The French Revolution was revolutionary because it fundamentally transformed society in ways that were

unprecedented at the time. It wasn't just about the storming of the Bastille or the end of feudalism; it was
about the radical reimagining of society and its people's roles. Before 1789, politics was the domain of the
elite, but the Revolution brought ordinary people into the political arena, creating new concepts like "left"
and "right" to describe emerging political ideologies. The Revolution's energy drove the creation of a new
world from the ruins of the old regime, impacting every aspect of life, from timekeeping (with the
revolutionary calendar) to social structures. The myth and momentum of the Revolution, even if they led
to violence and turmoil, represented a seismic shift in how people understood and engaged with their
world. This revolutionary spirit, the drive to reconstruct society entirely, made the French Revolution so
transformative.
Breakdown of the key points of the French Revolution's revolutionary nature:

1. Transformation of Society: The French Revolution wasn’t just a political event; it radically changed the
social fabric of France. Before 1789, French society was structured in a rigid hierarchical system known
as the Ancien Régime, with a powerful monarchy and entrenched feudal privileges. The Revolution
dismantled these structures, aiming to create a more egalitarian society.

2. Political Participation of Ordinary People: Before the Revolution, political power was concentrated in
the hands of the monarchy and a small elite. The Revolution expanded political participation, allowing
ordinary citizens to engage in politics for the first time. This shift included the elections to the Estates
General, which were based on a more inclusive suffrage than ever before, and the widespread
involvement in political insurrections.

3. **Creation of New Political Concepts**: The Revolution introduced new political categories, such as
"left" and "right," to describe the emerging ideologies and factions. These terms originated from the
seating arrangements in revolutionary assemblies and have since become standard in political discourse.

4. **Reconstruction of Time and Space**: The Revolution didn't just change politics; it also altered
everyday life. The revolutionary calendar, introduced in 1793, marked a new beginning for timekeeping,
starting from the fall of the monarchy. This was a symbolic gesture to reflect the new order and break
from the past.

5. **Experience Before Concept**: The French Revolution was so unprecedented that the concepts and
vocabulary needed to describe it did not exist before it happened. As people experienced the upheaval and
changes, they had to create new terms and ideas to make sense of their revolutionary reality.

6. **Widespread Impact**: The Revolution’s effects were felt by everyone, not just the political activists.
It reached into every aspect of life, transforming social norms, legal systems, and cultural practices. The
Revolution's influence extended far beyond the immediate political changes, reshaping the broader
societal landscape.

7. **Myth and Momentum**: Even if the Revolution led to violence and turmoil, its myth and
momentum were significant. The revolutionaries’ ideals and their efforts to build a new society had a
lasting impact, symbolized by later commemorations such as the Eiffel Tower's construction for the
Revolution’s centennial.

Each of these points highlights how the French Revolution was not just a series of events but a profound
shift in how society was organized and understood.

The French Revolution was revolutionary in multiple profound ways. It dismantled the Ancien Régime's
rigid hierarchical society, replacing feudal privileges with a new social order aimed at equality. This
transformation extended to the political realm, where ordinary people, previously excluded from
governance, began to participate actively in politics through elections and uprisings. The Revolution also
introduced new political concepts, such as "left" and "right," which emerged from the revolutionary
assemblies and have shaped political discourse ever since. Additionally, it redefined everyday life,
including the way time was measured, with the introduction of the revolutionary calendar to symbolize a
break from the past. This seismic shift was so unprecedented that new terminology and ideas had to be
created to describe it. The Revolution's impact was widespread, affecting every aspect of life and laying
the groundwork for future societal changes. Even though the Revolution led to violence and turmoil, its
myth and momentum were significant, as evidenced by later commemorations like the Eiffel Tower's
construction. Thus, the French Revolution was transformative, marking a radical reimagining of society
and governance that resonated deeply across all facets of life.

The line refers to the dual nature of the French Revolution's legacy. On one hand, the Revolution was
marked by significant violence and upheaval, including the Reign of Terror and widespread social and
political conflict. Despite these negative aspects, the Revolution's underlying ideals and transformative
impact remained highly influential.
The "myth and momentum" of the Revolution describe the powerful and enduring impact of its ideas and
symbols. The Revolution's ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity became foundational myths that
continued to inspire and shape French and global politics. This myth was so influential that it was
celebrated and commemorated long after the Revolution itself.
The construction of the Eiffel Tower in 1889, for instance, was a symbolic gesture to honour the
centennial of the Revolution. The Eiffel Tower was not just an architectural marvel but also a monument
to the Revolution's enduring legacy and the transformative power of its ideas. It represented the
continued relevance and celebration of the Revolution's principles, demonstrating that the Revolution's
impact went beyond the immediate chaos and violence to shape the modern world in lasting ways.

During the French Revolution, the revolutionaries sought to reorganize and rationalize various aspects of
life, believing that they could create a more logical and natural society. One major change was the
reformation of the calendar, which was designed to break from traditional religious and monarchical
influences. The new calendar featured ten-day weeks, three-week months, and twelve months, with the
leftover days allocated as patriotic holidays. Each day and month were given names related to nature and
civic virtues, such as the day of the turnip or the month of snow, reflecting the revolutionary emphasis on
reason and agronomy over religious traditions.

Similarly, the metric system was introduced to standardize measurements according to rational principles,
such as defining the meter based on a fraction of the Earth's meridian arc. This system aimed to impose
uniformity and precision in measurement but faced resistance from citizens accustomed to traditional
units.

The revolutionaries also undertook a sweeping renaming of public spaces and institutions to erase
connections with the old regime and to reflect revolutionary ideals. Streets and landmarks were renamed
to honor revolutionary figures and concepts, like the Place Louis XV becoming the Place de la
Révolution. Even personal names were changed, with people adopting revolutionary pseudonyms or
names reflecting contemporary events and values. This extensive renaming extended to everyday items,
such as chess pieces and playing cards, which were rebranded to align with revolutionary values. The
goal was to overhaul every facet of French life, including the administrative division of France into
uniform departments, all in an effort to build a new, rational society from the ground up.
The metric system, introduced during the French Revolution, aimed to create a standardized and rational
framework for measuring length, weight, and volume. One of its foundational principles was defining the
meter as one ten-millionth of the distance from the North Pole to the Equator along the Earth's meridian.
This was intended to provide a uniform and scientifically precise measurement system, in contrast to the
various, often inconsistent traditional units used previously.
The metric system was part of a broader effort to rationalize and standardize many aspects of French life.
It was designed to be simple, with units based on multiples of ten, making calculations easier and more
consistent. For example, one meter equals ten decimeters, one hundred centimeters, and one thousand
millimeters.
Despite its logical design, the metric system faced considerable resistance from the public. Many people
were accustomed to traditional units like feet, pounds, and gallons, which were deeply ingrained in daily
life and commerce. Transitioning to the metric system required a significant shift in how people thought
about and used measurements, leading to practical challenges and reluctance to adopt the new system.
The change was slow and met with skepticism, as people often preferred the familiar units over the new,
standardized ones.

Before 1789, France was a patchwork of disparate and often conflicting systems, including fiscal,
judicial, administrative, economic, and religious units. This fragmentation hindered a unified national
identity. The French Revolution aimed to consolidate these fragmented elements into a cohesive nation-
state. Through patriotic festivals, symbols like the tricolor flag, and a unified military force, the
Revolution succeeded where previous rulers like Louis XIV had failed, forging a strong sense of national
identity and spreading it across Europe. This newly established nationalism was a powerful force,
mobilizing millions and influencing global politics for centuries.

Despite its successes, the Revolution faced challenges. For example, it struggled to impose the French
language uniformly, as many people continued to speak various local dialects. Nonetheless, the
Revolution transformed public life by dismantling intermediary institutions and promoting a direct
relationship between the citizen and the state. It extended its influence into personal and social realms,
seeking to enforce equality even in everyday interactions. For instance, revolutionary decrees attempted
to replace formal address ("vous") with the more intimate "tu" to diminish social hierarchies. The
Revolution also redefined social conventions, from the way people ended letters to their modes of dress.
Revolutionary fashion, characterized by simple, egalitarian styles like trousers and short jackets,
contrasted sharply with the elaborate, aristocratic fashions of the Old Regime. This cultural shift mirrored
the broader societal changes the Revolution sought to achieve, reflecting its deep impact on both public
and private life.

Before 1789, France was characterized by a complex and fragmented system of governance and social
organization. The country was divided into various overlapping and often conflicting units, each with its
own set of rules and practices. These included:

- **Fiscal Units**: Different regions had distinct tax systems and obligations, leading to unequal tax
burdens and financial disarray.
- **Judicial Systems**: Various local and regional courts operated under different laws and procedures,
creating inconsistencies in legal processes and justice.
- **Administrative Regions**: The administrative boundaries and governance structures were uneven,
leading to inefficiencies and a lack of centralized control.
- **Economic Zones**: Trade and economic practices varied significantly across regions, hampering
economic integration and development.
- **Religious Divisions**: Different areas had varying religious practices and institutions, often
influencing local laws and social norms.

This patchwork of systems made it difficult to establish a cohesive national identity and efficient
governance. The lack of uniformity created confusion, inequality, and fragmentation within the country,
preventing the formation of a unified French nation. The Revolution sought to address these issues by
standardizing and centralizing various aspects of governance and society, aiming to create a more
integrated and cohesive national identity.

During the height of the French Revolution, from mid-1792 to mid-1794, the concept of virtue became
central to the revolutionary ethos, embodying a more rigorous and militant approach than mere moral
piety. For the revolutionaries, virtue was not just a personal quality but a vital component of their new
political culture, emphasizing a robust commitment to fighting for the ideals of liberty, equality, and
fraternity. This period saw a pronounced valorization of family life, influenced by Rousseau’s ideas. The
revolutionaries elevated the role of motherhood and childbearing, viewing them as civic duties essential
to the nation's future. They promoted laws and slogans that encouraged reproduction and family life,
positioning children as integral to the state and emphasizing the state's role over traditional religious
institutions.

The Revolution also brought significant changes to family law and personal status. It introduced legal
reforms such as the right to divorce, recognition of illegitimate children, and the abolition of
primogeniture, all aimed at creating greater social equality. These changes were part of a broader effort to
replace the Church’s moral authority with the state’s authority, aligning personal and familial matters
with revolutionary principles.

However, these revolutionary ideals and laws were not without their contradictions and limitations.
Despite some progressive legislation, the Revolution did not establish socialism and faced setbacks, such
as Napoleon's reversal of certain democratic family laws. Overall, the Revolution marked a profound
shift, replacing the hierarchical and privileged structures of the Old Regime with a new focus on state
authority and popular sovereignty.

In stark contrast to the rigid and often brutal social hierarchies of the Old Regime, the Revolution's
embrace of civil liberties, equality, and popular sovereignty was revolutionary and explosive. This
transformation was fueled by Enlightenment ideas that challenged traditional notions of inequality and
privilege, which had been entrenched by divine right and royal authority. The violence of the Revolution,
while difficult to imagine in today’s context, was a dramatic break from the everyday realities of the Old
Regime, where public executions and brutal punishments were common. This intense period of change
radically reshaped French society, setting the stage for modern concepts of citizenship and state authority.

During the peak of the French Revolution, from mid-1792 to mid-1794, the idea of "virtue" became very
important. For the revolutionaries, virtue wasn’t just about personal morality but about actively
supporting their new values of liberty, equality, and fraternity. They saw being virtuous as a key part of
their fight for these ideals.

At this time, family life was also given more importance. Influenced by philosopher Rousseau, the
revolutionaries promoted the idea that having children and being a good mother were important for the
nation. They passed laws and made slogans encouraging people to have more children and support family
life, seeing this as a way to build a stronger state.

The Revolution made several significant changes to family laws. It allowed people to divorce, recognized
children born outside of marriage, and ended the practice of passing all family property to the firstborn
son. These changes aimed to create more fairness in society by reducing the power of the Church over
personal matters and making the state the main authority in these areas.

Before the French Revolution, Paris's butchery practices were shockingly brutal. Louis-Sebastien Mercier
described how blood flowed through the streets, staining the ground and shoes, as butchers carried out
their gruesome work. Steers were often killed in horrifying ways, with blood staining everything and
butchers themselves looking fierce and unkempt. The smell of blood and the presence of aggressive
butchers added to the grim atmosphere. In addition to the disturbing scenes at the butcheries, there was a
serious riot in 1750 based on a false rumor that the police were kidnapping children for a royal bloodbath.

The Revolution itself was marked by extreme violence. When the Bastille was stormed, many were killed
or injured, and the governor’s severed head was paraded through Paris. Violence continued with other
incidents, like the brutal killing of an official named Foulon and his son-in-law, which involved public
displays of their severed heads as a grim form of justice.

Gracchus Babeuf, a later radical, reflected on the gruesome joy of these events, recognizing the mix of
satisfaction and horror among the people. Despite hopes to limit the Revolution's legacy to the
Declaration of the Rights of Man, the reality was that the Revolution was deeply entwined with violence
and continued to influence France beyond 1789.
Today, we often see the world as it is, accepting its current state as the only possible reality. The French
Revolution, now over two centuries past, seems almost like a distant legend. Its dramatic changes—where
an entire society transformed its everyday life—seem unbelievable, as if they defy the very notion that
life could be radically altered.

However, moments in our own history, such as the assassinations of John F. Kennedy, Robert Kennedy,
and Martin Luther King, Jr., have briefly shattered our routine, making us acutely aware of our shared
humanity and shaking our convictions about the normal state of things. These events momentarily made
us see each other as equals, beyond our usual roles.

The French Revolution was similar in its intensity, producing events so profound that they redefined what
was possible. It was a time when people genuinely believed they could reshape the world, creating ideals
like the brotherhood of man. While historians may debate the implications of such revolutions, it's clear
that they challenge the notion that human conditions are unchangeable and instead affirm the possibility
of creating new societal frameworks based on ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity.

Even though history has shown us the risks of radical social change and the potential for such movements
to lead to authoritarianism, the French Revolution remains a powerful example of how people can strive
to redefine their world. It wasn’t perfect, and its aftermath was complex, but its core values continue to
challenge tyranny and advocate for justice.

The French Revolution was a series of intense and shocking events that deeply impacted society. It wasn't
just about creating new laws or writing new constitutions; it was about trying to live by new values like
true equality and fraternity, or brotherhood.

The idea of "fraternity" or brotherhood was a key part of the Revolution, and it came from that period, not
from some ancient wisdom. Major historical events like the French Revolution don't just reveal hidden
truths about history; they reshape how people see and organize their world. Instead of accepting things as
they are, these events encourage people to change and improve their society based on new ideas.

From 1789 to 1799, there was a struggle between sticking with old ways and believing that society could
be transformed. While battles existed between different social classes and shifts in property and wealth,
the deeper conflict was about whether people could change their world and make history rather than just
live through it.

Today, after many attempts at social change, we may be skeptical about radical ideas, sometimes seeing
past revolutions as stepping stones to authoritarian regimes. Yet, despite its flaws and excesses, the
French Revolution was driven by people trying to create a fairer society based on ideals of liberty,
equality, and fraternity.

JHON MERRIMAN
Convoking the Estates-General-
1. **August 1787**: The Parlement of Paris refuses to register new land and stamp taxes. In response,
Louis XVI exiles its members to Troyes.
2. **August 1787**: Nobles and high clergymen protest the exile. Provincial parlements, like the
Parlement of Grenoble, also refuse to register the taxes and even convoke their provincial estates without
royal permission.
3. **Late 1787**: The "noble revolt" spreads, with nobles demanding that the Estates-General be
convoked.
4. **November 1787**: Louis XVI recalls the Parlement of Paris from exile but orders new loan edicts
registered without their input, asserting his will as law.
5. **May 1788**: Louis XVI arrests two radical members of the Parlement of Paris and suspends the
parlements, replacing them with new provincial courts and a plenary court to register royal edicts.
6. **May 1788**: The Assembly of the Clergy protests the abolition of the parlements, and riots in
support of the parlements break out in several towns, including Grenoble.
7. **August 8, 1788**: Louis XVI announces the convocation of the Estates-General for May 1, 1789, in
hopes of resolving the financial crisis.
8. **August 1788**: Necker is reappointed as minister of finance to appease nobles and investors.
9. **September 25, 1788**: The Parlement of Paris rules that voting in the Estates-General will be by
estate, not by head, reinforcing the power of the nobility and clergy.
10. **January 1789**: Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes publishes his pamphlet, "What is the Third Estate?",
advocating for a predominant role for the third estate in political life.
11. **December 1788**: The king agrees to double the number of representatives for the third estate but
refuses to grant individual votes to each representative.
12. **May 5, 1789**: The Estates-General meets at Versailles with nearly 1,200 members, but the third
estate is kept waiting and slighted by the king.
13. **June 17, 1789**: The third estate declares itself the "National Assembly," claiming to represent the
nation’s sovereignty.
14. **June 20, 1789**: Locked out of their meeting hall, members of the third estate take the "Tennis
Court Oath," vowing to continue meeting until a constitution is established.
15. **June 23, 1789**: Louis XVI announces some reforms but declares the third estate's deliberations
invalid.
16. **June 27, 1789**: After threatening force, Louis XVI orders the remaining clergy and nobles to join
the third estate, leading to the formation of the National Constituent Assembly.

STORMING OF BASTILLE
1. **July 11, 1789**: King Louis XVI orders Necker, the finance minister, into exile due to his inability
to control demands for change from the Estates-General. Other ministers are also dismissed.
2. **July 12-13, 1789**: Bands of rioters attack customs barriers at the gates of Paris, tearing down toll
booths to protest high food prices.
3. **July 14, 1789 (Morning)**: Thousands of people, mostly tradesmen, artisans, and wage earners,
seize weapons stored in the Invalides (a veterans' hospital).
4. **July 14, 1789 (Afternoon)**: The Paris crowd storms the Bastille, believing it contains powder and
ammunition. The Bastille, a symbol of royal despotism, is captured after a fierce battle.
5. **July 14, 1789 (Later that Day)**: The commander of the Bastille is killed, and his head is paraded
through the streets of Paris.
6. **July 14, 1789 (Evening)**: The fall of the Bastille significantly impacts the situation, likely saving
the National Assembly from being dissolved by the king's troops. Louis XVI becomes unsure of his
soldiers' loyalty and begins to send some of them away from Paris.
7. **July 17, 1789**: Louis XVI goes to Paris, is received by the municipal council at the town hall, and
accepts the tricolor emblem (red and blue for Paris, white for the Bourbons), symbolizing a recognition of
the revolution.
8. **July 19 - August 3, 1789**: Peasants across France, fueled by the news of the Bastille's fall, attack
chateaux and burn title deeds, believing in a rumored "famine plot" by aristocrats to starve or burn them
out.
9. **August 4, 1789**: The National Assembly, in response to the peasant unrest, formally abolishes the
"feudal regime," including seigneurial rights and personal labor servitude owed to nobles. This
proclamation marks the beginning of the end for the Old Regime.
10. **August 5-11, 1789**: The National Assembly enacts further reforms, including the guarantee of
freedom of worship, abolition of the sale of offices, seigneurial justice, and the exclusive right of nobles
to hunt. Provinces and cities are required to give up most of their privileges.

The push toward democracy during the French Revolution came from the way society was organized
before the revolution. The monarchy relied on a complex network of groups, each with its own special
rights and privileges, spread across every level of society. These groups included judges, professionals,
administrators, religious leaders, local assemblies, and trade guilds.

Many of these groups had ways of making decisions that involved participation from their members, and
sometimes these methods were even somewhat democratic. This experience with shared decision-making
likely encouraged a tendency toward democracy. As the revolution unfolded, these influences helped
steer France away from monarchy and toward becoming a republic.
Here’s a breakdown of the events in chronological order:

1. **Destruction of Absolutism**:
- The Assembly redefined the relationship between the king and his subjects, ending the concept of
divine right and the king’s practice of buying loyalty through privileges.
- The king’s power was now constrained by a constitution.
2. **Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen**:
- On August 26, 1789, the Assembly issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.
- This document set out universal principles of liberty, equality, and the rights of citizens, heavily
influenced by Enlightenment ideas and the American Declaration of Independence.
3. **Reorganization of Church-State Relations**:
- The Assembly created a national church, declared Catholic Church property as national property, and
required the clergy to swear allegiance to the nation.
4. **Constitutional Assembly**:
- The Assembly began the process of drafting a new constitution, earning the name Constituent
Assembly.
5. **Marie-Antoinette’s Opposition and Noble Resistance**:
- Marie-Antoinette and some of the king’s advisers opposed the revolution, refusing to accept any
reduction in royal authority.
6. **October March to Versailles**:
- In October, fearing the influence of nobles at court, crowds marched to Versailles, bringing the king
and his family back to Paris.
- The king became more vulnerable to radical demands from Parisian crowds.
7. **Exile of Nobles and Rise of Radicalism**:
- Many nobles and clergy fled France, seeking help from other European monarchs against the
Revolution.
- Parisian clubs began making more radical demands as nobles and clergy resisted the Revolution.
8. **Impact of the Declaration**:
- The Declaration placed sovereignty in the French nation, not in the monarchy, emphasizing the
primacy of reason and equality before the law.
- It acknowledged equality of opportunity but maintained social distinctions based on wealth, education,
and talent.
- The Declaration excluded women from its principles, although some calls for women’s rights emerged
during the Revolution.
9. **Abolition of Feudalism**:
- The abolition of feudalism and the proclamation of the Declaration marked the end of the Old Regime.
- By 1790, people were already referring to the Old Regime as something that existed before the
National Assembly's work.
10. **Acceptance by Louis XVI**:
- The final step was for King Louis XVI to accept the Assembly’s decisions and the new order.
Here’s a chronological breakdown of the events:

### **Political Crisis and the King’s Veto Power:**

1. **Debate Over the King’s Veto Power**:
- The king’s advisers, the “court party,” rejected any constitutional arrangement that didn’t allow the
king absolute veto power.
- The patriot party, led by Sieyes, argued against giving the king such power.

2. **Assembly’s Offer of a “Suspending” Veto**:

- In September, the Assembly offered the king a “suspending” veto, allowing him to delay legislation
for up to four years.
- The king refused to accept this provision and the decrees of August 4.

3. **Marat and Radical Journalism**:

- Radical journalist Jean-Paul Marat gained popularity with his newspaper, *The Friend of the People*,
criticizing the king’s refusal and rallying popular support against the monarchy.

### **The Women’s March to Versailles:**

4. **The Insult to the Tricolor**:
- In October, the Flanders Regiment insulted the newly adopted tricolor emblem during a reception with
the king and queen, sparking outrage.

5. **Women’s March to Versailles**:

 - On October 5, women from Paris, frustrated by a lack of bread, marched to Versailles to demand
action from the king.
- The women occupied the National Assembly and demanded the king provide bread and return to
Paris.

6. **Arrival of Lafayette and National Guardsmen**:

- Lafayette led a force of national guardsmen to Versailles to maintain order and convince the king to
return to Paris.
- The king promised the women bread and announced his acceptance of the Assembly’s decrees from
August 4.

7. **Violence at Versailles**:
- At dawn, violence erupted as the crowd tried to force their way into the chateau, resulting in the death
of royal guards.
- The crowd forced the royal family to return to Paris, singing about “The Baker, the Baker’s Wife, and
the Baker’s Little Boy,” symbolizing the king’s responsibility to provide for the people.

8. **National Assembly Moves to Paris**:

- The National Assembly also moved to Paris, increasing the pressure on the king and the Assembly
from popular political will.

### **Reforming the Church and Clergy:**

9. **King’s Title Changed**:
- The Assembly proclaimed Louis as “the king of the French” instead of “the king of France,”
suggesting that he embodied the sovereignty of the people.

10. **Exile of Nobles and Clergy**:

- The king’s brother, the count of Artois, went into exile, followed by over 20,000 nobles, wealthy
individuals, and clergymen.

11. **Talleyrand’s Proposal on Church Property**:

- On October 10, Talleyrand proposed that Church property be declared “national properties.”
- The Assembly passed the measure on November 2, leading to the sale of Church lands to resolve the
financial crisis.

12. **Issuance of Assignats**:

- The Assembly issued paper money (assignats) backed by the value of Church lands.
- The value of assignats fell due to a lack of public confidence, allowing some to reduce debts with
inflated currency.

13. **Abolition of Religious Orders**:

- On February 13, 1790, the Assembly abolished religious orders deemed politically suspect.

14. **Civil Constitution of the French Clergy**:

 - On July 12, 1790, the Assembly passed the Civil Constitution of the French Clergy, creating a
national church and making clergy answerable to the state.
- The king reluctantly accepted these measures, which made the Church a department of the state.

15. **Oath of Loyalty to the Revolution**:

- In November 1790, the Assembly required all priests to swear an oath of loyalty to the Revolution,
leading to resistance from many priests.
- Pope Pius VI condemned the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in April 1791.

16. **Growth of Counter-Revolutionary Movement**:

- The requirement for the oath split the Church and led to violence in some areas, with many priests
refusing to take the oath and continuing to serve with popular support.

REACTIONS
Here’s a breakdown of the impact of the French Revolution on Europe in chronological order:

### **Initial European Reactions to the French Revolution:**

1. **Influence on Educated Europeans**:
- The early actions of the National Assembly, like the abolition of feudal rights and the establishment of
a constitutional monarchy, were well-received by educated people in Britain, the Netherlands, and some
German and Italian states.
- Some lawyers and merchants in these countries supported measures reducing the Catholic Church’s
independence.

2. **Threat to European Monarchies**:

- The principles of national sovereignty and self-determination, promoted by the French Revolution,
threatened existing monarchies across Europe.
- Austria and Prussia, rivals in Central Europe, formed a rapprochement, while Great Britain and Russia
established a wary alliance in response to the threat.

3. **Prussia’s Initial Reaction**:

- Prussia first tried to weaken the alliance between France and Austria by undermining Austrian
authority in the Southern Netherlands (Belgium).

4. **Rebellion in the Southern Netherlands (1789)**:

- A rebellion in the Southern Netherlands in 1789 expelled Austrian forces and briefly established a
republic, but Austrian troops regained control in 1790.

### **Responses in Britain:**

5. **Radical Whigs and Enthusiasm**:
- Some radical Whigs in Britain welcomed the news of the fall of the Bastille and France's move toward
a constitutional monarchy.

6. **Edmund Burke’s Criticism (1790)**:

 - In 1790, British writer Edmund Burke criticized the Revolution in his work *Reflections on the
Revolution in France*, arguing that it threatened the historical evolution of nations by undermining
monarchy, established churches, and the ruling elite.

7. **Thomas Paine’s Defense (1791-1792)**:

- Thomas Paine countered Burke’s arguments with his pamphlet *The Rights of Man*, defending the
Revolution and denouncing monarchical rule and privilege.
- Political societies supporting the Revolution, involving artisans, emerged in Britain during the early
1790s.

8. **Mary Wollstonecraft’s Support and Criticism (1792)**:

- Mary Wollstonecraft, a British teacher and writer, supported the Revolution and traveled to France.
- Angered by the exclusion of women from education rights, she published *Vindication of the Rights
of Woman* in 1792, demanding voting rights for women.

### **European Rulers’ Concerns and Actions:**

9. **Fear of French Expansion**:
- The rulers of Prussia, Austria, Naples, and Piedmont were alarmed by the revolutionary principles and
the threat of French expansion spreading “liberty, equality, and fraternity” to other lands.
- These rulers began suppressing Jacobin sympathizers in their states.

10. **Britain’s National Identity and Government Reaction**:

- In Britain, fears of foreign invasion reinforced national identity and increased respect for the
monarchy and nobles.
- Pitt the Younger’s government reacted by curbing popular politics, suspending freedoms of
association, assembly, and the press, and implementing “Coercion Acts” to arrest advocates of
parliamentary reform.

11. **Declaration of Pilnitz (August 27, 1791)**:

- Emperor Leopold II of the Holy Roman Empire and King Frederick William II of Prussia issued the
Declaration of Pilnitz, expressing their concern for the French monarchy and their interest in restoring
order in France.

### **War Between France and Austria:**

12. **Debate Over War in France**:
- Despite Robespierre’s warnings to focus on internal enemies before engaging in war, the French
Assembly, urged by General Charles François Dumouriez, declared war on Austria in April 1792.
- The fear of an imminent Austrian invasion from the Southern Netherlands was the stated reason for
the war.

13. **Challenges in the War**:

- The French army faced difficulties due to the desertion of two-thirds of its officers, most of whom
were nobles before the Revolution.
 - Prussia soon joined Austria in the fight against France, leading to early defeats for the French at the
hands of Austrian and Prussian armies.