CHAPTER 5- PERCEPTION AND INTERACTION

1.5.1. Scope: Organisms interact and respond to the changes that occur in their environment in order to survive.
Central Nervous System (CNS) coordinates the responses shown by an organism. Receptors sense the changes in the
surrounding (stimuli) and generate electrical impulses (sensory) which are transmitted to the CNS. CNS modulates
and generates a new impulse (motor) which determines the nature of the response that an organism exhibits.
1.5.2 Scope: Neurons have electrolytes (Na+, K+, etc.) on the inner and outer sides of their membranes. The
distribution of electrolytes determines the potential difference of the membrane.
On being stimulated, the pattern of distribution keeps changing, allowing transmission of the impulse. During
rest, the membrane is in a polarised state having more positive charge outside the membrane and less inside.
During the generation of transmission of impulse, the potential difference is reversed (action potential) and
the membrane is depolarised. The transmission of impulses is a result of the movement of electrolytes in and
out of the nerve fibres. The electrical state of a neuron keeps changing during impulse conduction
1.5.3. Scope: Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a field of computer science, associated with enabling machines to
work in a similar manner as the human nervous system. These systems are designed to perform tasks that
require human intelligence. Through this, robots/ machines are employed to work in situations that are not
usually possible for humans. The working principle of AI-based systems is similar to that of the human
nervous system.

How do organisms respond to change in the environment?

Organisms need to detect and respond to changes in their internal and external environment. This is because
the conditions inside our body must be carefully controlled for it to function effectively and survive.
How does the nervous system help us respond?
The nervous system takes in information through our senses, processes the information and triggers reactions, such
as making our muscles move or causing us to feel pain. For example, if you touch a hot plate, you reflexively pull
back your hand and your nerves simultaneously send pain signals to your brain.
Neural system provides an organized network of point to point connection for quick coordination. The
endocrine system provides chemical integration through hormones.

Control systems consists of:

1. Receptor—cells, tissues, organs or organ system, which detect stimuli (changes in the environment).
2. Coordination centre—CNS (brain and spinal cord) or pancreas, which receives and Process /interpret
information/stimulus from receptors around the body.
3. Effectors—muscles or glands, which bring about responses such as muscle contractions or hormone release. For
example:
1. Closing of eyes when light falls on them.
2. Withdrawal of hand immediately when it touches any hot objects.
3. Salivating while we think or see the delicious food.
4. Running away while we see tiger or snake.
How it works?
 By coordinator and interaction—it carries impulse to and from CNS.
 Receptors (cells in sense organs) are structures at ends of the nerve fibres that collects the information to be
conducted by the nerves and send it to the CNS. Nerves in turn conduct these impulses from the CNS and send it
to the effectors which are muscles or glands which work in response to the stimulus received from the brain.

What is Coordination?
The ability to regulate various organs of body in an organism for their smooth, efficient and coordinated

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working is termed as coordination.
 Response to any stimulus are definite, highly controlled and coordinated.
 They involve association, synchronization, integration and control of various physiological activities
occurring in various body parts.
 Coordination between stimulus & response (between receptors and effectors)
 Coordination and integration between various organs and systems.
Two systems for coordination in multicellular organisms:
1. Nervous system—it forms an organized network of nerve cells or neurons.
2. Endocrine system—it provides a wider chemical integration with help of chemicals, called hormones or
chemical messenger or information molecules.
Nervous system + endocrine system=collectively form neuro-endocrine system.
Why coordination?
 It enables to body to give quick responses to harmful stimuli (to minimize the damage to body).
 Prevent overloading of brain.
 It allows animals including human to adjust properly to both external and internal stimuli, to escape from
unfavorable environment.
 To maintain a constant internal environment (homeostasis)

Nervous system
Present highly specialized cells called neurons.
Neurons have two basic characters:
1. Irritability
2. Conductivity
Three basic functions:
• Receptor (Sense organs)—to gather information about body’s internal condition and the external environment.
Or receive sensory stimuli or inputs from external or internal environments.
• Interpret (CNS) –to process and integrate the input information.
• Effector—to issue commands to body’s muscles and glands. Or transmit orders from CNS to various cells or
body parts to act.
• The nervous and neural coordination is quick and localized coordination through nerve impulses.

Functions of Nervous system

1. Control and coordination – body parts functions as integrated system
2. Awareness – receives external and internal stimuli making aware of changes through sensations like vision,
hearing, taste, smell, pressure, pain, touch, etc.
3. Memory – set memory of past experiences and retrieves them whenever needed.
4. Interpretation – interprets the stimuli of changes and set actions
5. Homeostasis – maintains balance in internal and external conditions like hunger, thirst, etc.

NEURON
Neuron as Structural and Functional Unit of Neural System
Neuron Structure
A neuron varies in shape and size depending on its function and location. All neurons have three different parts – dendrites,
cell body and axon.

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Parts of Neuron
 Dendrites
These are branch-like structures which are extensions of the cell body that receive messages from other
neurons and allow the transmission of messages to the cell body.
 Cell Body
Each neuron has a cell body with a nucleus, Golgi body, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria and other
components and Nissl’s granules. It is usually quite compact, and may not be much wider than the nucleus.
 Axon
Axon is a tube-like structure that carries electrical impulse from the cell body to the axon terminals that pass
the impulse to another neuron. The axon branches at the end, forming multiple axon terminals. These are the
points where nerve impulses are transmitted to other cells, often to the dendrites of other neurons.
Spread out along axons, especially the long axons of nerves, are many sections of the myelin sheath. These
are lipid layers that cover sections of the axon. The myelin sheath is a very good electrical insulator, similar
to the plastic or rubber that encases an electrical cord.
 Nodes of Ranvier
Regularly spaced gaps between sections of myelin sheath occur along the axon. These gaps are called nodes
of Ranvier, and they allow the transmission of nerve impulses along the axon. Nerve impulses skip from node
to node, allowing nerve impulses to travel along the axon very rapidly.
A Schwann cell (also on an axon) is a type of glial cell. Its function is to produce the myelin sheath that
insulates axons in the peripheral nervous system.
 Synapse
It is the chemical junction between the terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron.
Ageing neurons contain a pigment LIPOFUSCIN, which are residual bodies derived from the lysosomes.
Lipofuscin is sometimes called "wear-and-tear pigment", since the amount increases over time (i.e., with advancing
age) in cells like hepatocytes and neurons which are both permanent (not routinely replenished) and metabolically
CHAPTER 5-PERCEPTION AND INTERACTION/SC 3
active.
TYPES OF NEURON-
A. Based on the structure [number of processes] neurons can be-
1. Multipolar neuron -it will have many processes, the dendrites and the axon.
2. These neurons are able to receive impulses from multiple neurons via dendrites. The dendrites transmit the
signals through the neuron via an electrical signal that is spread down the axon. Multipolar neurons are
found as motor neurons and interneurons.
3. Bipolar neurons with two processes, a dendrite and an axon. These neurons are also
4. Sensory. These neurons send signals and receive information from the world. For example, bipolar neurons
can be found in the retina of the eye, sensory cells of olfactory epithelium, cells of cristae and maculae of
internal ear.
5. Unipolar neurons which have only one process, classified as an axon. Unipolar neurons are found as most
of the body's sensory neurons. Their dendrites are the exposed branches connected to receptors, the axon
carries the action potential in to the central nervous system.
6. Pseudo-unipolar neurons-has only one process, but bifurcates into two to form an axon and a dendron.
These neurons relay signals from the skin and muscles to the spinal cord. They are the primary neurons
responsible for coordinating movement of the arms and legs using input from the brain.
7. Apolar neurons-these have no processes, lacks both axon and dendrons. These are immature embryonic
nerve cells, also called as neuroblasts.

Based on function the types of neurons are

1. Motor neurons - these carry a message to a muscle, gland, or other effector. They are said to be efferent,
i.e. they carry the message away from the central nervous system.
2. Sensory neurons - these carry a message in to the CNS. They are afferent, i.e. going toward the brain or
spinal cord.
3. Interneuron (association neuron, connecting neuron) - these neurons connect one neuron with another.
For example, in many reflexes’ interneurons connect the sensory neurons with the motor neurons.

NERVES
A group of neurons is organized into bundles inside the nerves. This bundle is known as fascicles. Each
nerve is covered by the epineurium.

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Nerve:
o They are bundles of nerve fibres present in the peripheral nervous system.
o Covering of nerve with a layer of dense fibrous tissue is called epineurium.
o Internally, it contains several bundles of nerve fibres called fasciculi (fasciculus).
o Each fasciculus is covered by a layer of connective tissue called perineurium.
o Each nerve has its own supply of blood vessels.
o The layer of connective tissue that surrounds axons is called endoneurium

Nerve fibers-are axons covered with one or two sheaths- neurilemma and myelin sheath. Both the coverings are
formed of Schwann cells.

MYELINATED AND NON-MYELINATED NERVE FIBERS

There are two types of axon-
 Myelinated fibres are enveloped with Schwann cells to form myelin sheath around the axon. The gap
between two myelin sheaths is called nodes of Ranvier. Found in spinal and cranial nerves.
 Unmyelinated fibre is enclosed by Schwann cells that do not form myelin sheath around the axon. Found in
autonomous and somatic neural system.
Myelination & Saltatory Conduction
 In unmyelinated neurones the speed of conduction is relatively slow because depolarisation must occur
along the whole membrane of the axon
 By insulating the axon membrane myelin increases the speed at which action potentials can travel along
the neuron.
 In sections of the axon that are surrounded by a myelin sheath depolarisation cannot occur as the myelin
sheath stops the diffusion of sodium and potassium ions.
 Action potentials can only occur at the nodes of Ranvier
 Nodes of Ranvier are the gaps between the Schwann cells that make up the myelin sheath
 Sodium ions diffuse along the axon within the Schwann cells and the membrane at the nodes of Ranvier
depolarises when the sodium ions arrive.
 The diffusion of sodium ions in this way is known as local currents, or local circuits
 The action potential therefore appears to ‘jump’ from one node to the next; this is known as saltatory
conduction.

CHAPTER 5-PERCEPTION AND INTERACTION/SC 5

Saltatory conduction of nerve impulse-
In myelinated nerve fibres, impulse jumps from one node to the next node of Ranvier, as the myelin sheath
between insulates the fibre and prevents its depolarization. Therefore, conduction of nerve impulse is faster in
myelinated nerve fibres compared to non- myelinated nerve fibres.

REFLEX ARC
 A reflex action, also known as a reflex, is an involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to
a stimulus. When a person accidentally touches a hot object, they automatically jerk their hand away
without thinking. A reflex does not require any thought input.
 The path taken by the nerve impulses in a reflex is called a reflex arc. In higher animals, most sensory
neurons do not pass directly into the brain, but synapse in the spinal cord. This characteristic allows reflex
actions to occur relatively quickly by activating spinal motor neurons without the delay of routing signals
through the brain, although the brain will receive sensory input while the reflex action occurs.
 Most reflex arcs involve only three neurons. The stimulus, such as a needle stick, stimulates the pain
receptors of the skin, which initiate an impulse in a sensory neuron. This travels to the spinal cord where
it passes, by means of a synapse, to a connecting neuron called the relay neuron situated in the spinal cord.
The relay neuron in turn makes a synapse with one or more motor neurons that transmit the impulse to the
muscles of the limb causing them to contract and pull away from the sharp object. Reflexes do not require
involvement of the brain, although in some cases the brain can prevent reflex action.
The reflex pathway comprises at least one afferent neuron (receptor) and one efferent (effector) neuron
appropriately arranged in a series (Figure below). The afferent neuron receives signal from a sensory organ
and transmits the impulse via a dorsal nerve root into the CNS (at the level of spinal cord). The efferent neuron
then carries signals from CNS to the effector. The stimulus and response thus form a reflex arc as shown
below.

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Information processing involves complex neural pathways that require a certain amount of time between
recognition of a stimulus and the resulting response.

Describe TWO ways that the reflex arc differs from typical stimulus-response transmission pathways.
 Quicker response time/ Quicker response to a threat
 No integration with brain / does not reach brain before response occurs
 Fewer neurons / synapses involved in reflex arc / shorter distance for signal to travel
 Involuntary / no conscious control / no processing by brain
 Response is innate (automatic response) rather than learned / predetermined neuron pathway

Sensation and Perception

 Sensation and perception are two separate processes that are very closely related. Sensation is input about
the physical world obtained by our sensory receptors, and perception is the process by which the brain
selects, organizes, and interprets these sensations.
 During sensation, our sense organs are engaging in transduction, the conversion of one form of energy
into another. For example, physical energy such as light or a sound wave is converted into a form of
electrical energy that the brain can understand.
CHAPTER 5-PERCEPTION AND INTERACTION/SC 7
 After our brain receives the electrical signals we make sense of all this stimulation and begin to appreciate
the complex world around us. This psychological process, making sense of the stimuli, is called
perception. It is during this process that you are able to identify a gas leak in your home, recognize the
color orange, or connect a song that reminds you of a specific afternoon spent with friends. Perception is
the process of interpreting and organizing the information that we received from our senses.
 Sensation and perception work seamlessly together to allow us to detect both the presence of, and
changes in, the stimuli around us. The study of sensation and perception is exceedingly important for our
everyday lives because the knowledge generated by psychologists is used in so many ways to help so
many people.

Generation and Conduction of Nerve Impulse

What is nerve impulse?
It is a wave of depolarization of the membrane of nerve fibres.
It is an electrochemical change in the membrane of nerve fibre produced by a stimulus in the form of wave of
depolarization or action potential that moves all along the length of nerve fire from receptor
to CNS and from CNS to effector.
A. Resting membrane potential
 Axoplasm or cytoplasm inside the Neurilemma or membrane is negatively charged and outer side is
positively charged.
 This difference in electric charge across the neural membrane is called resting membrane potential (RMP)
and membrane is said to be polarized membrane.
 Resting membrane potential is about -70 mV (ranges from -40mVto -100mV).
 Resting membrane potential is maintained by Na+ - K+ Pumps in neurilemma.

Where does the resting membrane potential come from?

The resting membrane potential is determined by the uneven distribution of ions (charged particles) between
the inside and the outside of the cell, and by the different permeability of the membrane to different types of
ions.

Polarization of neuron’s membrane or resting membrane potential

1. When the neuron is not stimulated, its membrane is said to be polarized.
2. It means electric charge on the outside of the membrane is positive (electropositive) while on the inside is
negative (electronegative).
3. The outside of the cell contains excess sodium ions while the inside of the cell is more potassium ions.
4. Polarization is established by maintaining an excess of sodium ions (Na +) on the outside and an excess of
potassium ions (K +) on the inside along with negatively charged proteins.

Do you know why the membrane of a neuron is polarised?

Different types of ion channels are present on the neural membrane. These ion channels are selectively
permeable to different ions.
Types of ions found in neurons; In neurons and their surrounding fluid, the most abundant ions are:
• Positively charged (cations): Sodium Na+ and potassium K+
• Negatively charged (anions): Chloride Cl− and organic anions
In most neurons, K+ and organic anions (such as those found in proteins and amino acids) are present at higher
concentrations inside the cell than outside. In contrast, Na+ and Cl−are usually present at higher
concentrations outside the cell. This means there are stable concentration gradients across the membrane for all
of the most abundant ion types

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Ionic Theory of polarization or RMP
How RMP or Polarization (resting potential) is maintained?
 Due to differential permeability for distribution of Na+ and K + ions.
 Na+ions are the main Extracellular cations—their concentration is 10-14 times more in the ECF outside the
axon than in the axoplasm and they make the outer surface of neural membrane positive.
 K + ions are the main intracellular cations present in the axoplasm.
 Neurilemma is permeable to K+ and almost impermeable to Na+ and negative ions, hence Na+ cannot get
into axoplasm and negative ions cannot get out into ECF.
 Active transport of Na+ and K+ ions. Through active transport process called sodium-potassium exchange
pump, 3Na+ comes out (extracellular fluid) and 2K+ gets in.
 Hence due to above two reasons, outside membrane is positive and inside membrane remains negative

How differential distribution of ions is maintained?

 Due to selective permeability of the membrane owing to the presence of Na+-K+ channels and Na+ and K+
ions exchange pump in the neural membrane.
During resting state
 The Na+and K+ ions gradient is maintained by Na+ and K+ pump in the Neurilemma.
 Na+and K+ pump transports 3 sodium ions out of the cells for every 2 potassium ions transported inside the
cell.
 As a result of pumping it generates a net export of positive charge.
 But there is continual tendency for these ions to diffuse along their concentration gradient, i.e., K+ ions
outward and Na+ ions inward into the axoplasm.
 It means the differential distribution of ions is maintained due to selective permeability of the membrane
owing to the presence of Na+-K+ channels and Na+and K + ions exchange pump in the neural membrane
Na+ and K+ Channels
 Neural membrane has separate channels for Na+ and K+ ions.
 At rest, the nervous membrane is more permeable to K+ ions and almost impermeable to Na+ ions because
Na+channels are gated and remain closed and K+ channels are always open.
 More Na+ions accumulate in the ECF than in the axoplasm and make the outer surface of neurilemma more
positive.
Na+ and K+ Exchange pump
 Na+ and K+ exchange pump is responsible for differential exchange of Na+ and K+ ions against
concentration gradient because 3 Na+ come out of the neurilemma against 2 K+ ions entering the axoplasm.
 Therefore, the inner surface of neural membrane is negative because of the;
o Presence of more positive ions on the outer side than on inner side of the neurilemma. More K+ ions are
present in the axoplasm.
o Presence of negative Cl ions in the axoplasm.
o Presence of organic anions such as protein and amino acids, etc. in the cytoplasm

Events involved in Generation of AP

a. Polarized
o Electropositive outside (due to many sodium ions)
o Electronegative inside (due to less potassium ions and negative proteins)

CHAPTER 5-PERCEPTION AND INTERACTION/SC 9

o Membrane is called resting membrane
o Potential of membrane is -70 mv
o Sodium gate closed
b. Depolarized (Propagation of AP)
o Excited by stimulus
o Shift the charges—electropositive inside and electronegative outside.
o Membrane is depolarized (reversal potential) (due to more Na+ ions getting inside, polarity changed)
o Potential of membrane is -55mv (increasing)
o Sodium channel open—Na+ ions move inside (it is momentary)
o The wave of depolarisation or action potential move from point to point along the length of nerve fibre
(nerve impulse).
o The change in electric potential is called action potential and it propagates on either side of the excited site
forming nerve impulse.
o An action potential, also called a nerve impulse, is an electrical charge that travels along the membrane of a
neuron. It can be generated when a neuron’s membrane potential is changed by chemical signals from a
nearby cell.
o In an action potential, the cell membrane potential changes quickly from negative to positive as sodium ions
flow into the cell through ion channels, while potassium ions flow out of the cell.
c. Repolarization
 Potential of 45-50 mv.
 Here, sodium channel closed—Sodium cannot move out.
 But potassium channel opens—K+ ions move out form the nerve plasm (axoplasm).
 Therefore, outer side regain the positive charge due to K+ ions. Hence called repolarization.
Remember:
Repolarization is not due to sodium ions, it is due to when potassium ions move into ECF.
d. Refractory period
A period where a nerve or muscle cannot respond to a stimulation.
Repolarization requires certain time to restore from first stimulus and get ready for second stimulus, within
which stimulus cannot excite the membrane. This recovery time is called RP.
 During this period, sodium/potassium channel opens (Na+/K+ pump) using ATP.
 Here, it pumps 3Na+ ions out into ECF and pump in (nerve plasm) 2K+ ions.
During this refractory period, the axon will not respond to a new stimulus.
To reestablish the original distribution of these ions, the Na + and K + are returned to their resting potential
location by Na +/K + pumps in the cell membrane.
Once these ions are completely returned to their resting potential location, the neuron is ready for another
stimulus.

How ions cross the membrane

Because they are charged, ions can't pass directly through the hydrophobic ("water-fearing") lipid regions of
the membrane. Instead, they have to use specialized channel proteins that provide a hydrophilic ("water-
loving") tunnel across the membrane. Some channels, known as leak channels, are open in resting neurons.
Others are closed in resting neurons and only open in response to a signal.
Some ion channels are highly selective for one type of ion, but others let various kinds of ions pass through.
Ion channels that mainly allow K+ to pass are called potassium channels, and ion channels that mainly allow
Na+ to pass are called sodium channels.
In neurons, the resting membrane potential depends mainly on movement of K+ through potassium leak
channels

CHAPTER 5-PERCEPTION AND INTERACTION/SC 10

Steps in conduction of nerve impulse along the axon
Resting membrane potential:
The permeability of plasma membrane (neurilemma) to K+ ions is greater than its permeability to Na+ ions.
So, the surface of axon carries a positive charge relative to its interior; this electrical potential difference across
the plasma membrane is called resting potential and it ranges from – 40 to – 90 mV. (-70mV)
Action potential and depolarization.
When a threshold stimulus is applied on the axon membrane, depolarization is caused by a rapid change in
membrane permeability. The membrane becomes more permeable to Na+ than to K+. The interior becomes
electropositive and the ECF becomes electronegative. The depolarization spreads, producing a local current,
which induces the nearby passive Na+ channels to open and to depolarize the nearby site.
Repolarisation:
After about 0.5 ms, permeability to K+ ion increases because the buildup of positive charge inside the cell opens
the voltage gated K+ channels. Movement of K+ ions outward, down their concentration gradient, then
reestablishes the charge differences that existed before the stimulus occurred. The exodus of K+ ions lowers
the number of positive ions within the cell and the potential falls back towards the resting potential.
Hyperpolarization
Hyperpolarization is a change in a cell's membrane potential that makes it more negative. It is the opposite of a
depolarization. It inhibits action potentials by increasing the stimulus required to move the membrane
potential to the action potential threshold.

Mechanism of Transmission of Nerve Impulse [summary]

 Different types of ion channels are present on the neural membrane, which are selectively permeable to
different ions.
 When a neuron is not conducting any impulse, i.e., resting, the axonal membrane is comparatively more
permeable to potassium ions (K+) and nearly impermeable to sodium ions (Na+) and negatively charged
proteins present in the axoplasm.
 The axoplasm inside the axon contains high concentration of K+ and negatively charged proteins and low
concentration of Na+.
 The fluid outside the axon contains a low concentration of K+, a high concentration of Na+ and thus form a
concentration gradient.
CHAPTER 5-PERCEPTION AND INTERACTION/SC 11
 The ionic gradients across the resting membrane are maintained by the active transport of ions by the
sodium-potassium pump which transports 3 Na+ outwards for 2 K+ into the cell and hence the outer
surface of the axonal membrane possesses a positive charge while its inner surface becomes negatively
charged and therefore is polarised.
 The electrical potential difference across the resting plasma membrane is called as the resting potential.

Refractory period is the period of complete inexcitibility (restoration of nerve fibre) between depolarization
and repolarization, a period of time during which a cell is incapable of repeating an action potential (1-6 milli
seconds in mammals). During refractory period nerve fibre never transmits impulse.

Synaptic transmission of nerve impulse:

The functional junction between two neurons, the axon of a neuron and the dendron/dendrite of another
neuron.
 Synapse is the point of connection of two neurons
 Transmitting neuron is called presynaptic neuron and receiving neuron is called post synaptic neuron
 Axonal branches of presynaptic neuron is connected to the dendrites of post synaptic neuron
CHAPTER 5-PERCEPTION AND INTERACTION/SC 12
 Presynaptic neuron branches contains neurotransmitters in its synaptic knob/ synaptic button or bulb
 Small gap between two neuron is called synaptic cleft.
There are two types of synapses, namely, electrical synapses and chemical synapses.
 At electrical synapses, the membranes of pre- and post-synaptic neurons are in very close proximity.
Electrical current can flow directly from one neuron into the other across these synapses.
 Transmission of an impulse across electrical synapses is very similar to impulse conduction along a single
axon. Impulse transmission across an electrical synapse is always faster than that across a chemical
synapse. Electrical synapses are rare in our system.
 At a chemical synapse, the membranes of the pre- and post-synaptic neurons are separated by a fluid-
filled space called synaptic cleft.

Sequence of events in transmission of NI across a synapse [Chemical synapse]

1. Arrival of an Electrical Signal
The triggering event is the arrival of an electrical signal (called an action potential) in the terminal buttons of
the presynaptic neuron, i.e., the neuron that transmits the message.
2. Entry of Calcium (Ca2+) in the Terminal Buttons
This electrical signal causes the opening of voltage-sensitive calcium channels located in the membrane of
the terminal buttons. Their opening allows the rapid entry of Ca2+ into the terminal buttons of the
presynaptic neuron.
3. Fusion of Synaptic Vesicles and Release of Neurotransmitters
Synaptic vesicles containing the neurotransmitters are synthesized by the neuron then stored in the terminal
buttons. When the concentration of Ca2+ increases in the terminal buttons, a phenomenon of exocytosis
occurs, i.e., the synaptic vesicles fuse with the membrane of the presynaptic neuron. This fusion results in the
release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft
4. Binding of Neurotransmitters to Receptors and Opening of Postsynaptic Channels
Neurotransmitters diffuse into the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors in the membrane of the post-synaptic
neuron (the neuron that receives information). The binding of neurotransmitters causes the opening or closing
of channels located in the membrane of the post-synaptic neuron, depending on the type of neurotransmitter.
Indeed, there is a great diversity of neurotransmitters. Some are excitatory and some are inhibitory (i.e.,
some neurotransmitters can promote propagation of nerve impulses, while others inhibit propagation).
Dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, glutamate, GABA, acetylcholine and endocannabinoids are some
examples of neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters have specialties. For example, acetylcholine is the main
neurotransmitter used in the motor system (which specializes in movement control) and muscle fibres. In
short, the opening or closing of the post-synaptic channels caused by the binding of neurotransmitters
modifies the capacity of the ions to cross the membrane of the post-synaptic neuron. The conductance of the
post-synaptic neuron is then modified, which increases or reduces its probability of emitting an electrical
signal and in turn transmitting the nerve impulse to other neurons.
5. Elimination or Degradation of Neurotransmitters and Recycling of Vesicles
The residual neurotransmitters are either destroyed or recaptured by the presynaptic neuron or by glial cells.
After the neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft, the synaptic vesicles that contained them are
recycled for reuse.
The enzyme acetylcholinesterase, present in postsynaptic membrane and synaptic cleft hydrolyze
acetylcholine to acetic acid and choline, enabling membrane to repolarize. Acetic acid and choline reenters
axon to recombine to synthesis acetylcholine in presence of synthesizing enzyme.

CHAPTER 5-PERCEPTION AND INTERACTION/SC 13



 Synaptic Fatigue- At a high rate of nerve impulse transmission, synthesis of chemical neurotransmitters can’t
meet the rate of their release at pre-synaptic terminals. This results in the gradual decrease and finally
disappearance of postsynaptic response, a phenomenon known as synaptic fatigue.
 The synaptic delay is the time necessary for the conduction of a signal across a synapse; the interval between
the arrival of a nerve impulse at the ending of a presynaptic fiber and the start of the postsynaptic
potential.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ROBOTICS

 Artificial intelligence is a discipline that focuses on enabling machines to develop the same intellectual
capabilities as humans. Robotics, on the other hand, is the science of designing and building physical robots
to improve automation and innovation.
 Artificial Intelligence is a branch of Data Science that focuses on building smart machines capable of
performing a wide range of tasks that usually require human intelligence and cognition.
 These intelligent machines are imbued with learning from experience and historical data, analyzing their
surrounding environments, and performing the befitting actions.
AI is an interdisciplinary science that leverages concepts and tools from multiple fields like computer science,
cognitive science, linguistics, psychology, neuroscience, and mathematics.

What is Human Intelligence?

Human Intelligence refers to humans’ intellectual capability that allows us to think, learn from different
experiences, understand complex concepts, apply logic and reason, solve mathematical problems, recognize
patterns, make inferences and decisions, retain information, and communicate with fellow human beings.
What makes human intelligence unique is that it is backed by abstract emotions like self-awareness, passion,
and motivation that enable humans to accomplish complex cognitive tasks.

Artificial Intelligence vs. Human Intelligence: A comparison

Here’s a head to head comparison between Artificial Intelligence and Human Intelligence:
 Nature- While Human Intelligence aims to adapt to new environments by utilizing a combination of
different cognitive processes, Artificial Intelligence aims to build machines that can mimic human behavior
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 and perform human-like actions. The human brain is analogous, but machines are digital.
 Functioning -Humans use the brain’s computing power, memory, and ability to think, whereas AI- powered
machines rely on data and specific instructions fed into the system.
 Learning power-Human Intelligence is all about learning from various incidents and past experiences. It
is about learning from mistakes made via trial and error approach throughout one’s life. Intelligent
thought and intelligent behavior lie at the core of Human Intelligence. However, Artificial Intelligence
falls behind in this respect – machines cannot think.
 They can learn from data and through continuous training, but they can never achieve the thought process
unique to humans. While AI-powered systems can perform specific tasks quite well, it can take years for
them to learn a completely different set of functions for a new application area.

What AI cannot do without – The “human” factor

 Artificial Intelligence vs. Human Intelligence debate isn’t a fair one. Granted that AI has helped develop
intelligent machines that can outperform humans in some respects, they have yet to go a very long way to
match the human brain’s potential. Although AI systems are designed and trained to mimic and simulate
human behavior, they cannot make rational decisions like humans.
 The decision-making power of AI systems is primarily based on events, the data they’re trained on, and how
they are related to a particular event. AI machines cannot understand the concept of “cause and effect”
simply because they lack common sense.
 Humans possess the unique ability to learn and apply their acquired knowledge in combination with logic,
reasoning, and understanding. Real-world scenarios require a holistic, logical, rational, and emotional
approach that is specific to humans.

Artificial Intelligence vs. Human Intelligence: What will the future hold?
Right now, AI is still developing and advancing. The time required to train AI systems is considerably high,
which isn’t possible without human intervention. Be it autonomous cars and robots, or sophisticated
technologies like natural language processing and image processing, they all rely on human intelligence.
Robots can work day and night. They don’t need breaks, vacations, or medical insurance. They don’t have
conflicts with their bosses or colleagues and take no personal time to deal with their problems.

What are some of the ways in which artificial intelligence (AI) and robotics influence our daily lives?
Our society is undergoing numerous technological changes. In just a couple of decades, it will be quite different
from what it is today. One significant factor that impacts and transforms various aspects of everyday life is the
rapid expansion of the artificial intelligence and robotics industry.
Scientists, industry experts and ordinary people all express various viewpoints about the potential outcomes of
the active AI and robotics development. And if some believe that smart technologies have inexhaustible power
and vast benefits, others are scared of the possible “rise of the machines” and the destruction of the human race.
1. AI and Robotics Impact on the Workplace
Robots can work day and night. They don’t need breaks, vacations, or medical insurance. They don’t have
conflicts with their bosses or colleagues and take no personal time to deal with their problems.
Employers would be happy to have a staff consisting solely of smart machines, while employees have many
fears regarding the robotics-based workforce and its impact on employment.
As with any revolutionary technology, there are two sides to the coin in implementing the robotics-integrated
workforce.
Negative Impact: Many Jobs Will Be Eliminated
 The main fear of employees is the elimination of numerous jobs and, consequently, unemployment. And
this fear is not without reason. Business owners and manufacturers benefit from the implementation of
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 machine learning algorithms and various kinds of robots primarily for the sake of increased productivity.
That’s why they are eager to introduce new technologies, often to the detriment of employees.
 Robots can effectively perform jobs that require repetitive tasks, such as working on the assembly line,
software testing, creating financial reports and compiling other documents based on data. Moreover, they
easily replace humans in performing hard manual tasks or working in hazardous conditions, such as in the
chemical industry or mining.
 AI systems can supplement employees such as accountants, financial experts, or doctors in performing
cognitive tasks. Thus, in medicine and healthcare, artificial intelligence can greatly assist in branches such as
diagnostics, drug formulation, or clinical trials. Nevertheless, medical workers will mostly keep their jobs,
considering ethics issues and communicative skills that the machines lack.
 The jobs where robots will have the least impact have to do with people management, social interactions
and creativity, such as education or natural science. As a rule, these jobs are difficult to automate, but even
if it were possible, it would be costly to implement, which is not attractive from the business point of view.
These also include specialized jobs in unpredictable conditions, e.g. plumbers and electricians.
Positive Impact: New Kinds of Jobs Will Appear
Artificial intelligence and robotics, like other new technologies, are not totally destructive for employment.
The main goal of emerging technologies is not to replace humans in their jobs, but to make all processes safer
and more efficient. It’s not a confrontation, but rather a beneficial collaboration between automated robotics
and humans.
Employment in the automated industries may not decline but rather increase, as new types of jobs will appear
and new skills will be required. It’s true because machines can’t work by themselves. Humans are needed to
develop software for machines, maintain and fix equipment, or make decisions based on data generated by
intelligent technologies.
2. AI and Robotics Impact on Industries
 The first simple robots stepped onto the factory floor approximately half a century ago. Today, one can
hardly imagine a manufacturing business without automatic lines, steel robotic arms and CNC industrial
machines. Robots in the manufacturing industry have become the new normal, and they are making
significant strides in improving various production processes.
 The industrial robotics market will exceed the $33 billion mark by 2025.
 Current trends for robotics in manufacturing include hardware integration with smart technologies such as
IoT solutions, artificial intelligence and machine learning algorithms, Big Data and cloud computing. Thus,
smart manufacturing is evolving. Such robotic systems are not only able to carry out basic repetitive
operations such as loading, assembling, or modifying parts. They can also perform cognitive tasks, making
instant decisions and improving processes without human intervention.

Benefits of using robots and AI in manufacturing

 Optimized Productivity. Robotic equipment can be programmed to operate at a constant optimal speed
without pause. As a result, automated machines produce more and within a shorter time than do human
workers. The remote management facilitates quick settings or fixing of issues. Moreover, the automated
equipment is highly customizable and can flexibly switch between tasks, improving production efficiencies.
 Improved Quality. Intelligent machines eliminate human error and can provide almost 100 percent
accuracy, thus improving the quality of the output. This in turn enhances customer satisfaction, as
defective products are not likely to reach end users.
 Reduced Costs. As soon as one robot can replace dozens of workers, factory owners save on employee
wages. The upfront costs are offset by a quick ROI that can be achieved within two years. This is possible
due to increased productivity and a higher speed of throughput. Robots can work in lights-out conditions
and don’t require climate control, which saves on utilities.
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 Safety. Numerous manufacturing jobs involve higher physical risks and work in hazardous conditions.
Smart machines replace people in hazardous environments, minimizing workplace injuries and the
detrimental effect on workers’ health. High-risk industries such as mining or fertilizer production turn to
robots to avoid adverse events, ensuring the safety of their workers.
The digital transformation of the manufacturing industry is a kind of industrial revolution, and like any
revolution, it comes with both pros and cons. Some of the disadvantages of robotization are:
o high initial expenses
o the necessity to reshape the labor market
o an additional burden on the educational system and social organizations
o changes to the corporate culture at all stages.
o It goes without saying that manufacturers should nevertheless embrace robotics and automation to
remain competitive.
 Healthcare. Modern technologies, including robots and AI, contribute to the development of digital health
and significantly improve medical care.
o Robotic machines have become irreplaceable surgeons’ assistants. They enable minimal invasiveness and
improved accuracy during operations, which reduces recovery time for patients.
o AI-based chatbots and consulting applications facilitate the branch of telemedicine. Other intelligent
programs can perform precise diagnostics by analyzing patients’ medical records and other data, e.g. from
medical wearables.
o The potential of intelligent software and machines in healthcare is enormous because of their ability to
make medical services more accurate and available.
 Agriculture. This might be surprising, but agriculture is among those industries being greatly impacted by
the use of robots and artificial intelligence.
o Agricultural robots handle various tasks such as harvesting or spraying crops from weeds or pests more
effectively than human workers. These are machines and drones with computer vision, machine learning
models, or AI algorithms that monitor crop and soil conditions, analyze the influence of weather and other
environmental conditions on plants and predict consequences.
Since the population on our planet is growing, quite soon it’ll be a challenge to produce more food. The
automation of the agricultural industry seems to be the best way to cope with this challenge.

AI and Robotics Impact on Private Lives

 Robots and intelligent programs are becoming our everyday assistants. According to Gartner, 25 percent
of customer services and support will be managed by AI technologies, particularly chatbots, in 2020. In
comparison, in 2017, chatbots accounted for less than 2 percent of online customer interactions.
 This trend concerns not only businesses but also day-to-day personal tasks. Currently, people are using
numerous home appliances that perform their chores, such as robot vacuum cleaners or intelligent coffee
machines. Personal assistants, such as Siri and Alexa, help with searching for information, making orders
and controlling devices in smart homes. The development of such assistants will obviously not stop, as
consumer demand is growing.
 In the coming years, cognitive technologies will be widely used to look after our health and well-being. For
instance, we may see more robots that will assist people with disabilities and illnesses or companionship
robots such as Rudy that will provide care and protection for the elderly.

What is machine learning?

Machine learning (ML) is a branch of artificial intelligence (AI) and computer science that focuses on the using
data and algorithms to enable AI to imitate the way that humans learn, gradually improving its accuracy.
Machine learning algorithms use historical data as input to predict new output values.
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How Does Machine Learning Work?
 A Decision Process: In general, machine learning algorithms are used to make a prediction or classification. Based
on some input data, which can be labeled or unlabeled, your algorithm will produce an estimate about a pattern in
the data.
 An Error Function: An error function evaluates the prediction of the model. If there are known examples, an error
function can make a comparison to assess the accuracy of the model.
 A Model Optimization Process: If the model can fit better to the data points in the training set, then weights are
adjusted to reduce the discrepancy between the known example and the model estimate. The algorithm will repeat
this iterative “evaluate and optimize” process, updating weights autonomously until a threshold of accuracy has
been met.
What is a Sensor?
 We live in a World of Sensors. Sensors are a product of the future. In the networked world, they determine
temperature, pressure, light or acceleration. They help people find their way around, quickly summon the
emergency services to an accident, or automatically close the skylights at home if it starts to rain. You can find
different types of Sensors in our homes, offices, cars etc. working to make our lives easier by turning on the
lights by detecting our presence, adjusting the room temperature, detect smoke or fire, make us delicious
coffee, open garage doors as soon as our car is near the door and many other tasks.
 All these and many other automation tasks are possible because of Sensors.
 A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity Touch example:
The skin in your fingers contains millions of sensitive nerve endings that can detect stimuli, such as
temperature. When you touch an object, sensors on your fingers send signals to your brain so that it recognizes
it as being hot or cold. This stimulus is converted to neuronal impulses that are sent via nerves to a specific
region in the brain that interprets it as being hot or cold. The same process happens with stimuli such as
pressure and pain signals.

Robot Sensors
What do robot sensors do?
o Gather information from the surroundings and send it to the computer brick.
o Robot sensors can only be used if the robot’s program asks for information from them.
o Similarly, the robot can only act on information from the sensors if its program tells it to do so.
How do sensors send signals to the computer brick?
The sensors send information through the wires (similar to the nervous system in the human body) that
connect them to the computer brick, which uses the information if its program requires it.
How Do Robot Sensors Work?
Sound sensor
In a sound sensor, a thin piece of material called a diaphragm vibrates when hit by sound waves (similar to a
human eardrum). If the diaphragm vibrations are large enough to be detected, the sound sensor sends a
signal to the computer brick saying that it has heard a sound.

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. Electrolytes are the fundamental elements required for the transmission and processing of information in
animals. Evaluate the statement giving suitable reasons.
2. Response to a stimulus (e.g., change in environment) involves complex interactions amongst receptors,
neurons, brain or spinal cord, and the effectors. Explain the events involving the change in the
distribution of electrolytes during the transmission and processing of information.
3. The graph shows an action potential across an axon membrane following the application of a stimulus.

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 a. What will happen at the site following the highest point of the action potential (B)?
b. What causes the membrane potential to drop below its resting potential at point C?
4. Why is ATP required in maintaining the resting membrane potential of a neuron?
5. Transmission of information from the receptor to the effectors involves more than one neuron. Illustrate
with a diagram how an action potential is transmitted from the end of one neuron to the dendrite of the
next neuron.
6. Artificial Intelligence (AI) systems and robotics are becoming an integral part of human life. Comment on
the statement citing some instances whereby artificial intelligence and robotics have influenced our lives.
7. What is machine learning?
8. Derive a comparison between the working of the human nervous system and an Artificial intelligence
system.
9. Sensors are used widely in the field of medicine, industries, automobiles and are becoming an integral
part of almost every advanced technology. How is the working of sensors similar to that of sense organs?
10. Artificial intelligence and robotics are going to permeate in every aspect of human life and the
dependency of humans on AI and robotics will be the biggest threat to mankind. Argue on the statement
giving reasons.

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