Article

On the Capacity of Optical Backbone Networks

João J. O. Pires

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering and Instituto de Telecomunicações, Instituto Superior
Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; jpires@lx.it.pt

Abstract: Optical backbone networks, characterized by using optical fibers as a transmission medium,
constitute the fundamental infrastructure employed today by network operators to deliver services
to users. As network capacity is one of the key factors influencing optical network performance, it is
important to comprehend its limitations and have the capability to estimate its value. In this context,
we revisit the concept of capacity from various perspectives, including channel capacity, link capacity,
and network capacity, thus providing an integrated view of the problem within the framework of
the backbone tier. Hence, we review the fundamental concepts behind optical networks, along with
the basic physical phenomena present in optical fiber transmission, and provide methodologies for
estimating the different types of capacities, mainly using simple formulations. In particular, we
propose a method to evaluate the network capacity that relies on the optical reach to account for
physical layer aspects, in conjunction with capacitated routing techniques for traffic routing. We
apply this method to three reference networks and obtain capacities ranging from tens to hundreds
of terabits/s. Whenever possible, we also compare our results with published experimental data to
understand how they relate.

Keywords: network capacity; channel capacity; optical networks; optical fiber communications

1. Introduction
In recent years, the volume of network traffic has been experiencing almost exponential
growth. This phenomenon can be attributed to various factors, such as the widespread
adoption of cloud services, the expansion of video distribution platforms and social media,
Citation: Pires, J.J.O. On the Capacity and the emergence of new technologies like 5G and beyond (5G++) [1].
of Optical Backbone Networks. To address this situation, optical networks have emerged as a crucial asset. Optical
Network 2024, 4, 114–132. https:// networks are high-capacity communication infrastructures that utilize light for transmis-
doi.org/10.3390/network4010006 sion, processing, and routing of information These networks vary in terms of distance
and capacity, falling into several tiers: (1) long-haul networks, such as submarine cables
Academic Editors: Jaume Comellas,
Alessio Giorgetti and Alexey Vinel
and backbone networks, span extensive geographic distances and offer huge capacities
(in the order of dozens of Tbit/s); (2) medium-haul networks, like metro networks, cover
Received: 14 December 2023 cities or metropolitan areas, handling data transmission in the range of hundreds of Gbit/s;
Revised: 28 February 2024 (3) short-haul networks, such as access networks, also known as “last-mile networks”,
Accepted: 6 March 2024 encompass small areas, connecting end-users to the network providers and delivering data
Published: 11 March 2024
rates in the order of a few Gbit/s. In particular, the advent of the fifth-generation fixed
network (F5G) allows for supporting access data rates per user larger than 1 Gb/s, with
future enhancements promising rates per user up to 10 Gb/s [2].
Copyright: © 2024 by the author.
The most remarkable feature of optical networks is the fact that they use optical
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. fibers as a transmission medium. An optical fiber is a very thin glass filament with a
This article is an open access article diameter the size of a human hair that has the tremendous advantage of incurring very
distributed under the terms and small losses as the light propagates through it. The first proposal to use optical fibers
conditions of the Creative Commons to carry information was made in 1966 and came from Charles K. Kao [3]. Since that
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// proposal, optical fiber communications have witnessed enormous progress over the last
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ six decades. Several breakthroughs have contributed to that progress; among them, one
4.0/). can refer to the emergence, during the 1990s, of erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFA) and

Network 2024, 4, 114–132. https://doi.org/10.3390/network4010006 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/network

Network 2024, 4 115

wavelength division multiplexing (WDM), as well as optical coherent detection in the early
20th century [4,5].
Optical amplifiers like EDFAs make it possible to compensate for the fiber losses in
the optical domain, avoiding the use of expensive repeaters. Optical coherent detection
allows us to increase the number of degrees of freedom to carry information in comparison
with traditional direct detection, since it makes use of both the amplitude and phase of the
optical signals, while direction detection relies only on intensity. WDM is a fundamental
technology in the optical networking field as it enables the transmission of large amounts
of data across long distances. It works by simultaneously transmitting multiple optical
signals, often referred to as optical channels, through a single optical fiber, with each
channel utilizing its own wavelength.
An optical backbone network is structured using interconnected nodes and WDM
links in a suitable configuration. Typically, the nodes are based on reconfigurable optical
add-drop multiplexers (ROADMs) (for their functionality, see Section 2.2). These ROADMs
enable the establishment of paths that traverse the network in optical form, known as
lightpaths, which, in turn, correspond to optical channels.
The channel capacity is an important parameter of optical channels. The concept
of channel capacity was introduced by Claude Shannon in 1948 [6]. It was defined as
the maximum data rate at which information can be reliably transmitted through a noisy
channel without errors. The fundamental assumptions behind this definition are that the
noise is additive, white, and Gaussian (AWGN), and that the channel is linear, i.e., the
capacity always increases with increasing signal power. However, this last assumption
does not hold for optical fiber channels, which are non-linear by nature. This behavior
implies that the fiber channel capacity does not grow indefinitely; instead, it is limited and
reaches a maximum value as the transmitted signal power increases [4,7–9].
The problem of estimating the optical channel capacity has been the focus of many
studies. Some rely on accurate numerical simulations [9], while others offer detailed analyti-
cal models based on either the Gaussian noise (GN) model [10–12] or a regular perturbation
model [13]. On the contrary, the topic of network capacity has received considerably less
attention in the literature, and only recently have some papers been published in this
area [14–18]. All these works involved computing the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for each
optical channel routed in the network, with the capacity of each channel being determined
by selecting the modulation format that best suited the SNR and evaluating the correspond-
ing bit rate, with the exception of [17], which though also requiring SNR computations,
evaluated the channel capacity using Shannon’s theory instead.
In this paper, we revisit the concept of capacity in optical backbone networks and
examine the fundamental principles underlying their operation. We present an alternative
approach to evaluate the capacity of optical networks. Rather than using the metric SNR
as employed by the other authors, we propose to utilize the metric optical reach, which
measures the maximum distance at which an optical channel can propagate effectively,
to simplify the computational process. This approach avoids the need to calculate SNRs
for all optical channels, which can be cumbersome, especially for large optical networks.
Furthermore, we use the network-wide average channel capacity [14] as an intermediate
step to assess the network capacity, whereas refs. [15–18] employ more complex procedures.
The paper also relies on an integrated treatment in the sense that it considers various
interrelated aspects such as channel capacity, link capacity, and network capacity. A key
goal of this work is to understand the trends in capacity evaluation, keeping the analysis as
simple as possible, while also investigating how close our results are to the experimental
ones reported in the literature.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 provides an overview of the
basic principles underlying optical backbone networks and their major physical limitations.
Section 3 reviews the concept of channel capacity and introduces the necessary background
for determining the spectral efficiency, capacity, and optical reach of an optical channel. In
addition, it presents numerical results related to these topics. Section 4 evaluates the link
 with 𝛽 (0 ≤ 𝛽 ≤ 1) being the roll-off parameter. It is important to note that the frequency
𝜈 in Hz is related to the wavelength 𝜆 in meters via 𝜆𝜈 = 𝑐, where 𝑐 is the speed of the
light in the vacuum (approximately 3 × 10 m/s). The signal transmitted through the
Network 2024, 4
optical channel is assumed to be based on a sequence of symbols at the rate of 𝑅 . Each
116
symbol encodes multiple bits of information using the amplitude and the phase of the
signal. This process is known as modulation. In a modulation scheme with a symbol
constellation of size 𝑀, each symbol corresponds to log 𝑀 bits of information. Examples
capacity and presents a suitable methodology for computing the network capacity based
of modulation schemes used in digital communications include M-ary phase-shift keying
on the capacitated routing, which is applied afterwards in three reference networks. Finally,
(MPSK), which utilizes the phase of the optical signals, and M-ary quadrature amplitude
Section 5 summarizes and concludes the paper.
modulation (MQAM), which utilizes both the phase and amplitude.
Furthermore,
2. Basics on Opticalthe spacing between
Networks and Physicalthe different
Impairments channels is denoted as Δ𝜈 , subject
to the condition
2.1. The Concept of WDMΔ𝜈 ≥ 𝐵 . As a consequence, the bandwidth occupied by the WDM
signal is equal to 𝐵 = 𝑁 Δ𝜈 .
Figure 1 helps us to understand the concept of WDM. This figure shows Nch optical
When the spacing Δ𝜈 is very narrow (on the order or tens of GHz) this technique
channels, each characterized by its carrier frequency νk (wherek ∈ {1, . . . , Nch }) and symbol
is designated as dense WDM (DWDM). DWDM can be implemented using two
rate Rs (in symbols/s or baud), which is related the channel bandwidth through
approaches: fixed-grid and flexible-grid. In the fixed-grid approach, the channel spacing
Δ𝜈 is kept constant typically at 50 B GHz. In contrast, the flexible-grid approach sets Δ𝜈
ch = (1 + β ) Rs , (1)
as a multiple of an elementary spectral slot of 12.5 GHz and is adjustable according to the
with β (0 ≤ β ≤
requirements of1the optical
) being signals parameter.
the roll-off being transmitted. DWDM
It is important is typically
to note that theemployed
frequency in ν
long-haul
in and high-capacity
Hz is related to the wavelength applications,
λ in meters where
via λνit can
= c,support
where cover 100speed
is the optical channels
of the light
per
in thefiber. As seen,
vacuum the number3of
(approximately 108 m/s). provided
× channels The signal depends on Δ𝜈through
transmitted and 𝐵 , with
the optical
channel
the latterisparameter
assumed to be based
being limitedon by
a sequence of symbols
the bandwidth of theatEDFAs. of Rsof
the rateMost . Each symbol
the currently
encodes
deployed multiple
DWDMbits of information
networks operateusing
in thethe amplitude
C-band, whichandis athe phase of the
wavelength signal.
range This
centered
process is known as modulation. In a modulation scheme with
around the wavelength of 1548 nm (193.7 THz). Nowadays, standard EDFA technology a symbol constellation of
size M, each symbol corresponds to log M bits of information.
offers a bandwidth of approximately2 4800 GHz (Extended C-band), although more Examples of modulation
schemes
advanced used in digital
solutions communications
can achieve valuesinclude up to M-ary
6000 GHz phase-shift
(Superkeying (MPSK),
C-band). It is which
worth
utilizes
mentioningthe phase of athe
that for optical
channel signals,
spacing of and M-ary
50 GHz, thequadrature
first solutionamplitude
can supportmodulation
up to 96
(MQAM),
channels, which utilizes
while the secondbothonethecan
phase and amplitude.
accommodate up to 120 channels [19].

Figure1.1.Spectrum
Figure Spectrumof
ofaaWDM
WDMsignal.
signal.

Furthermore, the spacing between the different channels is denoted as ∆νch , subject to
the condition ∆νch ≥ Bch . As a consequence, the bandwidth occupied by the WDM signal
is equal to BWDM = Nch ∆νch .
When the spacing ∆νch is very narrow (on the order or tens of GHz) this technique is
designated as dense WDM (DWDM). DWDM can be implemented using two approaches:
fixed-grid and flexible-grid. In the fixed-grid approach, the channel spacing ∆νch is kept
constant typically at 50 GHz. In contrast, the flexible-grid approach sets ∆νch as a multiple
of an elementary spectral slot of 12.5 GHz and is adjustable according to the requirements of
the optical signals being transmitted. DWDM is typically employed in long-haul and high-
capacity applications, where it can support over 100 optical channels per fiber. As seen, the
number of channels provided depends on ∆νch and BWDM , with the latter parameter being
limited by the bandwidth of the EDFAs. Most of the currently deployed DWDM networks
operate in the C-band, which is a wavelength range centered around the wavelength
of 1548 nm (193.7 THz). Nowadays, standard EDFA technology offers a bandwidth of
approximately 4800 GHz (Extended C-band), although more advanced solutions can
achieve values up to 6000 GHz (Super C-band). It is worth mentioning that for a channel
spacing of 50 GHz, the first solution can support up to 96 channels, while the second one
can accommodate up to 120 channels [19].

2.2. Optical Network Architecture

This section briefly discusses the architecture of a transparent optical network, with a
focus on the backbone tier. Transparent optical networks refer to networks where optical
signals are transmitted from the source to the destination without conversion to electri-
cal signals, maintaining their optical nature throughout the network. Therefore, in these
 2.2. Optical Network Architecture
This section briefly discusses the architecture of a transparent optical network, with
Network 2024, 4
a focus on the backbone tier. Transparent optical networks refer to networks where optical
117
signals are transmitted from the source to the destination without conversion to electrical
signals, maintaining their optical nature throughout the network. Therefore, in these
networks, all node functionalities (such as multiplexing, switching, routing, etc.) take
networks, all node functionalities (such as multiplexing, switching, routing, etc.) take
place in the optical domain, and the node structure is based on ROADMs. The ROADM
place in the optical domain, and the node structure is based on ROADMs. The ROADM
is responsible not only for locally adding and dropping optical channels, but also for
is responsible not only for locally adding and dropping optical channels, but also for per-
performing optical bypassing through the switching of optical channels from the
forming optical bypassing through the switching of optical channels from the incoming
incoming to the outgoing optical fibers [20]. In addition, they can be remotely configured
to the outgoing optical fibers [20]. In addition, they can be remotely configured to estab-
to establish optical
lish optical channels
channels andand to change
to change theirtheir
paths paths
andand wavelengths,
wavelengths, making
making it a
it a premium
premium function in networks automation. Typically, ROADMs
function in networks automation. Typically, ROADMs perform demultiplexing and mul- perform demultiplexing
and multiplexing
tiplexing of the of the
DWDM DWDM signals
signals transmitted
transmitted in optical
in optical fibersfibers and wavelength
and wavelength switching
switching
using wavelength selective switches (WSSs). In practice, WSSs areare
using wavelength selective switches (WSSs). In practice, WSSs responsible
responsible for the
for the dynamism
dynamism of the
of the ROADM,
ROADM, sincesince
theythey can switch
can switch opticaloptical
channelschannels
through through theof the
the action
actioncontrol/management
of the control/management plane. plane.
FigureFigure
2 depicts a simplified
2 depicts a simplified architecture of a simple
architecture transparent
of a simple opticaloptical
transparent network,
network,
showing four ROADMs
showing four ROADMs interconnected
interconnectedwith optical fibers,fibers,
with optical as well asas bandwidth
well as bandwidthvariable
variable
transponders (BVTs) for connecting these network elements to the
transponders (BVTs) for connecting these network elements to the client equipment. Theclient equipment. The
BVT plays a crucial
BVT plays role inrole
a crucial optical networks.
in optical First, it
networks. is responsible
First, for mapping
it is responsible the signals
for mapping the signals
received
received on the client side into appropriate containers and adding forward errorerror
on the client side into appropriate containers and adding forward correction
correction
(FEC)(FEC)
codes forcodes
error for error correction
correction purposes.purposes.
Second, it Second, it is for
is responsible responsible
generatingfor optical
generating
signals optical signals by optical
by modulating modulating optical
carriers withcarriers
specificwith specific wavelengths
wavelengths on the network on theside. In
network
thisside. In this
context, BVTcontext,
can be BVT can beas
considered considered
the sourceas(inthe thesource (in thedirection)
transmitter transmitter and the
direction) and the termination
termination (in the receiver (in the receiverof
direction) direction) of optical channels.
optical channels. BVTs can BVTsalso becanconfigured
also
be configured
remotelyremotely
to adjusttothe adjust
channelthe channel
capacitycapacity by modifying
by modifying two keytwo key parameters:
parameters: the number
the number of bits transmitted per symbol, (i.e., the modulation format)
of bits transmitted per symbol, (i.e., the modulation format) and the number of symbols and the number
of symbols transmitted
transmitted per second
per second (symbol (symbol
rate). rate).

Figure 2. Example of an optical backbone network architecture.

Figure 2. Example of an optical backbone network architecture.
A wide range of modulation formats are available, allowing for the trading of spectral
Aefficiency
wide range of modulation
against formats
optical reach. For are available,
instance, the allowing
utilizationforofthe trading
more of spectral
efficient modulation
efficiency against
schemes, suchoptical reach. For
as 128QAM instance,isthe
or 64QAM, utilization
limited of more
to optical efficient
channels thatmodulation
travel over short
schemes, such aswhile
distances, 128QAM
longerordistances
64QAM, require
is limited
thetouse
optical channels
of less efficientthat travel over
modulation short such
formats,
as quadrature
distances, phase-shift
while longer keying
distances (QPSK),
require the useorofeven
less binary phase-shift
efficient modulation keying (BPSK).
formats, suchOn the
other hand,
as quadrature the use ofkeying
phase-shift higher (QPSK),
symbol rates implies
or even using
binary broader bandwidths,
phase-shift keying (BPSK). reducing
On the
number of optical channels available in the C-band.

2.3. Major Physical Impairments

Optical reach can be defined as the maximum distance over which an optical signal can
be transmitted before its quality of service degrades below a certain metric (bit-error rate
(BER), SNR, etc.) threshold. The reach in optical networks is limited by various physical
Network 2024, 4 118

phenomena related to both optical fiber transmission and optical nodes operation. For what
concerns fiber transmission, the major impairments are attenuation, chromatic dispersion,
and nonlinear effects. On the other hand, optical nodes are affected by impairments such
as filter narrowing and crosstalk.
Fiber optic attenuation measures the loss of power in an optical signal as it propagates
along an optical fiber and is described by the fiber attenuation coefficient α in dB/km. In
the C-band, where it reaches its minimum value, α is typically around 0.2 dB/km. Optical
amplifiers are used to compensate for the optical fiber losses. To achieve this, optical
amplifiers, typically EDFAs, are placed at discrete intervals along an optical link, with
each amplifier exactly compensating the loss incurred by each fiber span. For a link with
the length L, made up of Ns identical spans, the span length is Ls = L/Ns and the span
attenuation is As = αLs . Optical amplifiers, besides amplifying the signal, also generate
noise known as amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) noise. This noise accumulates as the
signal propagates along the link and turns out to be one of the major sources of impairment,
significantly affecting the optical reach.
Chromatic dispersion is another limitation and is due to the fact that different wave-
lengths of a signal travel at different velocities, and therefore, they arrive at the end of
the fiber at different times, leading to distortion in the original signal waveform. This
occurs because the refractive index of the optical fiber, denoted as n(λ), is wavelength-
dependent, and the transmission velocity is defined as c/n(λ). Chromatic dispersion can
be characterized using the fiber dispersion coefficient β 2 , measured in ps2 /km. Traditional
direction-detection systems, which use simple photodetectors to detect optical signals,
require the use of dispersion compensation. This operation is generally achieved by adding
sections of a specific type of fiber known as dispersion compensating fiber (DCF) into
the standard optical fiber spans. DCF is designed to have the opposite dispersion sign to
standard fiber. In coherent detection systems, which employ relatively complex receiver
structures, chromatic dispersion can be compensated in the electrical domain through
digital signal processing. This solution, which is the one considered in this paper, avoids
the use of dispersion compensation in optical domain, leading to the concept of dispersion
uncompensated transmission [11].
Another significant impairment in optical fibers is nonlinear interference (NLI) result-
ing from the Kerr effect. The Kerr effect refers to the dependence of the refractive index
of the fiber n(λ) on the transmitted signal power and is quantified by the non-linear fiber
coefficient γ (measured in watt−1 km−1 ). Unlike attenuation and chromatic dispersion,
the Kerr effect is a non-linear phenomenon due to its dependence on optical power. This
characteristic makes the optical fiber channel intrinsically non-linear and, in this sense,
different from other transmission media used for information transmission that have a
linear behavior.
The filter-narrowing effect in optical nodes primarily results from the non-ideal filter-
ing characteristics of WSSs within ROADMs. As a consequence, when an optical signal
traverses multiple nodes, the resulting channel bandwidth can be significantly reduced,
leading to signal distortion and performance degradation. Despite this situation, there are
several methods available in the literature that can be used to mitigate the impact of this
impairment (the cascading effects of ROADMs) [21]. Crosstalk in optical networks refers to
unwanted interferences between different optical channels. This interference occurs due to
imperfect isolation of optical devices like WSSs, resulting in signal leakages responsible
for the impairment. Furthermore, crosstalk accumulates as the optical channel traverses
multiple network nodes, which increases its damaging effect [22]. However, it is possible
to reduce crosstalk to a negligible level by properly designing ROADMs and selecting
high-quality WSSs.
Network 2024, 4 119

3. Channel Capacity
3.1. Capacity of a Communication Channel
According with Shannon’s theory [6], the capacity of a band limited communication
channel in the presence of AWGN is given by
 
P
Cch = Blog2 1 + , (2)
N0 B

where Cch is the channel capacity in bits per second (bit/s), B is the channel bandwidth
in Hz, P is the average signal power in watt, and N0 is the noise power spectral density
(PSD) in watt/Hz. The signal transmitted through the channel is assumed to be based on a
sequence of symbols transmitted at the symbol rate of Rs . Each symbol encodes multiple
bits of information by modulating the amplitude and/or the phase of the signal.
The minimum bandwidth that a modulated signal can have to allow transmission
without inter-symbol interference is defined by the Nyquist criterion and is equal to Rs [4].
For such minimum bandwidth, the signal-to-noise ratio becomes

P
SNR = , (3)
N0 Rs

and the channel capacity can be written as

Cch = Rs log2 (1 + SNR). (4)

3.2. Capacity of an Optical Channel

As previously mentioned, an optical channel can be seen as a communication pathway
for transmitting information in the optical domain from a sender to a receiver, using
an optical fiber as a transmission medium. This channel is characterized by its carrier
frequency νc in Hz and its occupied bandwidth Bch in Hz, whose minimum value is equal
to Rs , as discussed earlier.
The capacity of an optical channel is defined as the maximum data rate at which the
information can be effectively transmitted through the channel. This capacity is typically
expressed in bit/s. Equation (4) can also be applied to compute the capacity of an optical
channel, denoted as Cch , under the assumption that the noise sources present in these
channels are modelled as AWGN sources.
One important noise source in optical systems is ASE noise. This noise is generated
inside of optical amplifiers simultaneously with signal amplification and can be effectively
described by a random optical field with statistical properties like those of AWGN noise [9].
The PSD of the ASE noise at the end of a chain of Ns amplifiers, spaced by fiber spans of
length Ls , is given by
Nase = Ns hνc f n ( as − 1), (5)
where h is Planck’s constant (in joule-second), f n is the noise figure ( f n = 10Fn /10 , with Fn
in dB), and as = 10 As /10 .
NLI is another significant noise source caused by the Kerr effect in optical fibers, as seen
before. Interestingly, it has been demonstrated in [23] through simulations and experiments
that the impact of NLI noise on WDM links, supported in dispersion uncompensated fibers,
can also be modeled as additive Gaussian noise. Furthermore, it was shown in [11] that
under specific conditions, such as the Nyquist limit, the white noise assumption leads to
quite accurate results. Note that such a limit is achieved when all the WDM signal channels
have a rectangular spectral width and a frequency spacing ∆νch equal to Rs .This permits
the characterization of the NLI noise also as an AWGN process with power spectral density
of Nnli . As the ASE and NLI noises are assumed to be uncorrelated, their power spectral
Network 2024, 4 120

densities simply add, resulting in N0 = Nase + Nnli . In these circumstances, the received
signal-to-noise ratio for a given optical channel can be described as

Pch
SNR = , (6)
( Nase + Nnli ) Rs

where Pch denotes the average output optical power per channel, which is assumed to be
equal to the input power, since all losses are compensated for by optical amplifiers.
A rigorous characterization of Nnli is not an easy task, and many studies have been
published on this topic (see, for example, [11,23]). Fortunately, some closed-form approxi-
mations have also been published [10,11,24], which facilitates the evaluation of Nnli . One
of these approximations, which is based on the white noise assumption, allows us to write
the PSD of the NLI at the end of a fiber link with Ns spans in the following way:
3
Nnli = µn Pch , (7)

where µn is the NLI coefficient given by

 
 3 ln π 2 | β | L B2
2 2 e f WDM
µn ≈ Ns γ2 Le f , (8)
3 πRs 3 β 2

with the Le f being the span effective length given as


Le f = (1 − exp(−2a N Ls ))/(2α N , (9)

where Ls is the span length and a N is the fiber attenuation coefficient in Np/km, i.e.,
α N = αdB/km /20log10 e. Another relevant parameter to characterize the optical channel is
spectral efficiency, measured in bit/s/Hz, which is defined as [9,10]

Cch Rs
SE = =2 log2 (1 + SNR), (10)
∆νch ∆νch

where factor 2 stems from the fact that the optical fiber channel supports two optical
channels with orthogonal polarizations, commonly referred to as polarization multiplexed
(PM) optical channels.
By assuming the Nyquist limit, the spectral efficiency SE can be estimated through
closed-form calculations using Equations (5)–(10) by making ∆νch = Rs . Note that this
approximation is widely used throughout this paper because, when using ∆νch > Rs , the
spectral density term Nnli cannot be treated analytically [11], and the closed-form Formula
(7) cannot be applied. For this reason, we set ∆νch = 64 GHz in Table 1, instead of a multiple
of 12.5 GHz, as it would be in more realistic scenarios.

Table 1. Optical fiber and system parameters.

Parameter Symbol Value

Fiber Attenuation Coefficient α 0.22 dB/km
Fiber Dispersion Coefficient β2 −21.7 ps2 km−1
Fiber Nonlinear Coefficient γ 1.27 W−1 km−1
Carrier Frequency νc 193.41 THz
Carrier Wavelength λc 1550 nm
Span length Ls 80 km, 100 km
EDFA noise figure Fn 5 dB
Symbol rate Rs 64 Gbaud
Channel Spacing ∆νch 64 GHz
Number of Channels Nch 75
WDM bandwidth BWDM 4800 GHz
Network 2024, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 8

Network 2024, 4 121

The obtained results, considering the parameters given in Table 1, are depicted in
Figure 3. This figure plots the spectral efficiency as the function of the channel power
(𝑃 ) for The obtained
different linkresults,
lengths,considering
consideringthe𝐿 parameters given in
= 80 km (Figure 3a)Table
and 1,𝐿 are depicted
= 100 km in
(Figure 3b). As can be seen, there is a value of the channel power that maximizes the( Pch )
Figure 3. This figure plots the spectral efficiency as the function of the channel power
for different
spectral efficiencylink
(𝑆𝐸lengths, considering
). It can be shown = 80the
Lsthat kmvalue
(Figure and Ls = 100
3a) optimum
of the km power
launch (Figure 3b).
As can
per channel be seen, there is
is given as [11]: a value of the channel power that maximizes the spectral efficiency
(SEmax ). It can be shown that the value of the optimum launch power per channel is
given as [11]: 𝑁 s
𝑃 = . N (11)
Pch2𝜇= 3
opt ase
. (11)
2µn

(a)

(b)
Figure 3. Spectral
Figure efficiency
3. Spectral versus
efficiency channel
versus power
channel for various
power link lengths:
for various (a) span
link lengths: (a) length of 80 km;
span length of 80 km;
(b) span length of 100 km
(b) span length of 100 km.
opt
For 𝐿For=L80s = km80we kmhave
we have 𝑃 P= 0. 95 dBm and 𝑆𝐸
ch = 0.95 dBm and SE
= 18.3
max bit⁄s/Hz
= 18.3 , whilewhile
bit/s/Hz, for for
𝐿 = L100 km we have 𝑃 = 2.4 dBm and 𝑆𝐸
opt
s = 100 km we have Pch = 2.4 dBm and SE
= 16.3
max bit/s/Hz.
= 16.3 TheseThese
bit/s/Hz. results showshow
results
𝑆𝐸 SEmax
that that decreases
decreases by about 2 bit/s/Hz when the span length increases from 80to
by about 2 bit/s/Hz when the span length increases from 80 km km to
100 km because
100 km becauseof theofincrease in theinASE
the increase noisenoise
the ASE power. Another
power. conclusion,
Another we can
conclusion, wedraw
can draw
fromfrom
the figure, is thatis𝑆𝐸
the figure, max decreases by about 2 bit/s/Hz for every doubling of the
that SEalso also decreases by about 2 bit/s/Hz for every doubling of
link length,
the link and the and
length, value 𝑃 ofisPapproximately
theofvalue
opt independent of link lengths. These
ch is approximately independent of link lengths. These
trends had already
trends beenbeen
had already identified in [10].
identified in [10].
Network 2024, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 9
Network 2024, 4 122

Figure
Figure4 shows
4 shows thethe
variation
variationof the maximum
of the maximum values of spectral
values efficiency
of spectral ) as) as
(𝑆𝐸( SEmax
efficiency
a function of the total link length. As
a function of the total link length. As seen, SE seen, 𝑆𝐸
max decreases in a linear fashion as
decreases in a linear fashion as a function a
function of the link length, when plotted in a logarithmic scale. The
of the link length, when plotted in a logarithmic scale. The spectral efficiency values werespectral efficiency
values were computed
computed using Equationusing(10),
Equation
which(10), which under
is derived is derived under the that
the hypothesis hypothesis that
the amplitude
theand
amplitude
phase ofand phaseatofthe
the signal the signalinput
channel at thefollow
channel inputGaussian
an ideal follow an ideal Gaussian
distribution, meaning
distribution,
it is described meaning it is described
by a continuous Gaussianby constellation
a continuous(GC). Gaussian
However, constellation (GC).the
in real systems,
However, in real systems, the input constellations are based on a set
input constellations are based on a set of discrete symbols. For a constellation with M of discrete symbols.
Forsymbols,
a constellation with 𝑀 symbols,
corresponding, corresponding,
for example, for example,
to a modulation formattosuch
a modulation
as PM-MQAM, formatthe
such as PM-MQAM, the ideal spectral efficiency is given by 𝑆𝐸 = 2
ideal spectral efficiency is given by SE = 2log2 M (in bit/s/Hz), where factor 2 accountslog 𝑀 (in bit/s/Hz),
where factor
for the 2 accounts
presence of two forpolarizations
the presence in of the
twochannel,
polarizations in theto
as referred channel,
before. as referred
Figure 4 also
to before.
shows Figure
the ideal4 also
valueshows
of SEthe ideal
for value values
different of SE for ofdifferent 𝑀. Thebetween
values ofpoints
M. The crossing crossingthe
points between spectral
modulation’s the modulation’s
efficiency andspectral efficiency
the Gaussian and the Gaussian
constellation’s spectralconstellation’s
efficiency enable
spectral efficiencyofenable
the evaluation an upper thebound
evaluation
on the of an upper
maximum bound
reach on the
achieved formaximum
each set of reach
symbols
achieved for
(see Table 2). each set of symbols (see Table 2).

(a)

(b)
Figure 4. Maximum
Figure 4. Maximum value of the
value spectral
of the efficient
spectral (𝑆𝐸( SE)max
efficient as)aasfunction of the
a function totaltotal
of the linklink
length,
length,
considering a Gaussian constellation (GC) and other discrete constellations with different numbers
considering a Gaussian constellation (GC) and other discrete constellations with different numbers of
of symbols (M): (a) span length of 80 km; (b) span length of 100 km.
symbols (M): (a) span length of 80 km; (b) span length of 100 km.
Network 2024, 4 123

Table 2. Values of SE related reach as a function of the number of symbols for a PM-MQAM
(@Rs = 64 Gbaud).

Number of Symbols SE Cch Reach (km) Reach (km)

(M) (bit/s/Hz) (Gbit/s) Ls = 80 km Ls = 100 km
4 4 256 15,100 9500
16 8 512 3020 1900
64 12 768 720 450
128 14 896 360 225
256 16 1024 180 --------

The results of Table 2 clearly evidence the trade-off between the cardinality of the
constellation (number of symbols) and the maximum reach; as the number of symbols
increases, reach decreases significantly. For example, one observes a reach reduction
between 75% to 80% when the number of symbols quadruple. This reduction increases
further to about 95% when the number of symbols increases 16 times. The values of
the maximum reach also decrease when the span length increases. By moving from
Ls = 80 km to Ls = 100 km, one observes a reach reduction of about 37%. It is also
worth mentioning the fact that the results given in Table 2 are closer to the results of
Figure 2 of [25], despite these results having been obtained with a more rigorous approach.
The current SE record of 17.3 bit/s/Hz was obtained using a modulation format with
4096 symbols and polarization multiplexing (PM-4096QAM) over 50 km [26], which is
quite close to the value of 18 bit/s/Hz shown in Figure 4a) for a length of 80 km. Another
remarkable experimental result was the achievement of a SE of 14.1 bit/s/Hz at a reach of
500 km using PM-256-QAM) [27]. These two experimental results confirm the previously
mentioned trend: a reduction in the reach by approximately 90% when the number of
symbols increases by a factor of 16.
According to Equation (10), the optical channel capacity is related to the channel
spacing ∆νch , which permits us to write

Cch = SE × Rs (1 + β). (12)

Table 2 also presents values for the channel capacity obtained using this equation,
considering the Nyquist limit β = 0.
From Equation (12) it can be concluded that two strategies can be employed to increase
Cch : (1) increasing the spectral efficiency; (2) increasing the symbol rate. The first strategy
suffers from the limitations of spectral efficiency already referred. In this way, it is expected
a huge reach reduction for increasing values of the capacity. On the other hand, the second
strategy increases the sensitivity to noise and nonlinearities and consequently also reduces
the reach. However, this reduction can be compensated for by increasing the channel power
so that in the end, we only experience a modest decrease in the reach for higher capacity
values. The reason for this behavior is that by increasing the channel power in the same
proportion as the symbol rate, the power spectral density (Pch /Rs ) is kept constant, and in
this way, the NLI power does not undergo any change (see Equations (7) and (8)).
To give more insights into the problem, let us analyze what happens if we double
the channel capacity, starting, for example, with a capacity of 200 Gbit/s based on a PM-
QPSK scheme with a symbol rate of 64 Gbaud. By using the first strategy, it is necessary
to double the spectral efficiency by going from PM-QPSK (4 bit/s/Hz) to PM-16QAM
(8 bit/s/Hz) in order to achieve 400 Gbit/s. However, the last modulation scheme is more
sensitive to both noise and nonlinearities, requiring as a consequence a SNR 6.8 dB higher
(see Table 3). Therefore, the number of spans supported by PM-16QAM is approximately
4.8 times smaller than that supported by PM-QPSK, which translates into a reach reduction
of about 80%, in line with the results given above. Alternatively, we can go to 400 Gbit/s
by doubling the symbol rate to 128 Gbaud and keeping the modulation PM-QPSK. In this
case, the 50% reduction in reach due to the increases in the noise power (see Equation (6))
Network 2024, 4 124

can be compensated for by doubling the channel power, ensuring that the reach remains
unchanged. A more rigorous analysis of the impact of NLI noise has shown that achieving
total reach compensation is unattainable, and in reality, there is an 8% reduction in reach
when duplicating the symbol rate (see Figure 2 in [28]).

Table 3. Values of SNR (@BER pre− FEC = 10−3 ).

Modulation SNR (dB)

BPSK 6.77
QPSK 9.78
8QAM 14.38
16QAM 16.54
32QAM 20.56
64QAM 22.55
128QAM 26.44

These trends suggest that the optimal strategy for achieving greater optical channel
capacities, especially in long-haul networks, is to prioritize increasing symbol rates rather
than focusing primarily on spectral efficiencies. Of course, the increase in the symbol
rates comes at the cost of requiring larger channel bandwidths, which, in turn, implies a
reduction in the number of channels in DWDM transmission. Furthermore, higher symbol
rates come at the cost of higher power dissipation rates in the application-specific integrated
circuits (ASIC) used in the BVTs [29].
It is important to note that the increase in symbol rates is a current active area of
research, with numerous experimental demonstrations yielding results ranging from 100 to
200 Gbaud [30–32].

3.3. Optical Reach Evaluation with the Gaussian Model

In our previous analysis, we determined an upper bound for the optical reach as a
function of the number of symbols using the spectral efficiency of a signal with a Gaussian
constellation. A more realistic approach for assessing optical reach involves using a metric
like BER, specifically the BER evaluated before the FEC operation (pre-FEC BER) that takes
place inside the BVTs.
In this study, we assume that the threshold is BER pre− FEC = 10−3 . By using the
expressions that relate the BER performance with SNR for QPSK [33] and MQAM [34], we
arrive at the values given in Table 3.
It also important to be able to determine the data bit rate associated with each modula-
tion scheme, which is given as [4]

Rb = 2R′s log2 M , (13)

where R′s is the net payload symbol rate, which is defined as R′s = Rs /(1 + OH ), with OH
being the FEC and mapping overhead within BVTs. For the purpose of this analysis, we
assume an overhead of 28% and a symbol rate of 64 Gbaud, resulting in R′s = 50 Gbaud. By
utilizing Equation (6) in conjunction with Equations (5) and (7), along with the parameters
given in Table 2 and the optimal channel power values (0.95 dBm for Ls = 80 km and
2.4 dBm for Ls = 100 km), we are able to determine the maximum number of spans required
to meet the specified SNR values given in Table 3. This calculation, in turn, allows us to
assess the reach of the corresponding optical channel, with the obtained results presented
in Table 4. Note that the results for the reach at Ls = 100 km, as presented in Table 4, are
close to those in Table I of [35] for Rs = 64 Gbaud. Similarly, the results for Ls = 80 km
match well with the findings illustrated in Figure 8 of [29], once again for Rs = 64 Gbaud.
Network 2024, 4 125

Table 4. Optical reach values (@BER pre− FEC = 10−3 ).

Data Bit Rate Reach (km) Reach (km)

Modulation
(Gbit/s) Ls = 80 km Ls = 100 km
PM-BPSK 100 9500 6000
PM-QPSK 200 4750 3000
PM-8QAM 300 1650 1050
PM-16QAM 400 1000 650
PM-32QAM 500 400 250
PM-64QAM 600 250 150
PM-128 QAM 700 100 -----

4. Link and Network Capacity

4.1. Link Capacity
In an abstract way, an optical network can be described as an undirected graph G (V, E),
with V = {v1 , . . . , v N } denoting a set of nodes and E = {e1 , . . . , eK } denoting a set of
links, where N = |V | is the number of nodes and K = | E| is the number of links. As
mentioned before, in transparent optical networks, all node functionalities take place in
the optical domain, and the nodes are built upon ROADMs. Meanwhile, an optical link
represents a physical interconnection between two nodes, implemented using optical fibers
and optical amplifiers. In bidirectional links, some fibers are used in one direction and
others (typically the same number) in the opposite direction. Each optical fiber supports
DWDM signals, meaning it carries a specific number of optical channels. For simplicity
purposes, we assume that all channels in the links transmit data at the same bit rate.
The capacity of an optical link is determined by both the capacity of individual optical
channels and the count of optical channels Nch that it can accommodate. This count is
constrained by either the available bandwidth BWDM or the maximum output power Pmax
of optical amplifiers, with Pmax being limited by the total power Ptot carried by the Nch
channels; that is, Ptot = Nch Pch . When considering the Nyquist limit (∆νch = Rs ), and if all
the channels have the same modulation format and symbol rate, one can arrive by applying
(10) and (12) to the following expression for the link capacity:

Clink = 2Nch Rs log2 (1 + SNR), (14)

where SNR is evaluated through Equations (6)–(8).

Figure 5 plots the link capacity as a function of the channel power for four different
symbol rate values.
The primary conclusion drawn from this figure is that the maximum
max remains constant regardless of the symbol rate. However, this maxi-
link capacity ( Clink
mum capacity value shifts to higher power levels with increasing symbol rates. This trend
is independent of the link length, although the maximum link capacity decreases when the
max = 65.6 Tbit/s, while for L = 800 km,
link length increases. As seen, for L = 400 km, Clink
max
we have Clink = 56.1 Tbit/s. Table 5 presents several parameters to provide insight, in-
opt
cluding the optical channel power value that maximizes the link capacity (Pch ) for each
symbol rate. Interestingly, the total optical power value remains the same for all the symbol
rates. This value is equal to 19.6 dBm, which is well within the capabilities of commercial
EDFAs. Furthermore, Table 6 presents some experimental results, reported in the literature,
for both the channel and links capacities at various symbol rates. In particular, the results
for a symbol rate of 128 Gbaud are quite impressive, revealing values of 1.49 Tbit/s and
52.1 Tbit/s for the channel and links capacities, respectively. However, a drawback of these
results is the achieved distance of only 80 km.
Network 2024,
Network 4, FOR
2024, 4 PEER REVIEW 13
126

(a)

(b)
Figure 5. Link
Figure capacity
5. Link versus
capacity thethe
versus optical channel
optical power
channel forfor
power various symbol
various rates:
symbol (a) (a)
rates: linklink
length of of
length
400400
km;km;
(b)(b)
linklink
length of 800 km.
length of 800 km.

Table 5. Channel capacities and optical powers per channel.

Table 5. Channel capacities and optical powers per channel.
Symbol Rate 𝑪𝒄𝒉 (Tbit/s) 𝑪𝒄𝒉 (Tbit/s) 𝒐𝒑𝒕
Symbol Rate 𝑵𝒄𝒉 Cch (Tbit/s) Cch (Tbit/s)𝑷𝒄𝒉 (dBm)
opt 𝑷𝒕𝒐𝒕 (dBm)
(Gbaud)
(Gbaud)
N𝑳ch = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝐤𝐦 𝑳
L = 400 km
= 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝐤𝐦
L = 800 km
Pch (dBm) Ptot (dBm)
32 150 0.44 0.37 −2.15 19.61
32 150 0.44 0.37 −2.15 19.61
6464 75 75 0.88 0.88 0.75 0.75 0.89 0.89 19.64
19.64
9696 50 50 1.31 1.31 1.12 1.12 2.65 2.65 19.64
19.64
128
128 37 37 1.77 1.77 1.52 1.52 3.89 3.89 19.57
19.57

Table 6. Published
Table experimental
6. Published results
experimental forfor
results channel and
channel links
and capacities.
links capacities.
Symbol 𝚫𝝂𝒄𝒉 𝑺𝑬 𝑪𝒄𝒉 𝑪𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒌
Symbol 𝑵𝒄𝒉 𝑩
𝑾𝑫𝑴 SE Cch Clink L (km) Ref.
Nch BWDM
(Gbaud) ∆νch (GHz ) (𝐆𝐇𝐳) (bit/s/Hz) (Tbit/s) (Tbit/s)
L (km) Ref.
(Gbaud) (bit/s/Hz) (Tbit/s) (Tbit/s)
32 117 4400 37.5 6.7 0.25 29.25 1600 [36]
32 117 4400 37.5 6.7 0.25 29.25 1600 [36]
64 59 64
4400 59 75.04400 75.0
6.7 6.70.50 0.50
29.50 29.50 650 650 [36]
[36]
96 41 96
4100 41 100.04100 100.0
10.0 10.01.00 1.00
41.00 41.00 100 100 [37]
[37]
128 35 4800
128 35 137.5
4800 10.9
137.5 10.91.49 52.15
1.49 52.15 80 80 [38]
[38]
Network 2024, 4 127

4.2. Network Capacity

Network capacity can be defined as the maximum amount of data that a network can
handle per unit of time. This capacity depends on various network properties such as the
physical and logical topology (traffic profile), optical reach, link capacity, node structure, etc.
Physical topology describes the interconnection pattern of nodes and is typically known in
advance. Nodes are considered simultaneously to be the source and destination of traffic.
A starting point in the network capacity evaluation is the  definition of the traffic demand
profile. This profile is defined by the traffic matrix T = tij ], where each entry tij represents
a traffic demand, or in other terms, the volume of traffic flowing from a source node i to
a destination node j, with i, j ∈ V. In this analysis, it is assumed that the traffic profile is
uniform and equal among all node pairs, which corresponds to

1 i ̸= j
tij = . (15)
0 i=j

Note that this traffic profile describes a full-mesh logical topology in the sense that
each node is logically connected to every other node within the network [39]. Another
important point in the network capacity evaluation is the link characterization. The link
(i, j) ∈ E can be described by two attributes: (1) length l (i, j), which is a multiple of the span
length Ls and equal to l (i, j) = Ls Ns , as explained above; (2) capacity c(i, j), determined by
the number of optical channels Nch available in the links, given by c(i, j) = Nch . As already
seen, this number is limited by the bandwidth BWDM and the symbol rate Rs .
For each traffic demand, it is necessary to find a path in the physical topology between
each pair of nodes. This process is known as routing. Since there are multiple paths between
each pair of nodes, the objective is to determine the shortest path using a heuristic like
Dijkstra’s algorithm. The shortest path corresponds to the one that minimizes the total path
length, defined as the sum of the lengths of all the links traversed by the path. However,
in this case, the routing is constrained by the capacity c(i, j), leading to the concept of the
capacitated routing (CR) problem [40]. The objective of this problem is to maximize the
number of allocated traffic demands while minimizing the blocking ratio in a network with
limited link capacity. In this work, the CR problem is solved through to the following steps:
(1) Compute the shortest paths:
• Use Dijkstra’s algorithm to find the shortest path for each source–destination
pair in the network;
• The total path length is considered as a metric for determining the shortest paths.
(2) Order the traffic demands:
• Apply a specific sorting strategy (e.g., shortest first, longest first, largest first) to
order traffic demands tij .
(3) Route the demands:
• Route the demands through the precomputed shortest paths obtained in Step 1;
• The routing is conducted according to the orderings considered in Step 2.
(4) Update residual capacities:
• Whenever a demand is routed, update the residual capacities of all the links
traversed by the demand;
• Residual capacity is defined as the difference between the link capacity and its
load (number of demands already routed through the link).
(5) Path selection and blocking:
• First, attempt to use the shortest path obtained in Step 1 for each traffic demand;
• Check the values of residual capacities of all links on the path. If there is enough
capacity, use the path;
• If the residual capacities do not allow for using the precomputed path, find an
alternative shortest path;
Network 2024, 4 128

If the computing of an alternative path is not possible because there is not enough
capacity, the traffic demand will be blocked.
Furthermore, we assume that each path (also denoted as the lightpath, as referred to
before) computed using the CR approach is physically established using an optical channel
with a specific wavelength. In other words, a channel i = { pi , λi } ∈ S has an associated
path pi and wavelength λi and belongs to the set of optical channels required to implement
a logical full-mesh topology S = {1, 2, . . . , N ( N − 1)}. In this case, one can apply the
concepts of channel capacity introduced in Section 3 to compute the total network capacity,
which can be written as [17]
Cnet = ∑ Cch,i , (16)
i ∈S

where Cch,i is the capacity of channel i, which, according to (10) and (12), becomes

Cch,i = 2Rs log2 (1 + SNRi ), (17)

with SNRi being the SNR of channel i. The SNRi can be readily evaluated using (6),
assuming that the optical nodes (ROADMs) are ideal and, as a result, do not affect the
calculations. In this context, the number of spans for optical channel i is denoted as
ns,i = Li /Ls , with Li representing the length of path pi . To avoid calculating the SNRi and
to reduce computation time, we can take advantage of the analysis undertaken in Section 3
and use the optical reach to obtain the channel’s capacities. For instance, by knowing
the lengths of the different paths and utilizing the data from Table 4, we can obtain the
capacities of the different channels at two span lengths (80 and 100 km). These capacities
are referred to as real capacities, an alternative to ideal or Shannon capacities derived using
the spectral efficiencies of the Gaussian constellations shown in Figure 4.
An additional important metric for network analysis is the network-wide average
channel capacity, defined as [14]

C ch = ∑ Cch,i / ∑ γi , (18)
i ∈S i ∈S

where γ,i denotes the expected utilization ratio of channel i. For the sake of simplicity, it is
assumed that γi = 1 for all i ∈ S. As a result, the sum in the denominator of (18) equals the
total number of paths in the network, which, for a full-mesh logical topology, amounts to
N ( N − 1). With this simplification, the network capacity for a full-mesh logical topology
reduces to
Cnet = C ch × N ( N − 1). (19)
For illustrative purposes, we considered the three physical network topologies shown
in Appendix A: the COST network (N = 11, K = 26, and L = 462.6 km), the NSFNET
(N = 14, K = 21, and L = 1211.3 km), and UBN (N = 24, K = 43, and L = 993.2 km), with
L being the average link length. The other parameters considered in the analysis are the
ones in Table 1. Tables 7 and 8 give C ch and Cnet , along with the average path lengths for
these networks, considering the real capacities and Shannon capacities, respectively [41].
Note that C ch was computed using the reach values referred to above, while Cnet was
obtained using Equation (19). As seen, the average channel capacities in the COST239
network are larger than those in the other networks due to the network’s shorter link and
path lengths. In fact, the paths in the NSFNET and UBN networks are, on average, 233%
and 339% longer than those in the COST239 network, respectively. On the other hand, the
UBN network offers a significantly larger capacity compared to the other two networks,
despite having the smallest value of C ch . This is attributed to its capability to support a
larger number of optical channels. In practice, the UBN network accommodates 552 optical
channels, whereas the NSFNET supports 182 and COST239 only supports 110. Another
conclusion we can obtain from these results is that Shannon network capacities outperform
the actual network capacities by a factor of about 50%. This is expected, as the Shannon
capacity serves as an upper band for the real values. Following the previously mentioned
Network 2024, 4 129

trends, the results show that for a span length of Ls = 80 km, performance is superior
compared to Ls = 100 km. On average, there is about 13% improvement for real capacities
and about 20% improvement for Shannon capacities. On a final note, it can be mentioned
that using a more complex methodology [16] reports a capacity of 109.2 Tbit/s for NSFNET,
which is quite close to the value of 98.6 Tbit/s given in Table 8.

Table 7. Network-wide average channel and network capacities (real capacities).

¯ ¯
Average Path Cch (80 km) Cch (100 km) Cnet (80 km) Cnet (100 km)
Networks
Length (km) (Gbit/s) (Gbit/s) (Tbit/s) (Tbit/s)

COST239 682.2 410.9 340.0 45.2 37.4

NSFNET 2268.3 258.2 200.0 47.0 36.4
UBN 2995.9 216.6 168.1 119.6 92.8

Table 8. Network-wide average channel and network capacities (Shannon capacities).

¯ ¯
Average Path Cch (80 km) Cch (100 km) Cnet (80 km) Cnet (100 km)
Networks
Length (km) (Gbit/s) (Gbit/s) (Tbit/s) (Tbit/s)

COST239 682.2 752.3 672.7 82.8 74.0

NSFNET 2268.3 541.8 459.3 98.6 83.6
UBN 2995.9 496.4 418.1 274.0 230.8

It is worth noting that in our analysis, we used unidirectional traffic demands, i.e.,
one-way traffic. In this context, a bidirectional flow of information is described by utilizing
two unidirectional demands, one for each direction. Alternatively, if bidirectional traffic
demands (two-way) are employed, the bidirectional flow can be described with just one
demand. The results given in Tables 7 and 8 for network capacities are based on unidirec-
tional traffic demands, so we can denote these capacities as unidirectional capacities. On
the other hand, bidirectional network capacity corresponds to using bidirectional traffic
demands. In this case, the values of Cnet given Tables 7 and 8 must be halved.
Although Table 5 gives results for the channel capacities considering a link, Table 8
provides results for the average channel capacity considering a network, and it is note-
worthy that for Rs = 64 Gbaud and L = 800 km in the first table, and for Ls = 80 km and
the COST239 in the second table, the capacities are approximately the same (750 Gbit/s).
This result arises because the link length of 800 km is close to the average path length of
the COST239 network, which is 682 km. It is important to note that a critical point in this
analysis is the definition of the span length, which, in both cases in this comparison, is set
equal to 80 km. In this way, for L = 800 km, we have 10 spans, while the number of spans
varies with the path length. As for the other networks, where the average path lengths
are much longer than the link lengths defined in Table 5, it is not possible to make such a
comparison.

5. Conclusions
This paper has revisited the problem of estimating the capacity of optical backbone
networks, giving attention not only to the channel capacity but also to link and network
capacity.
After reviewing the fundamental principles of optical networks and describing the
main physical impairments present in these networks, the calculation of spectral efficiency
and optical channel capacity was carried out using Shannon’s theory, together with close-
form equations available in the literature. Furthermore, an approach was proposed to
compute the optical reach, taking into consideration the performance of different modula-
tion schemes.
It was observed that although the maximum values of the spectral efficiency in real
networks fall well short of the ideal values, the recent record result of 17.3 bit/s/Hz
 It was observed that although the maximum values of the spectral efficiency
networks fall well short of the ideal values, the recent record result of 17.3 b
achieved with M = 4096 symbols (DM-4096QAM) came closer to the theoretical v
The paper also discussed the relationship between channel capacity and variations
Network 2024, 4 130
spectral efficiency and symbol rates. It was shown that doubling the capacity thro
two-fold increase in spectral efficiency leads to an 80% reduction in the reach. Conv
when
achieveddoubling
with M =the 4096capacity by doubling came
symbols (DM-4096QAM) the symbol rate,
closer to the the reach
theoretical values.reductio
comparatively modest,the
The paper also discussed not exceeding
relationship 10%. channel capacity and variations in the
between
spectral efficiency and symbol rates. It
The link capacity was also a focal pointwas shown that doubling
of our theinvestigation.
capacity through This
a two- capaci
fold increase in spectral efficiency leads to an 80% reduction in the reach. Conversely, when
determined by multiplying the optical channel capacity by the number of ch
doubling the capacity by doubling the symbol rate, the reach reductions are comparatively
present in exceeding
modest, not an optical fiber. While the experimental results were not on par w
10%.
theoretical
The linkpredictions,
capacity was aalso remarkable
a focal pointvalue
of ourofinvestigation.
52.1 Tbit/s This has capacity
recentlywas been rep
determined
Finally, theby network
multiplyingcapacity
the optical channel
of threecapacity by the number
reference networksof channels
was present
computed u
in an optical fiber. While the experimental results were not on par with the theoretical
capacitated routing algorithm. The central point of analysis consists in using optica
predictions, a remarkable value of 52.1 Tbit/s has recently been reported. Finally, the
values
networkobtained
capacity offor two
three scenarios:
reference realwas
networks capacities
computed and
usingShannon capacities.
a capacitated routing It was
that the values
algorithm. of thepoint
The central achieved capacities
of analysis ranged
consists in from reach
using optical tens values
to hundreds
obtainedofforterabits
two scenarios: real capacities and Shannon capacities. It was found
that these values are mainly impacted by the path lengths and the number of that the values of the
achieved capacities
channels ranged from
accommodated by thetens network,
to hundreds asofwell
terabits/s,
as by and
the that theseofvalues
values are
the optical rea
mainly impacted by the path lengths and the number of optical channels accommodated
by the network, as well as by the values of the optical reach.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflicts of interest.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflicts of interest.

Appendix
Appendix AA
This appendix
This appendix presents
presents the physical
the physical topologies
topologies of three[42]:
of three networks networks [42]:

Network 2024, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW

A1.Physical
Figure A1.
Figure Physicaltopology of the
topology ofCOST239 networknetwork
the COST239 (link lengths in km).
(link lengths in km).

Figure A2. Physical topology of the National Science Foundation network (NSFNET) (link lengths
Figure A2. Physical topology of the National Science Foundation network (NSFNET) (link
in km).
in km).
 Network 2024, 4 Figure A2. Physical topology of the National Science Foundation network (NSFNET)
131 (link
in km).

A3.Physical
Figure A3.
Figure Physicaltopology of theof
topology USA
thebackbone network (UBN)
USA backbone (link(UBN)
network lengths in km).lengths in km).
(link

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