LANGUAGE ACQUISITION SKILLS: A NECESSARY GATEWAY TO

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION, CHALLENGES FOR

THE 21ST CENTURY

L. O. Nwokeneme

Abstract
Language is indispensable in the life and existence of man as an
individual as it makes communication and interaction possible. Success
in science and technology cannot be possible without a functional
language used for educational instructions. There is the need however,
to be fluent and proficient in the use of the language as a means of
communication. This can only be achieved if users have acquired the
various skills and rudiments of the language. There is in fact, no way
can we successfully combat the challenges posed by science and
technology education without the acquisition of appropriate language
skills. (This is because it is only with language that one verbalizes and
interprets scientific concepts which the society requires so much)
Accordingly, this paper examines some of the ways through which the
skills and rudiments of the language should be acquired. Factors
militating against the acquisition of language are discussed and
suggestions for improvement are made.

Introduction
Language is most uniquely human. When we consider all the aptitudes or
natural abilities and behaviour which characterize animate beings, language is the
most distinct. The capacity to acquire and use language is a quality which
distinguishes human beings from all other creatures. In the development of an
individual as a social being, language is invariably, but unarguably a primus inter
pares. The ability to think and carry out our thoughts is possible because
language exists. It offers an individual the necessary potential and capacity to
function as a social man. Accordingly, Halliday (1978:10) asserted that the
“existence of language implies the existence of man”.
Language is the medium through which man becomes a personality.
Without the existence of language, man would be little less than a beast. This
assertion is true as language makes expression possible and communication easy.
Words are the vehicle of thought. However, without an appropriate language,
utterances will be totally impeded. In the development of a man as a social being,
language plays a central role. All the developmental efforts of man revolve
around language. Formal and informal upbringing of a child are possible because
of the existence of language as a means of communication.
Invariably, it is the recognition of the monumental roles and
functionalities which language plays in the upbringing of a child, on the one land,
and its indispensability in all human activities on the other that Nigeria, in her
The Nigerian Journal of Research and Production Volume 18 No 1, April, 2011
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L. O. Nwokeneme
philosophy of education sees language as a sine qua non in all aspects of a
child’s development, including education. It is for this reason that the National
Policy on Education (2004: 11) stresses the use of the mother – tongue or the
language of the immediate environment in the early years of a child’s training
and the use of English Language at a later stage. This policy is in consonance
with Halliday’s view that language is the only instrument with which educational
instructions for the development of a child are imparted when he opines that
Language is the channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to
him, through which he learns to act as a member of a society.
Language exerts so much influence in all human endeavors, providing
solutions to the numerous problems facing man. Consequently, language
implements, acts, influences and in fact, does all there is to be done. For instance,
there are many varieties of language and dialects which enable one to express
multiplicity of views, literature and ways of life.
Apparently, attempts to appreciate the importance, versatility and
functionality of language reveal that people can only see as language allows them
to see. Should we decide to explore the thoughts and activities of our
predecessors, it is only language that can make this possible. On the same hand,
when one looks forward in time, and finds out that one can plan only through
language. To look outward in space and send symbols of communication or even
explain whom one is, should there be anyone who cares to know, one takes
recourse to language.
Consequently, the impact of language has affected studies in such
disciplines in the social sciences as Psychology, Sociology and Anthropology.
Thus Gleason (1975:10) opined that scholars in these courses of study have seen
the need to investigate language as a form of human interaction. For instance, the
desire to know and master English Language makes a scholar to study its
systematic internal structures, its creative potentials, its ability to refer to
abstraction and imaginary objects, and its ability to talk about itself, etc. It is in
the light of this that the focal point of this paper is language acquisition, language
learning, functions of language and the place of language in Science and
Technology in the 21st century. The paper further discusses the factors
militating against language learning and acquisition. It concludes by making
suggestion for improvement.

Language Acquisition
Language acquisition and language learning are two recognized different
processes. Language acquisition often refers to that inborn ability that an
individual has in acquiring his mother – tongue or native language. This applies
more appropriately to a first language situation with which an individual makes
his first contact. Language learning on the other hand, applies more to the second
language which an individual has to learn. It has been observed however, that in

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Language Acquisition Skills: A Necessary Gateway to Science and Technology
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a sufficiently conducive environment, children can acquire knowledge of the
second language without formal classroom situation or training.
Commenting on this, William (1990:18) noted that some aspects of the
second language (especially, the complex ones) will never be learned or acquired
in the classroom especially, when it forms the medium of communication. Thus,
language learning is a process brought about in a setting where subject matter is
selected and graded, and activities organized to promote use of the language. For
this reason learning process is not deeply integrated in the instructional setting,
unlike in the natural setting where there is no inhibition or limit to exposure
between language acquisition and language learning. The two are believed to be
complementary to each other.
It is popularly believed that girls learn to speak more rapidly than boys.
According to Crystal (1987:19) several researchers have shown that girls are
linguistically superior at early ages than boys. Adetugbo (1979:15) supported this
view when he writes that Gleitman and Gleitman’s finding reveals that girls are
usually minimally in advance of boys in their language development. Differences
are found due more to the ways in which boys and girls are brought up rather
then the physiological and genetic factors.
Acquiring a language involves two distinct skills: The ability to produce
speech in a spontaneous way and the ability to understand the speech of others.
The former is relatively easy to study. All one needs is to turn a tape recorder on
and analyse what comes out. Research into speech comprehension is far more
difficult because one needs to take into account, not only what is spoken to the
child, but the situation in which it is uttered and the child’s prior knowledge of
the word. Echoing Jean Piaget, Routledge and Paul (1972:52-127) observed that
children acquire language more rapidly within the first 18 months than in the
later stages of their life.
Invariably, they contend that by the age of five, most children correctly
identify themselves and others by sex. They also behave as members of their sex
are expected to behave in the society. As they gain language and cognitive skills,
children hear themselves called “boy” or “girl”. They observe what boys and
girls do, accept the labels and behave accordingly. This acceptance is termed
“identity taking”. Once the basic ground rules have been learned, labeling by
others and identity taking by the individual act together to transmit traditional
roles. Throughout life, the individual takes on a number of identities and learns
the requirements of various roles.
By choosing a model such as sports hero or an admirer; a young person
generally begins to learn how to be independent from family or peers and also
forms meaningful relationship. He gains a self- chosen identity that is valued by
others and contributes to self esteem. Through the model, behaviour takes on
personal meaning and becomes something more than conforming to conventional
norms.

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L. O. Nwokeneme
Innate Ability: Children are born with an innate capacity for language
development. The human brain is ready for language when children are exposed
to speech. It is during this period that certain general principles for discovering or
structuring language automatically begin to be in operation. These (innate ability)
principles constitute what Routledge and Paul (1972:146) cited Chomsky who
called it (innate ability or capacity) “Language Acquisition Device (LAD). With
the use of this linguistic equipment, a child makes sense out of the utterances
heard around him, deriving from this primary linguistic data. They further
posited that Chomsky, (see Routledge & Paul: 127-128) an American
Psychologist argued that the “linguistic universal” ability of language learning
and acquisition are parts of human “genetic endowment “. He argued that if this
is not so, “how is it that a child equipped at birth with no communication skills
whatsoever, but only with the rudimentary verbal repertoire for expression, is
able to acquire an ability as complex as language and so reliably and regularly”.
Cognition: Cognitive awareness is essentially in children’s language
acquisition and learning. An already essentially established cognitive foundation
is important. Before a child can use structures of comparison, “this car is bigger
than that” or “Peter is fatter than Paul”, he would have developed the conceptual
ability to make relative judgment of size. This link has been clearly shown in the
early period of language learning. Routledge and Paul (1972) asserted that Piaget
calls this cognitive ability “sensori- motor” intelligence in which children
construct a mental picture of the world objects that have independent existence.
The traditional common sense view is that comprehension always
precedes production. Children need to understand a word or grammatical
construction before they can use it. Imitation is a distinct skill in language
learning. Often, children imitate sentence patterns that they are unable to produce
spontaneously. They stop imitating the structure when they start to use them in
their speech. This is more noticeable when new sounds or vocabularies are being
learned. Imitation is thus a kind of bridge between comprehension and
spontaneous production. Children learn speech in the popular way by copying the
utterances heard around them and by having their responses strengthened by
reactions of those around them.
The acquisition of the ability to use language is one of the most
impressive pieces of learning that an individual achieves in the course of his life.
This (mother-tongue/language of the environment) of course can affect both the
mother-tongue and language of the environment. This is often the first language
with which an individual makes his first contact. The second language has to be
learned. Although English is seen in Nigeria today as the language of our
conquerors, it is nevertheless regarded as a second language in the country.

Language Learning
Language learning is known to emanate from four main stages. These are
listening, speaking, reading and writing. These four language skills are very

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Language Acquisition Skills: A Necessary Gateway to Science and Technology
st
important in the acquisition of any language especially English. In fact, success
in every academic endeavour revolves around them. This is because the success
of learners at the tertiary institutions depends on their ability to read and write
and competence in listening and speaking. In fact, the level of students’
proficiency and competence they have acquired in these language skills,
especially listening, speaking, reading and writing at the secondary school is
inadequate to carry them through the tertiary level. This assertion is made on the
understanding that much demand is made on each of these language skills at this
stage of education. We cannot talk of any advancement in science and
technology if our children, the students are deficient in these areas.

Listening Skill
Listening is a very important language skill. This assertion is made
because what one speaks or writes is dependent on what he hears. It is for this
reason that listening is seen as the first stage of language skills. It is thus very
important to language acquisition, especially, English which is the main medium
of educational instructions in Nigeria. Deficiency in this language skill leads to
break down in communication and indeed, poor academic performance.
Consequently, a student who cannot listen effectively and attentively will
find it hard to understand and interpret his lectures. Of course, we know that at
the tertiary institutions, lecturing is one of the most important means of imparting
educational knowledge to the learners. It is also known that at this level, every
serious student spends more than three-quarters of his time listening to lectures
and making notes. Therefore, for the listener to understand what is said, and
respond appropriately, he must listen with concentration and attention. This is
what James (1958) meant when he opined that listening is a selective process by
which sounds communicated by some source are received, critically interpreted
and acted upon by a purposeful listener. This can only be achieved through
effective and active listening.
Purposeful or active listening calls for concentration and attentiveness
which in turn, results in responsiveness. The understanding that active and
purposeful listening is not easily achieved and that target audience often find it
difficult to interpret or formulate meaning from what is heard make this paper
look at this language skill as posing a serious challenge to science and
technological education in the 21st century. Its acquisition and indeed appropriate
application are conversely a necessary gateway for advancement in science and
technology which the nation seriously needs.

Speaking Skill
Speech is another important language skill, second to listening. Both
listening and speaking are technically referred to as oracy skill of the language as
these are less complex to learn than reading and writing. This language skill is
basic to all other language skills as it is the major medium of expression,

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L. O. Nwokeneme
communication and interaction which are the goals of speaking. Generally,
language is speech. Therefore, proficiency and functionality in any given
language revolve around effective communication which manifests in speaking
and writing. It is only through speaking that we externalize our feelings, thoughts
and experiences.
Again, speech makes socialization possible. Every academic endeavour
revolves around speaking and writing. For instance, it is the only channel through
which learners ask and answer questions during lectures and clarifications are
made through the same medium. Deficiency in this all important language skill
poses a very serious set back in one’s academic progress.

Reading Skill
This language skill is very important as it plays a major part in formal
education. Of all the language skills, reading is very essential for mastering
English as a second language. According to Joof, (1988) reading ability in
whatever discipline should be seen as one of the key factors for general success
in academic work at all levels. Reading is an important instrument for
competence and proficiency in English. A student who suffers reading deficiency
will not only be limited in his learning but also knowledge, and skill acquisition.
Almost all the academic activities students do, either individually or in groups
primarily depend on the extent to which they can read.
Reading, according to Troyka (1990) is an activity which involves
interaction of the page, eye and brain, a meaning making interaction. This is
contrary to a mere looking at words in print, a situation Troyka described as
passive activity Troyka’s view of reading is in consonance with that of Unoh
(1989) who asserted that reading is a complex language processing behaviour
that involves interpretation and meaning-making activity upon printed materials.
Reading is in fact, the core of any language programme as it enhances language
learning. It is not only employed as a tool for study, but also for creating
awareness. The knowledge and education we acquire depend mainly on the
quality and quantity of reading we do. Of course meaning-making reading is one
that goes with comprehension.
It should be noted that the computer and other allied technologies are
meaningless without meaning-making reading or reading with comprehension.
With effective reading, the modern man finds it possible to reach and elicit more
information, using computer. We talk of the world as a global village in which
information around the world are reached and linked within few seconds through
computer technology. However, this is impossible without effective and
purposeful reading. We can communicate with the rest of the world through
e-mail, mailing list, internet and other electronic communication devices, a
situation which gives rise to Information Communication Technology (ICT). The
availability of these ICT services are meaningful because we have acquired

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Language Acquisition Skills: A Necessary Gateway to Science and Technology
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appropriate reading ability. Lack of this basic language skill makes one almost
ineffective and malfunctional.
Reading serves as a means of information acquisition. Students obtain
information from textbooks and other printed materials through reading. Being
able to read is not only a condition for academic success, but also a gateway to
science and technological education which consistently poses a challenge even in
this 21st century.

Writing Skill
Writing as an important language skill is the representation of the spoken
on paper. As a means of communicating one’s thoughts, feelings and
experiences, writing is of paramount importance. For the students, writing is an
important academic tool as it is the medium through which class tests,
assignments, term papers, seminars, conferences, workshops and examinations
are carried out. It is also the medium through which research findings, laboratory
experiments and results, new inventions are disseminated to the public. In other
words, writing is the use of language in its written form to express thoughts and
emotions. Through it, a writer not only communicates to the reader, but also
narrates events, describes scenes, and explains a process. Perhaps, the functions
of writing as a language skill include information dissemination, entertainment,
mobilization and education.
Invariably, without writing as a language skill, nobody can talk of history
which is a document of past events. Also, without writing, dissemination of news
or information through print and electronic media cannot be possible. What is
received as daily news or information in Nigeria today through print and
electronic media derives from continuous writing processes which revolve
around pre-writing stage (preparation/gathering information materials or data),
the writing and re-writing stages to reshape and make necessary corrections and
ensure that the grammar is appropriate for the occasion. All these are necessary
in ensuring effective communication at this level. In fact, what can one do
without writing? The answer is nothing. Our efforts in science and technology
education cannot succeed without apt and effective writing skill. What is ICT if
not reading and writing new technological findings and advancements. Really,
the key to growth in science and technology revolves around writing and reading
efficiencies. Through these, we can learn all there is to learn and react
accordingly.

Functions of Language
Ordinarily, one makes conscious use of language when one wants to
communicate ideas, tell people about oneself, circumstances, experiences or ask
for information about others. In the same way, people use language to exchange
facts and opinions. According to Halliday (1978: 48-50), the use of language
involves purposes such as “referential, propositional and ideational “.

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L. O. Nwokeneme
Continuing, Halliday expatiated that one of the commonest uses of language is as
a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress. He
asserted that this is the clearest case of what is often called “emotive or
expressive” function of language. One makes use of emotive language both
consciously and unconsciously. For instance, swear words and obscenities which
are often uttered when people are angry or frustrated are emotive language. In
deed, our voluntary verbal reactions to beautiful arts or scenery, expression of
fear or affection as well as the emotional outpouring of certain kinds of poetry
inter-alia are emotive utterances of positive kinds.
Furthermore, language is also used for the purpose of recording facts. All
kinds of record keeping such as history, geographical survey, business accounts,
science reports, parliamentary acts, public data, etc depict the function of
language. This is in fact, different from that used in everyday conversation.
Verbal language is used as instrument of thought, mental work and mathematical
calculations.
Language is used for the expression of identity. Our use of language can
tell great deal about us. Information about our social background and personal
data such as level of education, age, sex and personality can only be passed
through language. Language also has a neutral or behavioural function as when
used in thinking. This includes reasoning thinking evident in solving problems,
telling stories, planning strategies, etc. Crystal (1987:19-22) describes this as
“rational, directed and logical [and] proportional”. This kind of thinking is
educative.
Language functions as social and ethnic identity. The various ways
people participate in social structure, belong to many social groups and perform
variety of social roles are possible through the use of language. The question of
linguistic identity is strong in the case of ethnicity and nationhood. Perhaps this
revelation accounts for why Egwim (2002: 164) saw language not only as “an
instrument for communication”, but also “a symbol of social identity and an
emblem of group membership and solidarity”. It is in the light of this that
attempts to preserve ones language often leads to ethnic and political reactions
which often result in the demand for self-government. Linguistic conflicts have
in the past developed due to merging together of people of diverse socio-cultural
and ethnic backgrounds.

The Place of Language in Science and Technology in the 21st Century

Language occupies very important place in the nation’s effort for
advancement in science and technology. This assertion is made on the
understanding that language provides solution to the numerous problems in
science and technology, a key to national development. For instance, man thinks
and carries out his thoughts with language. Really, man uses languages to do all
he has to do. This is very true, as we can only see, act, influence and implement
as far as language allows. No wonder Halliday (1978:12) asserted that language

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Language Acquisition Skills: A Necessary Gateway to Science and Technology
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makes the social man what he is as “there can be no social man without
language”. The existence of language implies the existence of a social man since
language is the means whereby people communicate and interact.
Corroborating the indispensability and versatility of language in man’s
daily endeavours, Crystal (1987:6-7) also observed that language covers all
human activities and interactions without which survival will be difficult and
existence impeded, if not impossible. The question that arises then is:
(a) Can we talk of research of any sort without language?
(b) How do we write and disseminate scientific findings and laboratory
results?
(c) With what language does one impart educational instructions and
scientific knowledge to the students and young learners?
(d) With what language and how fast can scientific knowledge and
technological discoveries be passed to poor scientific and less
technologically developed nations around the world for the people to
imbibe or learn?
Indeed, the answers to these questions are very clear. Here comes the
monumental functions of language as means of communication and interaction
and thus, the importance of its acquisition. Considering the tripartite position
which English Language occupies in Nigeria such as national, official and
language of international trade and diplomacy, this discourse believes that it
(English) answers all the questions including that of ICT which of course serves
as the medium of dissemination. It is for this reason that language acquisition
skills form the focal point of this discourse.
Consequently, effective excursions have been taken into the four
language skills internalizing their importance, and indispensability to the
development and advancement of science and technology, a challenge facing the
nation in the 21st century. While listening (hearing) and reading are technically
referred to as receptive language skills, speaking and writing are also referred to
as productive language skills. The proper acquisition of these language skills and
their appropriate application will enhance users proficiency and competence in
the language. Deficiency in any of these language skills will result in poor
academic growth and performance and conversely, acquisition of science and
technological knowledge which the nation seriously requires for her growth and
advancement in the area.
Naturally, the literacy skills of language, reading and writing are
important in the nation’s march to science and technological development.
Problem in these areas can render any activity in science and technology
malfunctional and inoperative. For instance, Fakunde (2001:12-16) criticized
students inability to read functionally, arguing that this ineptitude has resulted in
students persistent academic failure. For instance, reading and writing are pivotal
to the acquisition and participation in science and technological knowledge,
education and are functional to ICT activities. In fact they are the proof of

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L. O. Nwokeneme
intellectuality. No wonder Nwoke (1993:11) observed that reading is a strategy
used in equipping science and technology students to be able to verbalize the
scientific concepts they possess. These language skills have been seen as
indispensable tools that will make students and scientific researchers succeed in
their academic endeavours in this 21st century where computer has made the
world a global village.
Furthermore, the age of technology and knowledge explosion has made it
possible for every one to strive to know how to read and write as career
opportunity basically depends on these skills. These literacy skills enable one to
come in contact with a wide variety of knowledge which one can either copy,
modify or even adopt for future uses. These language skills also enable us to
participate, share and benefit from educational research findings, scientific
discoveries and inventions beneficial to man.
The importance of language and the acquisition of its skills cannot be
over-emphasized in this era of information explosion. There is the growing need
for us to share in the new discoveries in science and technology around the world
so as to explore new ideas and expand our own wealth of knowledge. We can
only do this through reading, writing, listening and speaking in English.
The understanding that the acquisition of language skills and their
effective application hold the key to the nation’s growth and development in
science and technology is also shared by Okunnuga (1979:271). Considering the
objectives of English for Science and Technology (EST), he declared that if
Nigeria must attain her long cherished knowledge in science and technology, the
following is imperative:
1. listening comprehension training in spoken science and technological
English.
2. reading comprehension and reading training to the satisfaction of science
and technological departments to facilitate intermediate study in science
and technology;
3. the ability to speak scientific and technological English; and
4. the ability to write scientific and technological English.
In the light of the above, it has become apparent that student’s deficiency
and inability in these language skills are among the problems that pose serious
challenges to science and technological education in the 21st century

Factors Militating against the Acquisition of Language Skills

Many factors militate against the learning and acquisition of language
skills. One of these is inadequate language teachers. There is inadequate English
Language teachers in most primary, secondary and even tertiary institutions in
the country. This has grossly affected the teaching, learning and acquisition of
language skills. The few available teachers often find it very hard to cover all the
various parts of the language.

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Language Acquisition Skills: A Necessary Gateway to Science and Technology
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Nonchalance is another serious problem which militates against the
learning and acquisition of English. This problem does not affect only the
students, but also the teachers. Some language teachers really do not take the
teaching of English very serious. They are often engaged with and committed to
issues outside their employment in attempts to raise more money to meet
personal and family demands. The result is that the teaching of English is either
given less attention or totally neglected. The teachers usually rush students
through the courses to meet the requirements of examination. This always leaves
learners totally unexposed, ungrounded and unrefined in the skills of the
language.
The students themselves seldom show any sense of interest or
seriousness towards the learning and acquisition of the skills and rudiments of the
language. During English Language classes, some students are often seen
engaging themselves in less important issues such as conversing, playing or even
copying notes or solving problems in other courses or subjects. Others play
truancy, absenting themselves from English classes. All these affect effective
learning and acquisition of the skills of the language.
Lack of expertise and pedagogic skills affect learning and acquisition of
language skills. By this, I mean lack of good knowledge of the subject and skill
for imparting knowledge to the learners. This in fact, has been a serious handicap
to effective teaching and learning of English. Research has showed that there is
serious disparity between what a teacher knows and what he actually claims to
know. In fact, some English Language teachers have shallow knowledge of the
subject and its pedagogy. This goes a long way to affect what they teach to the
students and their general performance.
There is lack of incentive to language teachers as government no longer
encourages in-service training for language teachers. Conferences and workshops
on language are no longer sponsored by the government. Language teachers often
find it difficult to shoulder the financial burdens of attending conferences and
workshops. The result is that the teachers are not exposed to new research
findings on the teaching of English Language.

Suggestions for Improvement

(a) There is the need for government to employ more qualitative English
teachers who possess good knowledge of the subject and pedagogical
skills. This will go a long way to improve the teaching and acquisition
process.
(b) As a way of checking non-challance and making language teachers have
job satisfaction, the government should make the teaching of English
more attractive through the grant of attractive incentives such as
sponsorship of workshops and conferences on English, in-service
training and scholarship to language teachers. Classroom language
activities should be somehow monitored to ensure that they use effective

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teaching materials so as to enhance language acquisition skills during
lecture deliveries.
(c) To ensure that language teachers to be employed possess appreciable
expertise and pedagogical skills, they should be subjected to rigorous
written and oral interviews. This will enable educational administrators
engage teachers with proven abilities not based only on the certificates
they cannot defend.
If all these are carefully but systematically implemented, the learning and
acquisition of language skills will improve considerably. This will greatly
enhance the efforts of serious language learners in their learning processes and
consequently, learners expressive and productive performances are positively
affected. Again, the nation’s quest for scientific and technological growth and
advancement will be in sight. Furthermore, Nigeria will effectively join the
current mach for globalization. In deed, all these will be in vain without effective
language policy that will ensure success in the learning, acquisition, knowledge
and mastery of English Language as a medium of communication and
educational training.

References
Adetugbo, A. (1997). The standard Nigeria English. Journal of the Nigeria
English Studies Association, 6 (1), 15.

Crystal, David. (1987). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. London:

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Egwin, J. C. (2002). A theoretical framework as a solution to the problems of

major and minor languages in education in a multilingual setting like
Nigeria In Oyewole Arohunmolase (Ed.) Development of the Minority
Language in Nigeria. Ondo: Association of Nigeria Language Teachers
(ANLAT).

Fakunde, G. (2001) A Handbook for reading comprehension and summary

writing skills. Yola: Paraclete Publisher pp. 12-16

Federal Republic of Nigeria. (2004). National policy on education. Lagos:

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Gleason, H. A. (1975). An introduction to descriptive linguistics (Rev. Ed.).

England: Unwin Brothers, Gresham Press.

Halliday, M. A. K. (1978). Language as social semiotics: The social interpretation

of language. London: Edward Arnold.

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Language Acquisition Skills: A Necessary Gateway to Science and Technology
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James, S. (1958). Listening skill in Attah, M.O. & A.S. Gambari eds. General
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Joof, E.A. (1988). Enhancing levels of reading competencies in social studies:

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Nwoke, A. (1993). The emergence of English for specific purposes An M.ED

Post-graduate lecture, University of Jos. Unpublished p.11

Okunnuga, C. (1979). Reading strategies for reading success. A mimeograph, pp

2 -8

Routledge & K. Paul. (1972). Language in education. London: Hanley and

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William, D. (1990). English language teaching today: An integrated approach.

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