
the collector current also becomes zero, and no current flows through the transistor.

The transistor operates in active region when the

base current increases and reaches to saturation
region. The graph is plotted by keeping the base
current IB constant and varying the emitter-
collector voltage VCE, the values of output current
IE are noticed with respect to VCE. By using the
VCE and IE at constant IB the output characteristic
curve is drawn.
Transistor as a Switch
A transistor is used as an electronic switch by driving it either in saturation or in cut off. The region between
these two is the linear region. A transistor works as a linear amplifier in this region. The Saturation and
Cut off states are important consideration in this regard.
ON & OFF States of a Transistor
There are two main regions in the operation of a transistor which we can consider as ON and OFF states. They
are saturation and cut off states. Let us have a look at the behavior of a transistor in those two states.
Operation in Cut-off condition
The following figure shows a transistor in cut-off region.
Operating Point in Transistor
The point which is obtained from the values of the IC (collector current) or VCE (collector-
emitter voltage) when no signal is given to the input is known as the operating point or Q-
point in a transistor. It is called operating point because variations of IC (collector current) and
VCE (collector-emitter voltage) takes place around this point when no signal is applied to the input.
The operating point is also called quiescent (silent) point or simply Q-point because it is a point
on IC – VCE characteristic when the transistor is silent or no input signal is applied to the circuit.
The operating point can be easily obtained by the DC load line method. The DC load line is
explained below.
According to the load line condition, the OA = VCE = VCC and OB = IC = VCC/RC is shown on the
output characteristic curve above. The point Q is the operating point where the DC load line
intersects the base current IB at the output characteristic curves in the absence of input signal.

Where IC= OD mA
VCE = OC volts.

The position of the Q-point depends on the applications of the transistor. If the transistor is used
as a switch then for open switch the Q-point is in the cutoff region, and for the close switch, the
Q-point is in the saturation region. The Q-point lies in the middle of the line for the transistor
which operates as an amplifier.

Note: In saturation region, both the collector base region and the emitter-base region are in
forward biased and heavy current flow through the junction. And the region in which both the
junctions of the transistor are in reversed biased is called the cut-off region.

Transistor Load Line Analysis

The load line analysis of transistor means for the given value of collector-emitter voltage we find
the value of collector current. This can be done by plotting the output characteristic and then
determine the collector current IC with respect to collector-emitter voltage VCE. The load line
analysis can easily be obtained by determining the output characteristics of the load line analysis
methods.
DC Load Line
The DC load represents the desirable combinations of the collector current and the collector-
emitter voltage. It is drawn when no signal is given to the input, and the transistor is biased.
Consider a CE NPN transistor circuit shown in the figure below where no signal is applied to the
input side. For this circuit, DC condition will obtain, and the output characteristic of such a circuit is
shown in the figure below.
The DC load line curve of the above circuit is shown in the figure below.
 By applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the collector circuit, we get,

The above equation shows that the VCC and RC are the constant value, and it is the first-degree
equation which is represented by the straight line on the output characteristic. This load line is known
as a DC load line. The input characteristic is used to determine the locus of VCE and IC point for the
given value of RC. The end point of the line are located as

1. The collector-emitter voltage VCE is maximum when the collector current IC = 0 then from the
equation (1) we get,

The first point A (OA = VCC) on the collector-emitter voltage axis shown in the figure above.

2. The collector current IC becomes maximum when the collector-emitter voltage VCE = 0 then from
the equation (1) we get.

This gives the second point on the collector current axis as shown in the figure above.
By adding the points A and B, the DC load line is drawn. With the help of load line, any value of
collector current can be determined.
AC Load Line
• AC load line determines maximum undistorted output
• Can calculate maximum power
• Q-point also on AC load line
• AC load line has different slope
• CE amplifier circuit
DC and AC load lines
The AC load across the collector is RL’
RL’ = RC in parallel with RL
Since RL’ < RC
1 / RL’ > 1 / RC
Hence the slope of the AC load line will be more steep as
compared to the DC load line. The intersection point of the DC
load line and AC load line is called the Q-Point or Quiescent
point.
Transistor Biasing
Transistors are one of the largely used semiconductor devices which are used for wide variety of applications
including amplification and switching. However to achieve these functions satisfactorily, transistor has to be
supplied with certain amount of current and/or voltage. The process of setting these conditions for a transistor
circuit is referred to as Transistor Biasing. This goal can be accomplished by variety of techniques which give
rise to different kinds of biasing circuits. However, all of these circuits are based on the principle of providing
right-amount of base current, IB and in-turn the collector current, IC from the supply voltage, VCC when no
signal is present at the input. Moreover the collector resistor RC has to be chosen so that the collector-emitter
voltage, VCE remains greater than 0.5V for transistors made of germanium and greater than 1V for the
transistors made of silicon. A few of the biasing circuits are explained below.

Fixed Base Bias or Fixed Resistance Bias

The biasing circuit shown in the Figure 1 has a base resistor RB connected between the base and the VCC. Here
the base-emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased by the voltage drop across RB which is the result of IB
flowing through it. From the figure, the mathematical expression for IB is obtained as
Here the values of VCC and VBE are fixed while the value for RB is
constant once the circuit is designed. This leads to a constant value for IB
resulting in a fixed operating point due to which the circuit is named as
fixed base bias. This kind of bias, results in a stability factor of (β+1)
which leads to very poor thermal stability. The reason behind this is the
fact the β-parameter of a transistor is unpredictable and varies up to a
large extent even in the case of transistor with the same model and type.
This variation in β results in large changes in IC which cannot be
compensated by any means in the proposed design. Hence it can be
concluded that this kind of β dependent bias is prone to the changes in
operating point brought about by the variations in transistor
characteristics and temperature.
However it is to be noted that fixed base bias is most simple and uses
less number of components. Moreover it offers the chance for the user to
change the operating point anywhere in the active region just by
changing the value of RB in the design. Further it offers no load on the
source as there is no resistor across base-emitter junction. Due to these
factors this kind of biasing is used in switching applications and to
achieve automatic gain control in the transistors. Here, the expressions
for other voltages and currents are given as
Collector Feedback Bias
In this circuit (Figure 2), the base resistor RB is connected across the collector and the base terminals of the
transistor. This means that the base voltage, VB and the collector voltage, VC are inter-dependent due to the fact
that

Where,
From these equations, it is seen that an increase in IC decreases VC which results
in a reduced IB, automatically reducing IC. This indicates that, for this type of
biasing network, the Q-point (operating point) remains fixed irrespective of the
variations in the load current causing the transistor to always be in its active
region regardless of β value. Further this circuit is also referred to as self-biasing
negative feedback circuit as the feedback is from output to input via RB. This
kind of relatively simple bias has a stability factor which is less than (β+1),
which results in a better stability when compared to fixed bias. However the
action of reducing the collector current by base current leads to a reduced
amplifier gain.
Here, other voltages and currents are expressed as
Dual Feedback Bias
Figure 3 shows a dual feedback bias network which is an improvisation over the collector feedback biasing circuit
as it has an additional resistor R1 which increases the stability of the circuit. This is because an increase in the
current flow through the base resistors results in a network which is resistant to the variations in the values of β.

Here,
Fixed Bias with Emitter Resistor
As evident from Figure 4, this biasing circuit is nothing but a fixed bias
network with an additional emitter resistor, RE. Here, if IC rises due to an
increase in temperature, then the IE also increases which further increases
the voltage drop across RE. This results in the reduction of VC, causing a
decrease in IB which in turn brings IC back to its normal value. Thus this
kind of biasing network is seen to offer better stability when compared to
fixed base bias network. However the presence of RE reduces the voltage
gain of the amplifier as it results in unwanted AC feedback. In this circuit,
the mathematical equations for different voltages and current are given as
 Emitter Bias
This biasing network (Figure 5) uses two supply voltages, VCC and VEE, which are equal but opposite in polarity.
Here VEE forward biases the base-emitter junction through RE while VCC reverse biases the collector-base
junction. Moreover

In this kind of biasing, IC can be made

independent of both β and VBE by
choosing RE >> RB/β and VEE >> VBE,
respectively; which results in a stable
operating point.
Emitter Feedback Bias
This kind of self-emitter bias (Figure 6) employs both collector-base feedback as well as emitter feedback to result
in a higher stability. This is because, here, the emitter-base junction is forward biased by the voltage drop
occurring across the emitter resistor, RE due to the flow of emitter current, IE. An increase in the temperature
increases IC, causing an increase in the emitter current, IE. This also leads to an increase in the voltage drop across
RE which decreases the collector voltage, VC and in turn IB, thereby bringing back IC to its original value.

However this results in a reduced output gain due to the presence of a

degenerative feedback which is nothing but an unwanted AC feedback,
wherein the amount of current flowing through the feedback resistor is
determined by the value of the collector voltage, VC. This effect can be
compensated by using a large bypass capacitor across the emitter
resistor, RE. The expressions corresponding to various voltages and
currents in this low-power-supply-voltage suitable biasing network are
given as
 Voltage Divider Bias
This type of biasing network (Figure 7) employs a voltage divider formed by the resistors R1 and R2 to bias the
transistor. This means that here the voltage developed across R2 will be the base voltage of the transistor which
forward biases its base-emitter junction. In general, the current through R2 will be fixed to be 10 times required
base current, IB (i.e. I2 = 10IB). This is done to avoid its effect on the voltage divider current or on the changes in β.
Further, from the circuit, one gets

In this kind of biasing, IC is resistant to the changes in both β as well as VBE which
results in a stability factor of 1 (theoretically), the maximum possible thermal
stability. This is because, as IC increases due to a rise in temperature, IE also
increases causing an increase in the emitter voltage VE which in turn reduces the
base-emitter voltage, VBE. This results in the decrease of base current IB which
restores IC to its original value. The higher stability offered by this biasing circuit
makes it to be most widely used inspite of providing a decreased amplifier gain
due to the presence of RE.
Apart from the analyzed basic types of biasing networks, Bipolar Junction
Transistors (BJTs) can also be biased using active networks or by using either
silicon or Zener diodes. Further it is also to be noted that although the biasing
circuits are explained for BJTs, similar bias networks also exist in the case of Field
Effect Transistors (FETs).
Bias Stability
Biasing is the process of providing DC voltage which helps in the functioning of the circuit. A transistor is based in
order to make the emitter base junction forward biased and collector base junction reverse biased, so that it
maintains in active region, to work as an amplifier.
Transistor Biasing
The proper flow of zero signal collector current and the maintenance of proper collector emitter voltage during the
passage of signal is known as Transistor Biasing. The circuit which provides transistor biasing is called
as Biasing Circuit.

Need for DC biasing

If a signal of very small voltage is given to the input of BJT, it cannot be amplified. Because, for a BJT, to amplify a
signal, two conditions have to be met.
•The input voltage should exceed cut-in voltage for the transistor to be ON.
•The BJT should be in the active region, to be operated as an amplifier.
If appropriate DC voltages and currents are given through BJT by external sources, so that BJT operates in active
region and superimpose the AC signals to be amplified, then this problem can be avoided. The given DC voltage
and currents are so chosen that the transistor remains in active region for entire input AC cycle. Hence DC biasing
is needed.
The below figure shows a transistor amplifier that is provided with DC biasing on both input and output circuits.

For a transistor to be operated as a faithful amplifier, the operating point should be stabilized. The factors that
affect the stabilization of operating point are as below.
Factors affecting the operating point
The main factor that affect the operating point is the temperature. The operating point shifts due to change in
temperature.
As temperature increases, the values of ICE, β, VBE gets affected.
•ICBO gets doubled (for every 10o rise)
•VBE decreases by 2.5mv (for every 1o rise)
So the main problem which affects the operating point is temperature. Hence operating point should be
made independent of the temperature so as to achieve stability. Biasing circuits tries to maintain the
operating point constant.
Stabilization
The process of making the operating point independent of temperature changes or variations in transistor
parameters is known as Stabilization.
Once the stabilization is achieved, the values of IC and VCE become independent of temperature variations or
replacement of transistor. A good biasing circuit helps in the stabilization of operating point.
Need for Stabilization
Stabilization of the operating point has to be achieved due to the following reasons.
•Temperature dependence of IC
•Individual variations
•Thermal runaway
Temperature Dependence of IC
As the expression for collector current IC is

The collector leakage current ICBO is greatly influenced by temperature variations. To come out of this, the biasing
conditions are set so that zero signal collector current IC = 1 mA. Therefore, the operating point needs to be
stabilized i.e. it is necessary to keep IC constant.

Individual Variations
As the value of β and the value of VBE are not same for every transistor, whenever a transistor is replaced, the
operating point tends to change. Hence it is necessary to stabilize the operating point.

Thermal Runaway
As the expression for collector current IC is given by;

The flow of collector current and also the collector leakage current causes heat dissipation. If the operating point is
not stabilized, there occurs a cumulative effect which increases this heat dissipation.
The self-destruction of such an un-stabilized transistor is known as Thermal run away.
In order to avoid thermal runaway and the destruction of transistor, it is necessary to stabilize the operating point,
i.e., to keep IC constant.
Stability Factor
It is understood that IC should be kept constant in spite of variations of ICBO or ICO. The extent to which a biasing
circuit is successful in maintaining this is measured by Stability factor. It denoted by S.
By definition, the rate of change of collector current IC with respect to the collector leakage current ICO at constant
β and IB is called Stability factor.

Hence we can understand that any change in collector leakage current changes the collector current to a great
extent. The stability factor should be as low as possible so that the collector current doesn’t get affected. S=1 is
the ideal value.
The general expression of stability factor for a CE configuration can be obtained as under.

Differentiating above expression with respect to I C, we get

Or
 Or

Hence the stability factor S depends on β, IB and IC.

Stability factor S’ and S”: The Stability factor S’ is defined as the rate of change of IC with VBE, keeping ICO and β constant.
S’= ∂ IC / ∂ VBE = Δ IC / Δ VBE

The biasing in transistor circuits is done by using two DC sources VBB and VCC. It is economical to minimize the
DC source to one supply instead of two which also makes the circuit simple.
The commonly used methods of transistor biasing are
•Base Resistor method
•Collector to Base bias
•Biasing with Collector feedback resistor
•Voltage-divider bias
All of these methods have the same basic principle of obtaining the required value of IB and IC from VCC in the
zero signal conditions.
Base Resistor Method
In this method, a resistor RB of high resistance is connected in base, as the name implies. The required zero
signal base current is provided by VCC which flows through RB. The base emitter junction is forward biased, as
base is positive with respect to emitter.
The required value of zero signal base current and hence the collector current (as IC = βIB) can be made to flow by
selecting the proper value of base resistor RB. Hence the value of RB is to be known. The figure below shows how
a base resistor method of biasing circuit looks like.
 Let IC be the required zero signal collector current. Therefore,

Considering the closed circuit from VCC, base, emitter and ground, while applying the Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we
get,

Or

Therefore

Since VBE is generally quite small as compared to V CC, the former can be neglected with little error. Then,

We know that VCC is a fixed known quantity and IB is chosen at some suitable value. As RB can be found
directly, this method is called as fixed bias method.
Stability factor

In fixed-bias method of biasing, IB is independent of IC so that,

Substituting the above value in the previous equation,

Thus the stability factor in a fixed bias is (β+1) which means that IC changes (β+1) times as much as any
change in ICO.
Advantages
•The circuit is simple.
•Only one resistor RE is required.
•Biasing conditions are set easily.
•No loading effect as no resistor is present at base-emitter junction.
Disadvantages
•The stabilization is poor as heat development can’t be stopped.
•The stability factor is very high. So, there are strong chances of thermal run away.
Hence, this method is rarely employed.

Collector to Base Bias

The collector to base bias circuit is same as base bias circuit
except that the base resistor RB is returned to collector, rather than
to VCC supply as shown in the figure below.

This circuit helps in improving the stability considerably. If the

value of IC increases, the voltage across RL increases and hence
the VCE also increases. This in turn reduces the base current IB.
This action somewhat compensates the original increase.
The required value of RB needed to give the zero signal collector
current IC can be calculated as follows.
Voltage drop across RL will be
From the figure,

Or

Therefore

Or
Applying KVL we have

Or

Therefore

Since VBE is almost independent of collector current, we get

We know that

Therefore

This value is smaller than (1+β) which is obtained for fixed bias circuit. Thus there is an improvement in the
stability.
This circuit provides a negative feedback which reduces the gain of the amplifier. So the increased stability of the
collector to base bias circuit is obtained at the cost of AC voltage gain.

Biasing with Collector Feedback resistor:

In this method, the base resistor RB has its one end connected to base and the other to the collector as its name
implies. In this circuit, the zero signal base current is determined by VCB but not by VCC.
It is clear that VCB forward biases the base-emitter junction and hence base current IB flows through RB. This
causes the zero signal collector current to flow in the circuit. The below figure shows the biasing with collector
feedback resistor circuit.
The required value of RB needed to give the zero signal current IC can be determined as follows.
Advantages
•The circuit is simple as it needs only one resistor.
•This circuit provides some stabilization, for lesser changes.
Disadvantages
•The circuit doesn’t provide good stabilization.
•The circuit provides negative feedback.
Voltage Divider Bias Method
Among all the methods of providing biasing and
stabilization, the voltage divider bias method is the most
prominent one. Here, two resistors R1 and R2 are
employed, which are connected to VCC and provide
biasing. The resistor RE employed in the emitter provides
stabilization.
The name voltage divider comes from the voltage divider
formed by R1 and R2. The voltage drop across R2 forward
biases the base-emitter junction. This causes the base
current and hence collector current flow in the zero signal
conditions. The figure below shows the circuit of voltage
divider bias method.
Suppose that the current flowing through resistance R1 is
I1. As base current IB is very small, therefore, it can be
assumed with reasonable accuracy that current flowing
through R2 is also I1.
Now let us try to derive the expressions for collector current and collector voltage.
Collector Current, IC
From the circuit, it is evident that,

From the above expression, it is evident that IC doesn’t depend upon β. VBE is very small that IC doesn’t get
affected by VBE at all. Thus IC in this circuit is almost independent of transistor parameters and hence good
stabilization is achieved.
 Collector-Emitter Voltage, VCE
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the collector side,

Suppose there is a rise in temperature, then the collector current IC decreases, which causes the voltage drop
across RE to increase. As the voltage drop across R2 is V2, which is independent of IC, the value of VBE decreases.
The reduced value of IB tends to restore IC to the original value.
Stability Factor: The equation for Stability factor of this circuit is obtained as
If the ratio R0/RE is very small, then R0/RE can be neglected as compared to 1 and the stability factor becomes

Stability Factor = S =(β+1)×1 / β+1=1

This is the smallest possible value of S and leads to the maximum possible thermal stability.
So far we have seen different stabilization techniques. The stabilization occurs due to negative feedback action.
The negative feedback, although improves the stability of operating point, it reduces the gain of the amplifier.
As the gain of the amplifier is a very important consideration, some compensation techniques are used to maintain
excellent bias and thermal stabilization. Let us now go through such bias compensation techniques.
Diode Compensation for Instability
These are the circuits that implement compensation techniques using diodes to deal with biasing instability. The
stabilization techniques refer to the use of resistive biasing circuits which permit IB to vary so as to keep
IC relatively constant.
There are two types of diode compensation methods. They are;
•Diode compensation for instability due to V BE variation
•Diode compensation for instability due to ICO variation
Let us understand these two compensation methods in detail.
Diode Compensation for Instability due to VBE Variation
In a Silicon transistor, the changes in the value of VBE results in the changes in IC. A diode can be employed in the
emitter circuit in order to compensate the variations in VBE or ICO. As the diode and transistor used are of same
material, the voltage VD across the diode has same temperature coefficient as VBE of the transistor.
The following figure shows self-bias with stabilization and compensation.
The diode D is forward biased by the source VDD and the
resistor RD. The variation in VBE with temperature is same
as the variation in VD with temperature, hence the quantity
(VBE – VD) remains constant. So the current IC remains
constant in spite of the variation in VBE.
Diode Compensation for Instability due to ICO Variation: The following figure shows the circuit diagram of a
transistor amplifier with diode D used for compensation of variation in I CO.

So, the reverse saturation current IO of the diode will increase with
temperature at the same rate as the transistor collector saturation
current ICO.

The diode D is reverse biased by VBE and the current through it is

the reverse saturation current IO.
Now the base current is,

Substituting the above value in the expression for collector current.

I is almost constant and if IO of diode and ICO of transistor track each

other over the operating temperature range, then IC remains constant.
Other Compensations
There are other compensation techniques which refer to the use of temperature sensitive devices such as diodes,
transistors, thermistors, Sensistors, etc. to compensate for the variation in currents.
There are two popular types of circuits in this method, one using a thermistor and the other using a Sensistor.
Thermistor Compensation
Thermistor is a temperature sensitive device. It has negative temperature coefficient. The resistance of a
thermistor increases when the temperature decreases and it decreases when the temperature increases. The
below figure shows a self-bias amplifier with thermistor compensation.
In an amplifier circuit, the changes that occur in ICO, VBE and β
with temperature, increases the collector current. Thermistor is
employed to minimize the increase in collector current. As the
temperature increases, the resistance RT of thermistor decreases,
which increases the current through it and the resistor RE. Now,
the voltage developed across RE increases, which reverse biases
the emitter junction. This reverse bias is so high that the effect of
resistors R1 and R2 providing forward bias also gets reduced. This
action reduces the rise in collector current.
Thus the temperature sensitivity of thermistor compensates the
increase in collector current, occurred due to temperature.
Sensistor Compensation
A Sensistor is a heavily doped semiconductor that has positive temperature coefficient. The resistance of a
Sensistor increases with the increase in temperature and decreases with the decrease in temperature. The figure
below shows a self-bias amplifier with Sensistor compensation.

In the figure, the Sensistor may be placed in parallel with R1 or in

parallel with RE. As the temperature increases, the resistance of
the parallel combination, thermistor and R1 increases and their
voltage drop also increases. This decreases the voltage drop
across R2. Due to the decrease of this voltage, the net forward
emitter bias decreases. As a result of this, IC decreases.
Hence by employing the Sensistor, the rise in the collector current
which is caused by the increase of ICO, VBE and β due to
temperature, gets controlled.
Thermal Resistance
The transistor is a temperature dependent device. When the transistor is operated, the collector junction gets
heavy flow of electrons and hence has much heat generated. This heat if increased further beyond the permissible
limit, damages the junction and thus the transistor.
In order to protect itself from damage, the transistor dissipates heat from the junction to the transistor case and
from there to the open air surrounding it.
Let, the ambient temperature or the temperature of surrounding air = TAoC
And, the temperature of collector-base junction of the transistor = TJoC
As TJ > TA, the difference TJ - TA is greater than the power dissipated in the transistor PD will be greater. Thus,

Where H is the constant of proportionality, and is called as Thermal resistance.

Thermal resistance is the resistance to heat flow from junction to surrounding air. It is denoted by H.

The unit of H is oC/Watt.

If the thermal resistance is low, the transfer of heat from the transistor into the air, will be easy. If the transistor
case is larger, the heat dissipation will be better. This is achieved by the use of Heat sink.
Heat Sink
The transistor that handle larger powers, dissipates more heat during operation. This heat if not dissipated
properly, could damage the transistor. Hence the power transistors are generally mounted on large metal cases
to provide a larger area to get the heat radiated that is generated during its operation.
The metal sheet that helps to dissipate the additional heat from the transistor is known as the heat sink. The
ability of a heat sink depends upon its material, volume, area, shape, contact between case and sink, and the
movement of air around the sink.
The heat sink is selected after considering all these factors. The image shows a power transistor with a heat
sink.
A tiny transistor in the above image is fixed to a larger metal sheet in order to dissipate its heat, so that the
transistor doesn’t get damaged.

Thermal Runaway
The use of heat sink avoids the problem of Thermal Runaway. It is a
situation where an increase in temperature leads to the condition that
further increase in temperature, leads to the destruction of the device
itself. This is a kind of uncontrollable positive feedback.
Heat sink is not the only consideration; other factors such as
operating point, ambient temperature, and the type of transistor used
can also cause thermal runaway.