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DBMS

Unit 1

Introduction to DBMS

1.1 Basic conceptsv

1.1.1 Database

The database is a set of interrelated data used to efficiently retrieve, insert and
remove data. It is also used in the form of a table, schema, views, and reports to
organize the data, etc.

You can conveniently retrieve, attach, and delete information using the database.

1.1.2 Database management system (DBMS)

A DBMS is a program that enables database creation, specification and manipulation,

allowing users to easily store, process and analyze information.

DBMS provides one with an interface or a tool to conduct different operations, such
as building databases, storing data in them, updating data, creating database tables,
and much more.

The DBMS also provides databases with privacy and security. In the case of multiple
users, it also ensures data consistency.

Some Example of DBMS:

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● MySQL

● Oracle

● SQL Server

● IBM DB2

Characteristics of DBMS

❏ Data stored into tables

❏ Reduced redundancy

❏ Query language

❏ Data consistency

❏ Security

❏ DBMS support transactions

❏ Support multiple user and concurrent access

Key takeaways:

- You can conveniently retrieve, attach, and delete information using the
database.

- The DBMS provides databases with privacy and security.

- In the case of multiple users, it also ensures data consistency.

1.2 Advantages of DBMS over file processing systems

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➢ No redundant data: Redundancy is eliminated by normalization of data. No data

replication saves bandwidth and increases access time.

➢ Data security: In database systems, it is simpler to add access restrictions so

that only authorized users can access the data. Each consumer has a different access
set, so data is shielded from problems such as identity theft, data leaks, and data
misuse.

➢ Easy recovery: Since database systems maintain data backup, in the event of a
malfunction, it is easier to do a complete data recovery.

➢ Flexible: Database systems are more flexible than file processing systems.

➢ Data integrity: There may be times where it is appropriate to apply such

restrictions to the data before entering it into the database. No mechanism is
provided by the file system to verify these constraints automatically. Whereas by
imposing user-defined data limitations on itself, DBMS preserves data integrity.

➢ Data concurrency: Concurrent data access means that more than one user is
concurrently accessing the same data. Anomalies occurs when one user's
modifications are lost due to changes made by other users. Any procedure to avoid
anomalies is not provided by the file system. In comparison, DBMS offers a locking
mechanism to avoid the occurrence of anomalies.

1.3 Data abstraction

● A major objective of database systems is to provide users with an abstract view of the data.

● The system hides details of how the data is stored and maintained.

● Database systems has to provide an efficient mechanism for data retrieval.

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● Efficiency leads to the design of complex data structure for representation of data in
databases.

● This complexity must be hidden from users.

● This can be done by providing several levels of abstractions.

● In the Three Schema Architecture, three levels of abstraction have been created. These are: -

➢ Logical View/External View

➢ Conceptual View

➢ Physical view

Key takeaway:

- The system hides details of how the data is stored and maintained.

- Complexity must be hidden from users.

1.4 Database languages

Users can interact with DBMS using database languages. There are two types of database
languages: -

1. The Data Definition Language (DDL)

2. The Data Manipulation Language (DML)

1.4.1 DDL: -

DDL is used to define the conceptual schema.

It includes: -

A. Entity

B. Attributes and types

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C. Relation among entity sets.

The definition also includes constraints on values that can be assigned to a given attribute.

For example:

>create table emp (name varchar (20), emp_id number NOT NULL);

Execution will create an empty table emp. Definitions are stored along with the database.

E.g., Create table, view, index

Alter table.

Drop table, view, index

1.4.2 DML: -

i. DML allows user to manipulate data stored in database.

Ii. E.g.

● Data Retrieval

● Data Insertion

● Data Deletion

● Data Modification.

Iii. DML provides commands for data manipulation.

E.g., select name from emp

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Where

Salary > 15000;

Iv. DML commands can be either in interactive mode or these commands can be

Embedded in programming languages like C, VB, Java etc.

Types of DML: -

a. Procedural: -

It requires a user to specify what data is needed and how to retrieve it from database. The user
instructs the system to perform a sequence of options on the database to compute the desired
result.

b. Non-Procedural: -

It requires a user to specify what data is needed without specifying how to get it.

1.4.3 DCL (Data Control Language): -

E.g. (commit, rollback, save point, grant, revoke.)

It consists of commands that control the user access to database objects.

Key takeaway:

- User can interact with DBMS using database languages.

- DML commands can be either in interactive mode or these commands can be

Embedded in programming languages like C, VB, Java etc.

- Procedural DML requires a user to specify what data is needed and how to retrieve it from
database.

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1.5 Data models

Data models are used to describe the design of a database at the logical level.

Some of the data models are: -

1. Entity-Relationship Model

2. Relational Model

3. Hierarchical Model

4. Network Model

5. Object Relational Model

1.5.1 Entity-Relationship(E-R) Model: -

● The logical structure of a database can be expressed by an E-R diagram.

● Relationships are defined in this database model by dividing the object of interest into an
entity and its characteristics into attributes.

● Using relationships, various entities are related.

● To make it easier for various stakeholders to understand, E-R models are established to
represent relationships in pictorial form.

The Main Components of ER Diagram are: -

a) Rectangles - Entity Sets

b) Ellipses - Attributes

c) Diamond - Relation among entity sets

d) Lines - Connects attributes to entity sets and entity sets to relationships.

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Fig 1: E - R diagram

The above E-R diagram has two entities: Teacher and Department

Teacher entity has three attributes:

Teacher_id

Teacher_name

Teacher_Subject

Department entity has two attributes: -

Dept_id

Dept_name

Relation Teaches in gives relationship between Teacher, Department.

Relationship can be of the type:

1:1 → One to one

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1:M → One to many

M:1 → Many to one

M:M → Many to many

1.5.2 Relational Model: -

● Relational model uses a collection of tables to represent both data and the relationships
among those data.

● This model is useful for constructing a database that can then be converted into relational
model tables.

● Data is arranged in two-dimensional tables in this model and the relationship is preserved
by storing a common field.

● In the relational model, the basic structure of data is tables. In the rows of that table, all
information relating to a specific category is stored.

Therefore, in the relational model, tables are also known as relations.

Sample relational database

A. Teacher Table

Teacher_id Teacher_name Teacher_Subject

1001 Pritisha C++

1002 Akon DBMS

1003 Rahul SE
1004 Raj Data structure

B. Department Table

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Dept_id Dept_name
A101 CSE
B102 Electronics
C103 Civil
D104 Mechanical

C. Teaches in table

Teacher_id Dept_id
1001 A101

1002 B102
1003 C103
1004 D104

1.5.3 Hierarchical Model: -

● This model of the database organizes information into a tree-like structure with a single root
to which all the other information is connected. The hierarchy begins from the root data and
extends to the parent nodes like a tree, adding child nodes.

● A child node can only have a single parent node in this model.

● A Hierarchical model uses tree structure to represent relationship among entities.

● This model represents many real-world relationships effectively, such as a book index,
recipes, etc.

● Data is structured into a tree-like structure in the hierarchical model with a one-to-many
relationship between two different data forms.

For instance, one department can have many classes, many professors and many students of
course.

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Fig 2: hierarchical model

1.5.4 Network Model: -

● Network model uses two different data structures: -

a) A record type is used to represent as entity set.

b) A set type is used to represent a directed relationship between two record types.

● This is the Hierarchical model's extension. Data is arranged more like a graph in this model,
and is allowed to have more than one parent node.

● Data is more linked in this database model as more relationships are formed in this database
model. Also, as the data is more linked, it is also simpler and quicker to access the information.
To map many-to-many data relationships, this database model was used.

● This was the most commonly used database architecture prior to the advent of the Relational
Model.

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Fig 3: network model

1.5.5 Object Relational Model: -

The object-oriented database derivation is the integrity of object-oriented

Programming language systems and consistent systems. The power of the object-oriented
databases comes from the cyclical treatment of both consistent data, as found in databases, and
transient data, as found in executing programs.

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Fig 4: Object - oriented model

Object-oriented databases use small, recyclable separated of software

Called objects. The objects themselves are stored in the object-oriented

Database. Each object contains of two elements:

1. Piece of data (e.g., sound, video, text, or graphics).

2. Instructions, or software programs called methods, for what to do with

The data.

There are two types of ORM: -

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a. Object-Oriented Data Model (OODM)

b. Object-Relational Data Model (ORDM)

These models are used to handle objects:

1) To provide support for complex objects.

2) To provide user extensibility for data types operators and access methods.

3) There should be mechanism to support:

a) Abstract data type.

b) Data of type ‘procedure’.

c) Rules.

Key takeaway:

- The logical structure of a database can be expressed by an E-R diagram.

- Relational model uses a collection of tables to represent both data and the relationships
among those data.

- A Hierarchical model uses tree structure to represent relationships among entities.

- Network model is the Hierarchical model's extension

1.6 Data independence

In addition to users' data, a database system usually includes a lot of data. For instance, to easily
locate and retrieve data, it stores information about data, known as metadata. Modifying or
modifying a collection of metadata once it is placed in the database is very difficult. But when a
DBMS expands, in order to fulfil the users' requirements, it needs to evolve over time. It will
become a boring and highly complicated job if the entire data is based.

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Metadata itself follows a layered model, such that it does not impact the data at another level
when we modify data on one layer. This data is independent, but is mapped to one another.

1.6.1 Types of data independences

❏ Physical data independence

Physical Data Independence is defined as the ability to make adjustments without affecting the
higher-level schemas in the structure of the lowest level of the Database Management System
(DBMS). Therefore, the Physical level adjustment does not result in any adjustments to the
Conceptual or View levels.

❏ Logical data independence

Logical Data Independence is defined as the ability to make improvements to the Database
Management System (DBMS) middle level structure without affecting the schema or application
programmes at the highest level. Changes to the conceptual level should also not result in any
changes to the view levels or programmes of the application.

Fig 5: data independence

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Key takeaway:

- The freedom of logical data refers to the ability to alter the conceptual schema without the
external schema needing to be modified.

- Independence of physical data can be defined as the ability to alter the internal schema
without the conceptual schema having to be modified.

1.7 Components of a DBMS

You may split the database management system into five main components, which are

1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Data
4. Procedure
5. Database Access Language

In order to see how they all work together to form a database management system, let's have a
basic diagram.

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Fig 6: Component of DBMS

1. Hardware

When we say hardware, before any data is successfully stored in the memory, we mean
computers, hard discs, I/O channels for data, and any other physical part involved.

When we run Oracle or MySQL on our personal computer, the hard disc of our computer, the
keyboard we use to type all the commands, the RAM of our computer, the ROM, all become part
of the hardware of the DBMS.

2. Software

As this is the software that governs everything, this is the key part. More like a wrapper around
the physical database, the DBMS programme gives us an easy-to-use interface for storing,
accessing and upgrading data.

The DBMS program is able to understand and translate the Database Access Language into
actual database commands in order to execute them on the DB.

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3. Data

Data is the resource for which the DBMS is intended. The motive behind the creation of DBMS
was to store and use information.

Data saved by the user is present in a standard database and meta data is stored.

Metadata is data about knowledge. To better understand the data contained in it, this is
information stored by the DBMS.

4. Procedure

Procedures refer to general instructions for using a method to handle a database. This includes
procedures for setting up and installing a DBMS, logging in and logging out of the DBMS
programme, database maintenance, backups, report creation, etc.

5. Database Access language

Database Access Language is a basic language designed to access, attach, update and delete
data stored in any database by writing commands.

In the Database Access Language, a user can write commands and send them to the DBMS for
execution, which is then interpreted and executed by the DBMS.

The user can use the access language to build new databases, tables, insert data, fetch stored
data, update data and remove data.

Key takeaway:

- Hardware means computers, hard discs, I/O channels for data, and any other physical part
involved.

- software that governs everything, this is the key part.

- Data is the resource for which the DBMS is intended.

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- Procedures refer to general instructions for using a method to handle a database.

- In the Database Access Language, a user can write commands and send them to the DBMS.

1.8 Overall structure of DBMS

A system of databases is divided into modules dealing with each of the overall system's
responsibilities. A database system's functional components can be narrowly divided into the
components of the storage manager and the query processor. The storage manager is essential
since a large amount of storage space is usually needed for databases. The query processor is
important because it simplifies and promotes access to data by supporting the database
system.

It is the responsibility of the database system to convert, at the logical level, changes and
queries written in a non-procedural language into an effective sequence of physical level
operations.

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Fig 7: overall structure of DBMS

The database system is divided into three components: Query Processor, Storage Manager, and
Disk Storage

❖ Query processor

It interprets the requests (queries) received from the end user into instructions through an
application program. Also, the user request that is received from the DML compiler is executed.

The Query Processor comprises the following parts:

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● DML compiler

The DML statements are processed into low-level (machine language) instructions so that they
can be implemented.

● DDL interpreter

The DDL statements are processed into a table set containing meta data (data about data).

● Query optimization

Typically, a question can be converted into any of a variety of alternative assessment plans that
all offer the same outcome. The DML compiler also performs query optimization, which is to
say, among the alternatives, it selects the lowest cost evaluation plan.

● Query evaluation engine

That executes the low-level instructions that the DML compiler generates.

❖ Storage manager

A storage manager is a software module that provides an interface between the low-level data
stored in the database and the system-submitted application programmes and queries.
Interaction with the file manager is the responsibility of the storage manager. Using the file
system, which is typically supported by a conventional operating system, raw data is stored on
the disc. The storage manager converts the different DML statements into low-level commands
for the file system. It is also the duty of the storage manager to store, retrieve, and update data
in the database.

The components for the storage manager include:

● Authorization and integrity manager

This ensures role-based regulation of access, i.e., It checks whether or not the individual is
entitled to conduct the requested activity.

When the database is updated, the integrity manager checks the integrity constraints.

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● Transaction manager

It manages simultaneous access by executing the operations in a scheduled manner in which

the transaction is received. It also ensures that the database stays in a consistent state before
and after a transaction has been executed.

● File manager

It manages the space of the file and the data structure used in the database to represent
information.

● Buffer manager

The cache memory and data transfer between the secondary storage and the main memory are
responsible for this.

❖ Disk storage

It includes the following elements-

● Data files

It stores the data.

● Data dictionary

It includes details about any database object's structure. It is the information repository that
regulates metadata.

● Indices

It provides faster retrieval of data items.

Key takeaway:

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- A database system's functional components can be narrowly divided into the components of
the storage manager and the query processor.

- A system of databases is divided into modules dealing with each of the overall system's
responsibilities.

- The storage manager converts the different DML statements into low-level commands for
the file system.

1.9 Multi-user DBMS architecture

The architectures used to implement DBMS for multi-users are:

★ Teleprocessing

Teleprocessing was the standard architecture for multi-user systems where: there is:

● One computer with a single Central Processing Unit (CPU) and

● A number of terminals.

Within the limits of the same physical computer, all processing is done.

Usually, user terminals are 'Dumb Terminals'. They are unable to operate on their own and are
connected to the central computer through a cable.

Terminals send messages through them. Sub-system for contact control.

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Fig 8: Teleprocessing

★ File server

The processing is spread over the network, usually the local area network, in a file server
environment (LAN). The file server holds the files needed by the DBMS and the application. On
each workstation, however, the applications and DBMS run, requesting files from the file server
when necessary.

The file server simply functions as a shared disc of files. The DBMS sends requests to the file
server on each workstation for all the data that the DBMS needs to be stored on the disc.

This strategy will create a large amount of network traffic, which can lead to problems with
efficiency.

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Fig 9: File server

There are three principal drawbacks to the file server architecture:

● There is a large amount of network traffic.

● A full copy of DBMS is required on each workstation.

● Concurrency, Recovery and Integrity control are more complex because there can be
multiple DBMS accessing the same files.

★ Client server

The client-server architecture was designed to address the limitations of the first two
approaches. As the name shows, there are:

● A client process, which requires some resource,

● A server process, which provides the resource.

There is no requirement for the client and the server to be on the same computer. The client
handles the user interface and the application logic in the database sense.

● It takes the user requests.

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● Check the syntax.

● Generates database requests in SQL or another database language.

● Transmits the message to the server, waits for response and formats the response for the
end-user.

The server process :

● Accepts and processes the database requests.

● Transmits the result to the client

Request processing includes verifying authorization, ensuring integrity, maintaining the

catalogue of the system, and processing queries and updates. In addition, it also offers control
of concurrency and recovery.

Fig 10: Client server

Key takeaway:
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- The file server holds the files needed by the DBMS and the application.

- There is no requirement for the client and the server to be on the same computer, in the
client server process.

- They are unable to operate on their own and are connected to the central computer through
a cable, in teleprocessing.

1.10 System catalogs

A system catalogue is a group of tables and views that incorporate a database's vital
information. The framework of the database is defined by any database consisting of a system
catalogue and the information in the system catalogue.

For example, the language of the data dictionary (DDL) is saved in the system catalogue for
every table in the database.

A critical element of a database is the system catalogue. There are items within the database,
which include tables, views and indexes. The device catalogue is basically a collection of
objects that contains information that defines:

● Other objects included in the database

● The database structure itself

● Several other vital pieces of information

It is possible to divide the device catalogue intended for implementation into logical groups of
objects. This is to deliver tables that are not only available by the database administrator, but
also by all other users of the database. For example, users may want to see the unique database
rights they have been granted; however, they do not need to find out about the processes or
internal structure of the database.

In order to obtain knowledge about the user's own objects as well as rights, a user normally
looks up the system catalogue, while the database administrator must be able to ask about
every occurrence or structure within the database.

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Key takeaway:

- A system catalogue is a group of tables and views that incorporate a database's vital
information.

- For database administrators or any other database users who wish to understand the
essence and function of a database, a system catalogue is extremely necessary.

1.11 Data Modeling

1.11.1 Basic concept

The ER Data Model is based on objects and their relationships in the real world. In other words,
the object in the world of databases is created by anyone and everything, either living or non-
living objects in this world. For our database specifications, we classify all the necessary
objects and give the shape of the database objects.

It is very important to understand the specifications correctly and design them effectively
before bringing them into the database. It is like a building foundation. We use ER diagrams for
this function, where we pictorially design the database.

Basically, the ER diagram splits the demand into persons, attributes and relationships.

1.11.2 Entity

We will group only similar data together in a database and store them under one group name
called Entity / Table. It helps to determine which information is stored where and under what
name. In a whole database, it reduces the time to search for a specific data.

In short, all of the world's living and non-living entities form an organism. If that makes it easier,
one should accept all nouns as entities.

❏ Strong entity

Entities with their own attributes as primary keys are referred to as powerful entities. For
example, STUDENT, has STUDENT ID as its primary key. It is, therefore, a strong entity.
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❏ Weak entity

Weak entities are entities which cannot form their own attribute as a primary key. These entities
can derive their primary keys from the combination of their attributes and from their mapping
entity's primary key.

Example: Consider an object with CLASS and Segment. As an attribute, the SECTION has
SECTION ID and NAME. However, SECTION ID alone may not be a primary key, as it fails to say

which course it is associated with.

Fig 11: Example of entity

❏ Composite entity

Entities that engage in several or many interactions are referred to as composite entities. In this
situation, we will have one more hidden entity in the relationship, aside from the two entities
that are part of the relationship. By using the primary keys of the other two entities, we will
create a new entity with the relationship, and create a primary key.

Consider the instance of several students enrolled in several courses. We are developing
STUDENT and COURSE in this case. We then build one more table for the 'Enrolment'
relationship and name it as STUD COURSE. Add into it the COURSE and STUDENT primary keys,
which form the new table's composite primary key.

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Fig 12: Composite entity

❏ Recursive entity

If there is a correlation with the same entities, then such entities are referred to as recursive
entities. For example, manager-employee mapping is a recursive entity. Managers are mapped
to the same employee entity here. Another instance of providing recursive entities is the
department's HOD.

Fig 13: Recursive entity

Key takeaway:

- similar data together in a database and store them under one group name called Entity.

- It helps to determine which information is stored where and under what name.

1.11.3 Attributes

An attribute may have a single value, or a number of values, or a variety of values. Furthermore,
each attribute can contain certain data types, such as a numeric value only, or an alphabet only,
or a combination of both, or a date or a negative or a positive value, etc.

It is split into different forms, based on the values an attribute can take.

❏ Simple Attribute: These types of attributes have properties that cannot be further divided.
For example, the attribute STUDENT ID, which cannot be further divided. Passport Number is a
unique value that cannot be divided.

❏ Composite Attribute: It is possible to further split this kind of attribute into more than one
basic attribute. For instance, an individual's address. Here, the address can be further divided as

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Door#, Street, City, State and Pin, which are simple attributes.

❏ Derived Attribute: Derived attributes are those whose meaning can be derived from other
entity attributes in the database. For example, it is possible to obtain a person's age from the
date of birth and current date. Examples of derived attributes are average wage, annual salary,
total marks of a student, etc.

❏ Multi - valued Attribute: At any point in time, these attributes may have more than one
value. The manager can have more than one worker working for him, an employee can have
more than one email address, and the examples are more than one house etc.

❏ Stored Attribute: The attribute that gives the value of the derived attribute is referred to as
the Stored Attribute. In the above case, age is derived from the date of birth. The Date of Birth is
also a stored attribute.

Key takeaway:

- An attribute is a list of all related information of an entity, which has valid value.

- It contains certain data types, such as a numeric value only, or an alphabet only, or a
combination of both, or a date or a negative or a positive value, etc.

1.11.4 Relationships

The glue that keeps the tables together is relationships. They are used between tables for
connecting related data.

Relationship intensity is dependent on how a related entity's primary key is determined. If the
primary key of the related entity does not include a primary key component of the parent
entity, a weak, or non-identifying, relationship exists.

How two or more individuals are interrelated is defined by a relationship.

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STUDENT and CLASS entities, for instance, are synonymous with 'Student X studies in a Y class.'
The relationship between student and class is defined here by 'Studies.' Similarly, as 'Teacher A
teaches Subject B', the teacher and subject are connected. The relationship between both the
instructor and the subject is established here.

Degree of relationship

Two or more organizations may engage in a collaboration. Degrees of association are defined
as the number of individuals that are part of a specific relationship. If only two individuals are
interested in the mapping, then the relationship level is 2 or binary.

If there are three individuals involved, then the relation degree is 3 or ternary. If there are more
than 3 people involved, then the relationship degree is called n-degree or n-nary.

Key takeaway:

- The glue that keeps the tables together is relationships.

- They are used between tables for connecting related data.

- How two or more individuals are interrelated is defined by a relationship.

1.11.5 Constraints

● A mapping constraint is a data constraint representing the number of entities to which a

relationship set can relate to another entity.

● It is most useful to define relationship sets involving more than two sets of individuals.

● There are four possible mapping cardinalities for the binary relationship set R on an entity
set A and B. They are as follows

1. One to one (1:1)

2. One to many (1:M)
3. Many to many (M:M)

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One to one: As we have seen in the example above, only one instance of an entity is mapped to
one instance of another entity. Consider the Department's HOD. Just one HOD in one
department exists. That is, the relationship between the HOD agency and the Department is 1:1.

Fig 14: One to one mapping

One to many: As we can guess now, there is one instance of an entity linked to many instances
of another entity between one and several relationships. In his department, one manager
oversees several employees.

Fig 15: One to many mapping

Many to many : This is a relationship where multiple entity instances are linked to multiple
entity instances.

Fig 16: Many to many mapping

Key takeaway:

- It is most useful to define relationship sets involving more than two sets of individuals.
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- There are four possible mapping cardinalities for the binary relationship.

1.11.6 Keys

Keys are the entity's attributes, which define the entity's record uniquely.

Several types of keys exist.

These are listed underneath:

❏ Composite key

A composite key consists of two attributes or more, but it must be minimal.

❏ Candidate key

A candidate key is a key that is simple or composite and special and minimal. It is special since
no two rows can have the same value at any time in a table. It is minimal since, in order to
achieve uniqueness, every column is required.

❏ Super key

The Super Key is one or more of the entity's attributes that uniquely define the database record.

❏ Primary key

The primary key is a candidate key that the database designer chooses to be used as an
identification mechanism for the entire set of entities. In a table, it must uniquely classify tuples
and not be null.

In the ER model, the primary key is indicated by underlining the attribute.

● To uniquely recognize tuples in a table, the designer selects a candidate key. It must not be
empty.

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● A key is selected by the database builder to be used by the entire entity collection as an
authentication mechanism. This is regarded as the primary key. In the ER model, this key is
indicated by underlining the attribute.

Fig 17: Shows different keys

❏ Alternate key

Alternate keys are all candidate keys not chosen as the primary key.

❏ Foreign key

A foreign key (FK) is an attribute in a table that, in another table, references the primary key OR
it may be null. The same data type must be used for both international and primary keys.

Fig 18: Foreign key

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❏ Secondary key

A secondary key is an attribute used exclusively (can be composite) for retrieval purposes,
such as: phone and last name.

Key takeaway:

- Keys are the entity's attributes, which define the entity's record uniquely.

- A candidate key is a key that is simple or composite and special and minimal.

- Primary key, uniquely recognize tuples in a table, the designer selects a candidate key. It
must not be empty.

References:

1. Silberschatz A., Korth H., Sudarshan S. “Database System Concepts”, 6th edition, Tata McGraw
Hill Publisher
2. Ramkrishna R., Gehrke J. “Database Management Systems”, 3rd edition, McGraw Hill
3. Rab P., Coronel C. “Database Systems Design, Implementation and Management”, 5th edition,
Thomson Course Technology, 2002

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