SENSORY EVALUATION

DEPARTMENT OF FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

BELLS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY OTA

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SENSORY TEST METHODS
Sensory evaluation has been defined as a scientific method used to evoke,
measure, analyze, and interpret those responses to products as perceived through
the senses of sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing. The principles and practices of
sensory evaluation involve each of the four activities mentioned in this definition.
Consider the words
“To evoke.”
Sensory evaluation gives guidelines for the preparation and serving of samples
under controlled conditions so that biasing factors are minimized. For example,
people in a sensory test are often placed in individual test booths so that the
judgments they give are their own and do not reflect the opinions of those around
them. Samples are labeled with random numbers so that people do not form
judgments based upon labels, but rather on their sensory experiences. Another
example is in how products may be given in different orders to each participant to
help measure and counterbalance for the sequential effects of seeing one product
after another. Standard procedures may be established for sample temperature,
volume, and spacing in time, as needed to control unwanted variation and improve
test precision
“To measure.”
Sensory evaluation is a quantitative science in which numerical data are collected
to establish lawful and specific relationships between product characteristics and
human perception. Sensory methods draw heavily from the techniques of
behavioral research in observing and quantifying human responses.
To analyze.
Proper analysis of the data is a critical part of sensory testing. Data generated from
human observers are often highly variable. There are many sources of variation in
human responses that cannot be completely controlled in a sensory test. Examples
include the mood and motivation of the participants, their innate physiological
sensitivity to sensory stimulation, and their past history and familiarity with similar
products.
Interpretation of results.
A sensory evaluation exercise is necessarily an experiment. In experiments, data
and statistical information are only useful when interpreted in the context of
hypotheses, background knowledge, and implications for decisions and actions to
be taken. Conclusions must be drawn that are reasoned judgments based upon
data, analyses, and results. Conclusions involve consideration of the method, the
limitations of the experiment, and the background and contextual framework of the
study.
In summary sensory science is the study of the reactions of the five senses - sight,
hearing, smell, taste and touch - to the characteristics of physical matter. The
discipline does not just deal with "likes and dislikes," but scientifically evokes,
measures, analyses and interprets psychological responses to physical stimuli, and

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thus belongs to the specialized field of psychophysics. Sensory evaluation is also
known as
• Sensory Analysis
• Organoleptic Analysis
• Taste Testing
• Psychophysics
• Subjective Evaluation

SIGNIFICANCE OF SENSORY EVALUATION

1. To improve the sensory quality of a product or
2. To ensure inter-batch consistency
3. To understand the sensory characteristics of the products and how they
influence consumer preferences
4. To understand how the product performs against competitors' products in
relation to consumer perceptions and or sensory characteristics
5. To determine whether or not consumers can detect differences between
products, e.g. 'me too' products, or changes in the product due to recipe
modifications
6. To influence product listings with retailers by presenting independent
research demonstrating that the company has a greater understanding of
their products profile and consumers
Sensory test methods are designed to answer the following questions:
 Is there a difference?
 What is the nature of the difference?
 Is the difference acceptable?

INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS OF SENSORY EVALUATION

• Product development
• Product matching
• Product improvement
• Process change
• Cost reduction
• New raw materials selection
• Quality control
• Storage stability
• Product grading / rating
• Consumer acceptance
• Consumer preference
• Panel selection / training
• Correlation subjective / objective

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CONTROLABLE FACTORS IN SENSORY EVALUATION
There are many factors that must be controlled when running any type of sensory
tests. These factors can be grouped into different categories; site/environment,
sensory methods/tests, samples/product and subjects/test participants.
A. Site/Environment:
Just as the ambience of a restaurant affects the way you judge your dining
experience, the environment of a sensory room can affect the evaluation of a
product. The sensory administrator must be aware of the conditions of the room.
When the sensory area is being designed, one must consider the control of
 odors,
 noise,
 lighting,
 temperature,
 separation from the preparatory area
 Overall comfort of the room.

B. Sensory Methods/Tests:
The sensory administrator must know the objective of the project to be able to
choose the correct sensory method to use in the study. For example, if the
objective is to determine the acceptability of a new formula of a cola versus the
current formula, the sensory administrator would choose to run an acceptance test.
If the objective was to determine if the new formula was similar to the current
formula, a difference test would be conducted.
One of the most important aspects to consider before selecting which method to
use is to be clear of the objective of the sensory study. This will involve finding out
different pieces of information to determine exactly why the sensory test is required
so that the test can be designed to meet the objective. For example there is little
point conducting a full sensory profile if the client only wishes to know if there is a
texture change because of the introduction of a new ingredient supplier for a
thickening agent. Another important consideration before deciding which method to
use is how the results will be collected, analysed and subsequently used. A useful
technique is the use of action standards as these can be incredibly helpful in
designing the test
C. Samples/Product:
Handling of samples is critical for accurate data to be gathered. The preparation
time and procedure, temperature, serving procedures, randomizing samples and
screening samples prior to testing play a major role in the sensory testing process.
If any of these factors are compromised the results of the test may be misleading to
the researcher. For example, if the temperature is not controlled one sample could
be rated differently based solely on temperature. Additional sample related factors
includes
1. Sampling:

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 The sample should be representative of the lot. Care shall be taken that no loss
of flavour occurs and no foreign tastes or odours are imparted during the sample
presentation. The sample should be drawn from a bulk lot in such a way that
body and texture characteristics are not changed.
2. Sample Numbers and Quantity:
For economic efficiency of sensory testing, larger the number of samples per
session, the better it will be. However, the size and quantity of sample for each
judging session vary from product to product. Normally 5-8 samples with
average intensity of flavour for each sitting are optimum. Number of samples
may be increased in case of odorous material of low intensity. The amount of
each sample should be about 25-50 ml or gm, which is sufficient for one full sip
or bite.
3. Score Card:
The evaluation card should be simple, brief, easy to follow and all important
sensory attributes included in it. It should be clearly printed and the matter
should be arranged in logical sequence. Terminology used shall be clear and
understandable.
4. Miscellaneous Factors:
The temperature of serving should be close to that recommended for each
product . The test should be carried out preferably one hour before or after
lunch. Use of materials, which are likely to vitiate results, such as smoking,
chewing pan and taking intoxicants by the evaluator should have a time lapse of
at least 30 minutes before the test. Use of strong odoriferous substances such as
cosmetics, flavours, hair oil should be avoided by the evaluator as well as in the
testing area.

D. Panelists /Test Participants:

Panelists with the correct skills or qualifications must be selected to evaluate the
product. If it is an acceptance test, then the panelist must like and use the product
being tested. If it is a difference test, then the panelist must be known
discriminators.
1. Health of Evaluator: The evaluator should be physically and mentally in good
health. The sensitivity for evaluator in respect of sense of smell and taste
should be normal. He/she should not be suffering from anosmia and ageusia.
2. Age: Evaluators should preferably be in the age group of 18-50 years.
Persons of younger age are unable to properly interpret and communicate
the sensory results, whereas at older age the memory decreases. Sharp
memory of evaluator is considered highly useful in judging of dairy products,
particularly for quality control applications.
3. Interest and Motivation: Sensory evaluation work is very time consuming and
sometimes fatigue also. The evaluator should, therefore, have interest and be
motivated.

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 4. Adaptation: Continuous exposure of evaluator to a particular stimulus,
particularly at high concentration for long time, leads to decrease in his
sensitivity (also called as fatigue). It is therefore desirable either to give
sufficient time between the samples or use taste sanitizers, such as brine
solutions, fruits and mild acids. The taste sanitizers improve the taste
sensitivity or bring it back to normal level.

Factors Influencing Taste Perception

1. Age
Taste discrimination tends to decrease with increasing age. Around age 45, taste
buds begin to degenerate. Taste loss becomes apparent in your late 50s, with sour
less affected than the other tastes. In the elderly, taste thresholds for sweet, salt
and bitter are 2.5 times higher than in the young. For example, at age 20 or 30, you
use one teaspoon of sugar in your coffee, and at age 75 you may need three
teaspoons of sugar to get the same perceived sweetness.
2. Meals
Sensitivity is reduced for between one and four hours after a meal, depending on
what the meal included. A spicy/hot meal such as enchiladas will have a greater
effect than a bland meal such as oatmeal and milk.
3. Hunger
Hunger affects how food tastes by making hungry people more sensitive to
sweetness and saltiness. This makes hunger the downfall of many dieters, as they
reach for sweet or salty foods, which may not be the healthiest choices. Bitterness
perception, however, is not affected by hunger.
4. Smoking
When smoking a cigarette or cigar, the smoker places the taste buds in contact with
chemical compounds that greatly decrease the taste buds’ ability to register salty,
sweet, sour and bitter tastes.
5. Obesity
Children and adolescents who are obese have less sensitive taste buds. That means
for obese children, sweet foods taste less intensely sweet, bitter foods are milder
and salt is not as readily perceived.
6. Pregnancy
During pregnancy, nearly two-thirds of women experience changes in taste.
Pregnant women have been found to have a reduced sensitivity to salty tastes,
which may be the body’s way of ensuring increased salt intake during pregnancy.
7. Colds/Flu/Allergies
When suffering from a cold, individuals frequently complain that they have lost their
sense of taste. In reality, they have lost their sense of smell. Obstruction of air
passages reduces olfactory perception, a key component of how we taste.

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8. Disease
People with cancer and anorexia have reduced taste sensitivity as the result of their
compromised physical condition. Cancer patients have reported that taste changes
return to normal after treatment is completed.

9. Temperature
Influence of temperature on taste is not uniform. Taste buds can be put out of
action by both high and low temperatures. Increasing temperature appears to
increase the response to sweetness and decrease it to saltiness and bitterness.
Decreasing temperature appears to increase the response to bitterness and
decrease the response to sourness.
10. Adaptation
Adapting to the taste reduces sensory acuity, thus preventing you from detecting
differences between stimuli. The order in which you taste samples during a sensory
test is important. Tasting a strong sample, then a weak one results in adaptation.
The opposite order, first weak then strong, should not affect taste sensitivity. With
short waits between samples (three minutes or so), most effects of adaptation
should dissipate. There are almost no issues when two stimuli have different taste
qualities.
11. Taste Medium
Solid vs. Liquid
The taste buds can only detect flavors that are dissolved in a liquid. You cannot
taste a dry substance with a dry tongue. Water is the best medium for sensitivity
tests. Taste thresholds are lower in water than in tomato juice.
12. Viscosity
Increased viscosity reduces tastes sensitivity. Meaning, it’s easiest to detect tastes
in liquid state, harder in foams and more difficult in gels
HUMAN SENSORY ORGANS
Humans possess about 30 different senses. However, the sensory properties of
foods are perceived through the senses of: • Sight;• Smell;• Taste;• Touch; and•
Hearing
TERMINOLOGY
a. Stimuli
A stimulus is any chemical or physical activator that causes a response in a
receptor, e.g. eye is receptor for light, ear is receptor for sound tongue is a receptor
for taste, nose is a receptor for small
b. Receptors

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Receptors are the stimuli detecting cells of the sense organ, e.g. taste buds on
tongue, light receptors in retina of eye.
c. Perception
Perception is the psychological interpretation of sensations determined by
comparison with past experiences, e.g. the sour taste of lemons is the perception of
the sensation received by the receptors (taste buds) from a chemical stimulus (citric
acid).

A. SMELL/FLAVOUR (SENSE OF OLFACTION)

The sense of smell gives organisms (from amoeba to humans) information about
the changing chemistry of their environment and thus can alert them to either
danger or opportunity.
One striking example of odour detection by single cells is the human sperm which
possesses smell receptors identical to one of those found in the nose. It is presumed
that the ovum releases some chemical signal which OR1D2 detects and thus the
sperm is led to its target. Smell is the most important sense for most animals, the
main exceptions being aquatic animals which rely heavily on sound, and diurnal
birds and five primates for which vision is the dominant sense.
For example, lions use smell to detect antelopes in the savannah, monkeys use
smell to detect ripe fruit in the forest and humans use smell to find the bakery
counter at the back of the supermarket.
The sense of smell also warns us against the dangers of spoiled food. We quickly
learn that the smell of hydrogen sulfide warns us to avoid rotten eggs or meat that
has gone bad as a result of bacterial activity. Just as the lion locates the antelope
using its sense of smell, the sense of smell can warn the antelope of the approach
of the lion. The smell of smoke is a universal warning signal to all mammalian
species.
It therefore follows from this role in continuously analysing the chemistry of the
environment that the sense of smell must be time-based, capable of dealing with
complex mixtures of molecules (since natural odours are almost invariably
mixtures) and capable of recognising previously unknown molecules. Thus the
sense of smell cannot depend on a simple mechanism.
The Sense of Smell (Odour/Olfaction)
Stimuli = volatile chemicals
Receptors= olfactory cells in the nose
Perception=smell, odour, aroma, flavour
What is commonly referred to as flavour is actually a combination of:
• Taste;
• Smell;
• Touch; and

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• Temperature.
The human nose is capable of detecting thousands of different odour substances.
However, our sensitivity is much less than other animals. (Animals use smell - food,
mating, territory etc).
Smell is detected both before and during eating. Smell is an important aspect of
flavour. There are 20x106 olfactory receptors, but only about 10,000 taste
receptors.
In order for odour to register:
• Substance needs to be volatile enough to get into air in the sensory region.
• Substance needs to be partially soluble in mucus covering of receptors.
• Minimum number of odorous molecules need to be present.
• Need to be in contact with receptors for minimum time.

Olfactory adaptation
Initial sensation may be strong - but weakens and makes identification difficult; this
is due to adaptation of olfactory receptors. In testing we therefore need to allow for
this by:

• Taking first impression of odour and/or

• Waiting between tests to allow receptors to recover.

B. THE SENSE OF TASTE (Gustation)

Stimuli = soluble chemicals or chemicals which are solubilized during chewing
Receptors= taste buds in mouth
Perception=taste, flavour

Strictly speaking taste involves only those sensations mediated by the Gustatory
Nerve Fibres and these sensations have five (5) basic qualities:
• Salt;
• Sweet;
• Sour; and
• Bitter.
• Umami
Taste stimuli
Taste response requires an aqueous solution of the substance (stimulus) to contact
the taste buds. Therefore, saliva secretions are important in terms of ensuring
contact between the product and the taste buds. Saliva production is generally
stimulated by chewing, as well as the appearance and odour of the food.
The tongue is important as it brings the food into contact with the taste buds and
also provides a mixing action which enables an even distribution of food about the
taste buds as well as preventing the development of concentration gradients.
COMPONENT OF TASTES
Sourness

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This is the simplest taste as only acids (H+) produce sourness and as the (H+)
increases the sourness increases.
Sweetness
The common substances that produce the sweet taste are the sugars and other
hydroxy
compounds such as alcohols and glycols. Other substances such as lead salts,
amino acids, proteins, non-nutritive sweeteners (cyclamates, saccharin and
aspartame) also taste sweet
Saltiness
Many crystalline water-soluble salts yield a salty taste, but only sodium chloride
gives a pure salty taste. Other substances taste salty but also bitter, alkaline, sweet
and salt in various combinations.
Bitterness
Many chemically different compounds have a bitter taste. However, bitterness is
mainly associated with alkaloids such as caffeine, quinine, strychnine and nicotine.
Originally it was thought that bitterness was an indication of danger (poison).
However, many alkaloids are used as drugs (e.g. codeine) and many other bitter
substances are harmless (glycosides, esters and aldehydes and tannins in wines
and tea).
Bitterness is generally perceived at very low concentration and a relationship
appears to exist between sweet and bitter as many sweet substances produce a
bitter aftertaste (saccharin). Bitterness is the taste which most people have
difficulty in detecting and response level varies greatly from individual to individual.
Umami
Umami is the taste that has been shown to be associated with substances that
contain glutamate. The most notable example is mono-sodium glutamate (MSG).
MSG is well known as a flavour enhancer and can cause adverse reactions in some
sensitive individuals.
However, there are many other compounds which contain glutamate and which are
capable of producing the savoury, spicy, brothy taste associated with MSG. Many
foods contain naturally high levels of glutamate.
Taste thresholds and sensitivity
There is great variability between individuals in their levels of sensitivity. Sensitivity
is affected by:
• Temperature;
• Sleep;
• Hunger;
• Age; and
• Sex.

C. THE SENSE OF HEARING (Audition)

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Stimuli = physical movement of sound waves in a medium (air)
Receptor= ear drum
Perception=sound, hearing
Hearing
Sound is the perception by humans of vibrations in a physical medium (air). The
sound of food when it is being eaten is an important aspect in determining quality.
D. THE SENSE OF TOUCH (Texture, Kinesthetics)
Stimuli = physical contact between the food and body tissue
Receptors= muscles and nerves in mouth and fingers
Perception=touch, feel, texture, viscosity

 Texture means those perceptions that constitute the evaluation of a food's

physical characteristics by the skin or muscle senses of the buccal cavity,
excepting the sensations of temperature or pain.
 It is a group of physical properties that derive from the structure of the
Food consists of a group of properties, not a single property.
 Texture is sensed by the feeling of touch, usually in the mouth, but other
parts of the body may be involved (frequently the hands).It is not related to
the chemical senses of taste or odor.
 Texture is the composite of the structural elements of food and the manner in
which it registers with the physiological senses).
 By texture we mean those qualities of food that we can feel either with the
fingers, the tongue, the palate, or the teeth.
 Texture is the composite of those properties (attributes) which arise from the
structural elements of food and the manner in which it registers with the
physiological senses
Texture usually relates to solid food while viscosity relates to homogeneous liquid
foods and consistency relates to non-homogeneous liquid foods.Instrumental
methods only measure one aspect of "texture" and again cannot relate the complex
interactions which produce the perception of food texture.
Finger feel
Firmness/Softness indicates the eating quality of some food products:
• Ripeness level of fruit such as avocado and mango;
• Crumb texture of bread;
• Firmness of cheese; and
• Spread-ability of butter or spread.
The importance of texture in the overall acceptability of foods varies widely,
depending upon the type of food. We could arbitrarily break it into three groups:
1. Critical:Those foods in which texture is the dominant quality characteristic; for
example, meat, potato chips, and celery.

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2. Important: Those foods in which texture makes a significant but not a dominant
contribution to the overall quality, contributing, more or less equally, with flavor and
appearance; for example, most fruits, vegetables, bread, and candy fall into this
category.
3. Minor: Those foods in which texture makes a negligible contribution to the overall
quality; examples are most beverages and thin soups

FACTORS AFFECTING SENSORY MEASUREMENTS

Unlike instruments, human judgments can easily be affected by psychological or
physiological factors. The sensory professional must be aware of these factors and
ensure that the chosen procedure and experimental design eliminate or reduce
such bias. This section highlights potential sources of error and suggests some
strategies for reducing their effects.
1 Psychological factors
1.1 Expectation error
Knowledge of experimental objectives, or the samples to be evaluated, can
influence an assessor’s judgement. People tend to find what they expect to find. For
example, codes such as ‘A’, ‘1’ or round numbers (e.g. 100, 250) can be associated
with a higher score. Other numbers can have particular associations, e.g. 999 or
911 and danger.

✖ Do not include people with product knowledge on the panel.

✔ Provide assessors with the minimum amount of information required to perform
the test.
✖ Do not disclose information regarding the samples unless it is necessary for
ethical procedures, e.g. use of novel ingredients.
✔ Code samples. Use codes such as random three-digit numbers and not letters or
colours.

1.2 Suggestion effect

Comments or noises made out loud, e.g. urghh! or Mmmm! can influence sensory
judgments.
✔ Isolate assessors during sample evaluation, e.g. use of sensory booths.
✔ Discourage assessors from discussing samples before or after evaluation unless
instructed to do so.

1.3 Distraction error

Assessors can be easily distracted from the task in hand, either by stimuli in the test
environment, e.g. radios and other conversations, or by personal preoccupations,
e.g. time pressure or domestic issues.
✔ Ensure test area is quiet.
✔ Create an environment that encourages professionalism amongst the assessors.
✖ Prohibit the use of electronic devices, e.g. mobile phones during testing.

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1.4 Stimulus and logical error
Stimulus error occurs when assessors use additional information to make a
judgement about the samples under assessment. When this stimulus is also
logically associated with one or more of the characteristics under evaluation, it is
called logical error. Some obvious examples are when products of a deeper colour
or larger size are presumed to be more flavour intense, or when thinner skin creams
are viewed as poorer quality.
There are also other less obvious stimuli that may be exploited by assessors, such
as cues regarding product branding; running a panel at an unusual time, which may
prompt assessors to think there is a production problem; using more luxurious
containers may lead assessors to think products are of higher quality.
✔ Ensure sample characteristics are consistent and/or mask irrelevant differences
where possible, e.g. use of coloured lighting, blindfolds, nose clips and ear
defenders where appropriate.
1.5 Halo effect and proximity error
Judgments concerning the rating of one attribute may influence the ratings of other
attributes when assessors are asked to judge several attributes at once. This is
more likely with untrained assessors. For example, a sweeter sample may be rated
as softer, or stickier, than it would have, had these ratings been made on separate
occasions. Furthermore, when rating several attributes at a time, the ratings of
attributes following on from one another tend to be related.
1.6 Attribute dumping
If assessors are not given the opportunity to rate all the attributes they perceive as
changing in the products under evaluation, they may still record this observation
using the scales available. For example, if products are changing in terms of
sweetness but no sweetness scale exists, they may register these changes on a
flavour intensity scale such as strawberry flavour. This is known as ‘attribute
dumping’.
✔ Enable assessors to score all attributes which vary or indicate that opportunities
to rate all varying attributes will be given.
1.7 Habituation
When assessors score similar products on a regular basis, e.g. on quality panels,
they can develop a habit of assigning similar scores each time rather than scores
which truly represent the samples.
✔ Vary products or introduce spiked samples from time to time.
1.8 Order effect
The score assigned to a sample can be influenced by the sensory character of the
preceding product. For example, a sample may be rated as less sweet if it follows
one of greater intensity. In addition, some sample positions are often favoured, e.g.
products in position one are often scored higher in hedonic tests.

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✔ Randomise or balance the order of presentation of samples.
✔ For affective tests (see Section 5.4), use a dummy sample in position one.

1.9 Contrast and convergence effects

If two products in the sample set are strikingly different, assessors may exaggerate
their ratings of this difference (contrast). If similar products are rated as part of a
widely varying sample set, then the difference between them may be rated smaller
than it actually is (convergence).
✔ Randomise or balance the order of presentation of samples.
✔ Consider removing outlying samples from the sample set.

1.10 Central tendency error

When using scales, assessors tend to avoid the extremes and confine their ratings
to the middle of the scale. This is more likely to occur with untrained assessors or
when assessors are not familiar with the product range.
✔ Train assessors in the use of the scale and expose them to a wide product range
where possible.
✔ Use a large enough scale to differentiate between the products, particularly with
untrained assessors.

1.11 Motivation error

A motivated panellist will learn better and, ultimately, perform more reliably. If
assessors do not respect the panel leader or product manufacturer, they may rate
samples based on how they feel. This can be an issue when using employee panels.
✔ Respect assessors.
✔ Give regular feedback to assessors.
✔ Carry out sessions in a professional manner.

2. Physiological factors
2.1 Adaptation
Continued exposure to a stimulus results in a decrease in sensitivity to that stimulus
and/or a change in sensitivity to other stimuli. Consequently, assessments of
attribute intensity vary depending on the level to which the assessor has adapted to
a stimulus. These are known as carry-over effects.
Limit the number of samples presented.
✔ Ensure appropriate time intervals between samples to allow the sensory system
to recover; this can be a matter of seconds, minutes or hours, depending on the
stimulus, e.g. ‘cooling’ can take 10 minutes to recede.
✔ Ensure assessors take adequate breaks between single and sets of samples; the
length of break will vary dependent on sample and test type.

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✔ Provide assessors with appropriate palate cleansers, which ensure removal of any
sample lingering in the oral cavity, e.g. milk rather than water may be needed for
some spicy compounds.
2.2 Perceptual interactions between stimuli
Certain stimuli can interact to cause the following:
• Enhancement (potentiation): The presence of one substance increases the
perceived intensity of another, e.g. salt increases perceived intensity of
chicken flavour
 Synergy: The intensity of a mixture is greater than the intensity of the sum of
the individual components, e.g. sweetness and sourness impact on
strawberry flavour.
• Suppression: The presence of one substance decreases the perceived
intensity of another, e.g. sourness reduces peach flavour.
✔ Where appropriate, employ careful experimental design to ensure that the effects
of combined and individual stimuli are understood.
2.3 Physical condition
Health and nutritional disorders, together with the drugs prescribed to treat them,
can affect sensory performance. Age and stress can also impact on sensory acuity,
as can the time of day.
✔ Screen assessors prior to testing or remove assessor data if medical conditions or
associated drugs affect the sensory performance.
✔ Instruct assessors to refrain from eating for at least an hour before sensory
sessions.
✔ Schedule sessions for around a similar time each day – preferably between 10
and lunch

Cultural factors
When working with assessors from different cultures or geographical location, the
sensory professional needs to be aware of the impact that cultural effects can have
on sensory data. For example, in some cultures, particular product codes may have
significant connotations; eating in public may be considered as a social taboo;
spiritual restrictions may impact on sample selection; group feedback may not be
deemed acceptable. In addition, literal translations of questions and scale
terminology may result in loss or change of meaning. The use of a scale can vary
across cultures, e.g. some tend to score much higher or lower than ‘average’ when
using the hedonic scale.
✔ Be sensitive to coding issues.
✔ Clarify translations of sensory scales or questionnaires into other languages, e.g.
the use of back translation.
✔ Be aware of cultural tendencies – these will have an impact on many aspects of
sensory testing such as products, protocols, scale use and feedback.
✔ Build up information on cultural norms from different cultures or countries.

TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS
Sensory evaluation as a scientific discipline is a tool for evaluating quality.
Measurement is critical to quantifying responses to stimuli for the purpose of

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utilizing descriptive and inferential statistics. Such statistics provide a rational basis
for decisions about the products that are evaluated and the subjects who did the
evaluations. The value of measurement and the requirement for valid scales of
measurement are not, however, unique to sensory evaluation.
1. Nominal scales for use in classification or naming
2. Ordinal scales for use in ordering or ranking
3. Interval scales for use in measuring magnitudes, assuming equal distances
between points on the scale
4. Ratio scales for use in measuring magnitudes, assuming equality of ratios
between points
NOMINAL SCALE
Nominal data: (Latin: nomen name). The items examined are placed in two or more
groups that differ in name but do not obey any particular order or any quantitative
relationship, e.g., the numbers worn by football players. In these scales, numbers
are used to label, code, or otherwise classify items or responses as shown below

The only property assigned to these numbers is that of non-equality; that is, the
responses or items placed in one class cannot be placed in another class. In
general, subjects have little or no difficulty in responding to questions that use
nominal scales (this assumes the questions are understood).
 Mathematics frequency counts and distributions,
 modes (the category containing the most responses),
 chi-square (χ2),
 Coefficient of contingency. permissible for nominal scale data include

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Of the permissible computations, χ2 is probably the most helpful. It allows for a
comparison of frequency distributions to determine whether they are different,
comparison of frequencies for data that can be categorized in two or more ways to
determine whether the actual responses are different from some expected values,
and comparisons of two or more groups relative to a series of categories. It is
possible to convert nominal scale data by assigning ranks or percentages based on
frequency. This conversion permits use of statistical analyses usually restricted to
ordinal data and proportions (e.g. t test for proportions). In this case, it would be
prudent to identify that scale conversion was done prior to using these inferential
analyses

ORDINAL SCALES
Ordinal data: (Latin: ordinalis Z order). The panelist places the items examined into
two or more groups that belong to an ordered series, e.g., slight, moderate, strong.
Ordinal scales use either numbers or words organized from “high” to “low,” “most”
to “least,” etc., with respect to some attribute of a product set. Ranking is one of
the most commonly used types of ordinal scale. It is a relatively easy behavioral
task, and a number of procedures have been developed for ranking products

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The paired-comparison test is a special use of the rank-order test, as are the
directional discrimination (e.g. which sample is sweeter) and the paired-preference
tests.

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INTERVAL SCALES
Interval data: (Latin: inter vallumZspace between ramparts). Panelists place the
items into numbered groups separated by a constant interval, e.g., three, four, five,
six.
An interval scale is one in which the interval or distance between points on the
scale is assumed to be equal and the scale has an arbitrary zero point, thereby
making no claims about the “absolute” magnitude of the attribute measured. An

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example of an interval scale is the monthly calendar, in which each day constitutes
an equal interval of time. A true or rational zero is not necessary for effective use of
the calendar, and the interval between days is independent of whether that interval
occurs early or late in that month. For example, the interval between the third and
fifth day of the month is the same as that between the 13th and 15 th day. Any x day
interval is equivalent to any other x day interval.

Interval scales are considered to be truly quantitative scales, and most statistical
procedures can be used for their analysis; these include means, standard
deviations, t tests, analysis of variance, multiple range tests, product–moment
correlation, factor analysis, and regression. Numerical responses may also be
converted to ranks, and standard rank order statistics may be applied to the data.
RATIO SCALES
Ratio scale data exhibit the same properties as interval scale data, and in addition,
there is a constant ratio between points and an absolute zero. † Ratio data.
Panelists use numbers that indicate how many times the stimulus in question is
stronger (or saltier, or more irritating) than a reference stimulus presented earlier.

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TYPES OF SENSORY TESTS
OBJECTIVE TESTS
Provide objective data on the sensory properties of products and are carried out by
trained assessors. There are two classes of objective tests:
• Discrimination tests: Determine whether there are sensory differences between
samples.
• Descriptive tests: Identify the nature of a sensory difference and/or the magnitude
of the difference.
SUBJECTIVE TESTS
Are known as affective or consumer tests. They provide subjective data on
acceptability, liking or preference, and are carried out by untrained assessors.
indicate that perception has occurred
Affective testing
Affective sensory testing is conducted almost exclusively with naïve respondents
(consumers). Most affective testing that is conducted by sensory groups usually is
quantitative in nature, that is, the tests measure how much or how many.
Qualitative testing, such as focus groups and in-depth interviews is usually carried
out via descriptive sensory tests.It is also refer to as acceptance testing, by
acceptance testing, we mean measuring liking or preference for a product.
Preference is that expression of appeal of one product versus another. Preference
can be measured directly by comparison of two or more products with each other;
that is, which one of two or more products is preferred.
Indirect measurement of preference is achieved by determining which product is
scored significantly higher (more liked) than another product in a multiproduct test
or which product is scored higher than another by significantly more people. There
is an obvious and direct relationship between measuring product liking/acceptance
and preference. To be most efficient, sensory science should emphasize measuring
product liking/acceptance in multiproduct tests and, from these data, indirectly
determine preference

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DISCRIMINATORY TEST
Discrimination testing as a class of tests represents one of the two most useful
analytical tools available to the sensory professional. It is on the basis of a
perceived difference between two products that one can justify proceeding to a
descriptive test in order to identify the basis for the difference, or the converse,
products are not perceived as different, and appropriate action is taken; for
example, the alternative ingredient can be used.
Within this general class of discrimination methods are a variety of specific
methods; some are well-known, such as paired-comparison, triangle, duo–trio, and
directional difference tests.

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However, all the methods are intended to answer a seemingly simple question: “Are
these products perceived as different?” Obviously, the response to this question can
have major consequences. If the two products are perceived as different (at a
previously established level of risk) and the development objective is to not be
different, then the objective has not been achieved and the planned sensory testing
sequence will likely be changed. The subject’s task is to indicate whether or not the
stimulus was detected. The subject is not required to identify the stimulus, only to
Methods
The two methods most frequently used to directly measure preference and
acceptance are the paired-comparison test and the 9-point hedonic scale,
respectively.
1. Paired comparison
Two-Sample Tests
Comparison of two samples is commonly referred to as the paired stimuli or paired-
comparison test. In a true difference test, the judge is presented with two stimuli
and asked to indicate whether there is a difference between them. In a directional
test, two stimuli are presented for comparison and the judge must determine which
of the two has the greater intensity of a specific, well-defined, and well-understood
characteristic. In either test, the samples can be presented simultaneously or
successively.
The paired comparison is probably the first formal sensory test method developed
to assess preference (Cover, 1936). The method requires the subject to indicate
which one of two coded products is preferred. A frequently used option allows the
inclusion of a “no preference” as a third choice, whereas another option allows
inclusion of a fourth choice, “dislike both equally. The product setup for the paired
test is demonstrated in Figure 5.2.
The presentation of two samples simultaneously (AA, AB, BA, or B B ) is referred to
as the paired-comparison method. The response in this case can be either "there is
a difference" or "there is no difference." The test is relatively easy to organize and
to implement.
The only two orders of presentation are A–B and B–A, and subjects usually evaluate
only one pair of products in a test with no replication. The preference test is usually
a two-tailed test because a priori we do not have knowledge regarding which
product is preferred

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HEDONIC TEST
For measuring product liking and preference, the 9-point hedonic scale is probably
the most useful sensory method. It has been used extensively with a wide variety of
products and with considerable success. An example of the scale is shown in Figure
3.5. The scale is easily understood by naive consumers with minimal instruction,
results have proven to be remarkably stable, and product differences (in liking) are
reproducible with different groups of subjects. Not surprisingly, the 9-point hedonic
scale is used extensively by many companies with considerable success in terms of
the reliability and validity of the result
Because most of these studies are not published (but are discussed informally at
conferences), questions about the scale continue to be asked or studies are
presented purporting superiority of or to some alternative method
For sensory evaluation, the results from use of this scale are most informative.
Computations will yield means, variance measures, and frequency distributions, all
by order of presentation and magnitude of difference between products by subject
and by panel, and the data can be converted to ranks as well, which yields product

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preferences. Additional information about product differences is obtained from the
analysis of variance or the t test, depending on the number of products and number
of responses per product per subject.
Hedonic scale
Of all scales and tests methods, the 9-point hedonic scale occupies a unique niche
in terms of its general applicability to the measurement of product
acceptance/preference. The hedonic scale is simple to describe, and as it turned
out, it is equally easy to use. We believe that this latter feature is a major reason for
its general usefulness in assessing product likes and dislikes for all types of foods,
beverages, cosmetics, paper products, and so on and why it is used on a worldwide
basis (when translated).
The scale was developed to assess acceptability of several hundred food items
(Peryam et al., 1960), and since then it has been reconfirmed by further studies.
The method relies on the naive or untrained respondent's capacity to report,
directly and reliably, their feelings of like or dislike within the context of the test. An
important aspect of the method is that it is used with untrained people, although a
minimum level of verbal ability is required for adequate performance.
Samples are presented monadically, sequentially, or in groups, and the respondent
is told to decide how much he likes or dislikes each sample and to mark the scales
accordingly. The essence of the method is its simplicity. Instructions to the
respondents are restricted to procedures. No attempt is made to direct or influence
the actual response. The respondent is allowed to make inferences about the
meaning of the scale categories and self-determine how the scale will be used to
express the respondent’s feelings about the samples

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Hedonic Scale Method: Case Study
Objective
Determine if adding vanillin improves acceptability of a beverage product.
Test Method
The Hedonic scale was selected for this study because it will show whether adding
vanillin increases acceptance with consumers. One hundred consumers were
selected who consume beverages in the category to be tested. Each consumer
tested both samples in a sequential monadic test (a sample was presented, scored
and removed before the second sample was given). The order of presentation was
balanced so that half of the consumers received the "control" first and half. received
the "vanillin" treatment first. Results were analyzed by analysis of variance or
paired t-test

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DISCRIMINATION/DIFFERENCE TESTS
What are discrimination or difference tests?
Discrimination testing as a class of tests represents one of the two most useful
analytical tools available to the sensory professional. It is on the basis of a
perceived difference between two products that one can justify proceeding to a
descriptive test in order to identify the basis for the difference.
Discrimination or difference testing is used to determine whether there is a
perceptible difference, or are differences, between two or more products and, in
some cases, the magnitude of the difference. As these tests involve comparative
judgments, they can be very sensitive in determining small differences between
products.
Discrimination tests should be used when the sensory specialist wants to determine
whether two samples are perceptibly different. It is possible for two samples to be
chemically different in formulation but for humans not to perceive this difference.
Product developers exploit this possibility when they reformulate a product by using
different ingredients while simultaneously not wanting the consumer to detect a
difference. For example, an ice cream manufacturer may want to substitute the
expensive vanilla flavor used in their premium vanilla ice cream with a cheaper
vanilla flavor.
Discrimination testing may also be used when a processing change is made which
the processor hopes would not affect the sensory characteristics of the product.

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However, when a company reformulates a product to make a “new, improved”
version then the discrimination test could be used to indicate that the two
formulations are perceived to be different. If preliminary bench testing indicates
that the two samples will be perceptibly different to all panelists then these
discrimination tests should not be used.
What are the types of difference test?
Some tests are used to establish simply whether or not there is a difference
between two samples. Such tests should not be used if there is an obvious
difference between two products. There are many types of difference test namely
 Paired Comparison Test
 Multiple difference tests
 Triangular test
 Duo Trio Test
 In/out’ (or pass/fail) method
 Difference from control (DFC) method
 ‘A’ Not ‘A’ Method

However, all the methods are intended to answer a seemingly simple question, “Are
these products perceived as different?” Obviously the response to this question can
have major consequences. A typical instruction may be “Here are two products;
which one has the stronger flavor?” or “Here are three products, which one is
different from the other two?” The subject’s task would initially appear to be
relatively simple; however, this apparent simplicity has led many well-meaning
individuals to devise a multitude of test variations without fully appreciating their
consequences.
A. Paired Comparison Method
The paired-comparison test is a two-product test, and the subject’s task is to
indicate, by circling or by some similar means, the one product that has more of a
designated characteristic such as sweetness, tenderness, or shininess, with the
designated characteristic having been identified before the test and stated on the
scorecard. This method is also identified as a directional paired-comparison test, the
“directional” component alerting the subject to a specific type of paired test
This test is used to determine if two samples differ in a specific character. It is a
directional test with a named attribute. For example, the assessor is with two
samples and asked which sample is harder, or which sample is more bitter.
Taste order should be specified, and the test designed to ensure both possible
orders are tasted an equal number of times. Samples should be presented under
code, preferably with each assessor having unique codes to minimize accidental or
deliberate influence of one assessor on another. The panel size should be a
minimum of 20 members.

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Note that the instructions require the subject to make a decision; that is, the test is
forced choice and the decision must be either one or the other of the two products
(and not “neither”).

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