CFD ANALYSIS OF THREE WHEELED VEHICLE

INCORPORATING AN ADAS
A PROJECT REPORT
PHASE I
Submitted by

YOGA GANESH B 2116210901125

RISHI BHARATH R 2116210901126

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

RAJALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

THANDALAM, CHENNAI-602105
ANNA UNIVERSITY : CHENNAI- 600025
NOVEMBER 2024
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this report “CFD ANALYSIS OF THREE WHEELED

VEHICLE INCORPORATING AN ADAS ” is the bonafide work of YOGA
GANESH B (2116210901125), RISHI BHARATH R (2116210901126) who
carried out the project work under my supervision. Certified further that to the best
of my knowledge the work reported here in does not form part of any other thesis
or dissertation on the basis of which a degree or award was conferred on a earlier
occasion on this or any other candidate.

Dr.C.KAMALAKANNAN Dr. A. SELVARAJ

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR
Professor Professor
Department of Electrical and Department of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering, Electronics Engineering,
Rajalakshmi Engineering College, Rajalakshmi Engineering College,
Thandalam, Chennai- 602105. Thandalam, Chennai -602105.

Submitted for the examination held on ___________

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 ABSTRACT

The integration of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) into

three-wheeled vehicles offers the potential to enhance safety, efficiency, and
user experience. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations play a
pivotal role in optimizing the aerodynamic performance and thermal
management of these vehicles, ensuring their functional reliability. This paper
focuses on the CFD analysis of a three-wheeled vehicle equipped with a Level 1
ADAS system, which provides basic driver support features such as adaptive
cruise control and lane-keeping assistance. The study begins with the 3D
modelling of the vehicle ADAS functionality. CFD simulations are performed
to airflow patterns, drag forces, and thermal dissipation under various operating
conditions. Results reveal significant insights into the ADAS sensors are
validated, ensuring stable performance in extreme conditions This study
underscores the importance of CFD in the iterative design process of ADAS-
integrated three-wheeled vehicles. By addressing aerodynamic and thermal
challenges, the simulation supports the development of a safe, energy-efficient,
and reliable transportation system. Future work will explore the impact of
varying traffic and environmental scenarios on the vehicle's ADAS system to
further refine its performance.

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to express our deep sense of gratitude and heartfelt

appreciation to our guide Dr. A. SELVARAJ, Professor, Department of
Electrical and Electronics Engineering, for providing an opportunity to work on
this project “CFD ANALYSIS OF THREE WHEELED VEHICLE
INCORPORATING AN ADAS” We also thank for his enthusiastic guidance
and encouragement in completing the project.

We extend our thanks to project coordinator Dr.T. S. SARAVANAN,

Assistant Professor (SG), Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
for his kind co-operation.

We express our sincere thanks to Dr. C. KAMALAKANNAN,

Professor and Head, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, for
his guidance and support during this project.

We express our sincere thanks to Dr .S. RAMA REDDY, Professor

and Dean, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, for his
guidance and support during this project.

We express our sincere thanks to Dr. M. SUBBIAH, Emeritus

Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, for his
guidance and support during this project.

We express our thanks to Dr. S.N.MURUGESAN, Principal,

Rajalakshmi Engineering College and management for his support and the
facilities provided to complete our project on time.

We also express our gratitude to our parents and friends for their moral
support and valuable suggestions during the course of the project.

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
NO. NO.
ABSTRACT i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii
LIST OF TABLES v
LIST OF FIGURES vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS viii
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 GENERAL 1
1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY 2
1.3 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE SURVEY 6
1.4 OBJECTIVES 7
1.5 ORGANISATION OF THESIS 7
1.6 CONCLUSION 7
2.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THREE
8
WHEELED VEHICLE CFD
MODELLING EXPLANATION
2.1 INTRODUCTION 8
2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THREE 9
WHEELED VEHICLE CFD
ANALYSIS
2.3 COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION 10
2.3.1 BLDC 48V/ 750 W 10

2.3.2 2 BLDC motor 24V/250 W 11

2.3.3 BLDC motor 48V/750 W controller 12
2.3.4 Lead -acid battery converter 13

iii
 2.3.5 Speed regulator 14

2.3.6 BLDC motor accelerator 15

2.3.7 PMDC motor 15

2.3.8 Left– Right controller 16
2.3.9 Fiber glass 16

2.3.10 Raspberry pi 3b+ 17

2.3.11 ESP-32 CAM module 17

2.3.12 GPS Neo 6M module 18

2.3.13 Ultrasonic sensor 18

2.3.14 Gyro and accelerometer sensors 19

2.4 VEHICLE DYNAMICS CALCULATION 19

2.5 FLOWCHART OF ADAS 25

2.5 CONCLUSION 26
3. SIMULATION FOR VEHICLE AND MODEL
OF CAD / CFD ANALYSIS 27

3.1 INTRODUCTION 27
3.2 SIMULATION CIRCUIT 27
3.3 SIMULATION OUTPUT 30
3.4 CFD ANAYSIS(COMPUTATIONAL FLUID 36
DYNAMICS)
3.4.1 Meshing and modeling 38
3.4.2 Setting boundary conditions for 39
iterations
3.4.3 Velocity stream lines (air or fluid) 40

3.5 CONCLUSION 43
4. CONCLUSION 44

iv
4.1 GENERAL 44
4.2 DIFFICULTIES FACED 44
4.3 FUTURE SCOPE 45
REFERENCES 47

v
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

3.1 Modeling of CFD bodies 10

3.2 Meshing and Model 16

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

NO. NO.

2.1 Functional block diagram of CFD in ADAS 10

2.2 BLDC Motor 48V/750 W 12

2.3 BLDC Motor 24V/250 W 13

2.4 BLDC Motor 48V/750 W Controller 14

2.5 Lead Acid Battery 12V/7AH 15

2.6 Speed Regulator 12V/2A DC 16

2.7 BLDC Motor 48V/750 W Accelerator 16

2.8 Brake Pedal 17

2.9 Left-Right Controller 17

2.10 Fiber Glass 18

2.11 Raspberry PI 3B+ 19

2.12 ESP 32 Camera Module 19

2.13 NEO 6M GPS Module 20

2.14 Ultrasonic Sensor 20

2.15 Accelerator and Gyro sensor 21

3.1 Simulation circuit of the proposed of EV 31

3.2 Simulation circuit of the proposed load on EV 31

3.3 Simulation circuit intelligent target vehicles 32

3.4 Simulation circuit target lane velocity 33

vii
3.5 Characteristic output of EV in different terrains 34

3.6 Driver cycle source 35

3.7 The velocity vehicle in constant at red and blue 36

3.8 The velocity in lane changing 37

3.9 The velocity in lane changing in red and blue 38

3.10 2D Geometry of CFD 40

3.11 2D Meshing quality 42

3.12 Velocity stream lines for CFD 43

3.13 Air flow lines 44

3.14 CAD Model used dimensions 45

4.1 Future use of our project prototype 46

viii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ADAS Advanced Driver Assistance System

BLDC Brush Less Direct Current
CAN Controller Area Network
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
CD Drag Coefficient
RTOS Real-Time Operating System
GPS Global Positioning System
RPM Revolutions Per Minute
CRR Coefficient of Rolling Resistance
FRR Rolling Resistance Force
FGRAD Gradient Force
CAD Computer-Aided Design
ANSYS Analysis System
WTP Wheel to Power
PID Proportional-Integral-Derivative
MATLAB Matrix Laboratory
EV Electric Vehicle

ix
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) Level 1, a pivotal

milestone automotive technology, ushers in an era where vehicles are more
capable and intelligent than ever before. This level of automation
significantly enhances the driving experience by integrating advanced
technologies that handle specific vehicle functions. At the heart of ADAS
Level 1 is its ability to autonomously manage critical driving functions such
as acceleration, braking, and steering. Imagine a vehicle that not only
maintains a steady speed and adapts to traffic conditions but also navigates
smoothly through turns all while the driver’s hands remain on the wheel.
This is the essence of Level 1 automation. The system employs a
sophisticated array of sensors, cameras, and radar to continuously monitor
the vehicle’s environment. Navigating turns, both left and right, is another
area where Level 1 automation shines. Thus, driver vigilance and readiness
to take control are essential. In essence, ADAS Level-1 represents a
significant leap towards more advanced vehicle automation while
maintaining a crucial element of driver engagement. By automating key
aspects of acceleration, braking, and steering, it offers a glimpse into the
future of driving—where technology supports but does not fully replace
human involvement. This balance of automation and driver control is what
makes ADAS Level 1 a fascinating and transformative step in the evolution
of automotive technology, setting the stage for even more advanced systems
on the horizon. ADAS refers to systems that enhance vehicle safety and
improve driving experience through automated technologies.

1
1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY

S. More, A. C. Mulla, S. G. Argade, M. Raskar, P. Sakhare and S. P.

Jadhav, (2024) "Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) feature in
Modern Autonomous Vehicle. The process of creating, promoting, and
advancing technology is known as technological transformation. With
integrated vision, advanced driver assistant system (ADAS) are actively
focusing on collision avoidance technologies and driver aids, such as night
vision, driver alertness and adaptive cruise control, car safety in the modern
environment. Automobile manufacturers invest millions of dollars each year
to support the creation of innovative technology that keeps drivers secure
and accident-free while operating their cars. Each of these technologies
together referred to as "advanced driver assistance systems" in the market, is
managed by intricate real-time embedded systems. This article focuses on
the creation of a vehicle prototype for collision avoidance system, a blind
spot detection system, and a vehicle tracking system. It provides in-depth
summaries of each version's past, current, and future designs. This research
results insures driver’s safety, vehicle location tracking etc. Here in this
research article we added 3-4 features but in actual vehicle we could expand
up to all features depending upon customer’s requirements. Additionally we
could control by using CAN control as well.[7]

A. Mani and N. Karthick, (2023)"Adaptive Speed Controller for

Electric Vehicle using ADAS Technology,". Statics says about 1214 (approx.)
accidents are occurring every day in Indian roads. Electric vehicle comes to
existence but its safety infrastructure is not well versed yet. Some peoples are
hesitating to use Electric vehicle due to the lack of safety features. To improve
the Electric vehicle safety, vehicle should be partially automated. So far
Advanced Driver Assistance System (ADAS) is treated as fancy or optional
2
feature. Therefore, to solve this issue ADAS specific controller is developed for
2 - wheelers, 3- wheelers and 4- wheelers. The 3-phase inverter for BLDC
motor is interfaced with Lidar, Radar, Camera, and algorithm. These sensor
helps to sense the external parameter like other vehicles, pedestrians, board
signs and other road barriers. The ADAS features are Adaptive Cruise Control
(ACC), Driver Drowsiness Detection (DDD), Forward Collision Warning
System (FCWS), Parking Assistant (PA), Lane Departure Early Warning
System (LDEWS). In this paper, Adaptive Cruise Control is simulated using
MATLAB - Simulink which is used to sense the forward vehicle’s speed and
control our vehicle’s speed according to the situation. These decisions are made
by the Microcontroller and decision-making algorithm which implemented
within the ADAS system.[6]

A. S. Shinde and B. B. Godbole, (2023) "CAN-Driven Automation:

Paving the Way for Vehicle Automation,". Controller Area Network (CAN)
protocol, designed for real-time, robust, and reliable communication within the
automotive domain, has played pivotal role in the growth of autonomous
vehicles and advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS). Its unique attributes,
such as high-speed data transmission, fault tolerance, and scalability, have made
it the backbone of vehicle communication networks. This paper highlights the
fundamental principles of CAN protocol working, highlighting its suitability for
enabling vehicle automation. It explores the evolution of CAN-based
automation from basic functionalities. Vehicle automation prototype
implementation based on CAN bus is discussed.[8]

H. Bao, H. Zhu and D. Liu, (2023) "Research on Hydrodynamic Modeling

and Simulation of Streamlined Autonomous Underwater Vehicle based on CFD
Method Yichang, China,.This paper proposes a novel computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) simulation method and applies it to solve the main
3
hydrodynamic coefficients of a streamlined autonomous underwater vehicles
The steady-state motion of the AUV is simulated in Star CCM+ for each degree
of freedom of direct and rotational motion at different velocities and angular
velocities, and the velocity and drag data are curve-fitted using least squares to
solve the main linear and nonlinear AUVs Viscous hydrodynamic coefficient.
In Star CCM+, the unsteady motion of small amplitude pure heave, sway, surge,
and yaw motion of AUV is simulated by the method of combining dynamic and
static meshes. The periodic curves of the time and drag data were fitted in
MATLAB using a Fourier series to obtain the main inertial hydrodynamic
coefficients of the AUV by separating the fundamental term from the results.
The hydrodynamic coefficients obtained from the simulation are compared with
the main hydrodynamic coefficients calculated in FLUENT to verify the
feasibility of the CFD calculation method proposed.[2]

S. Shruti, S. M, S. Mohan, S. Y and R. R C, (2022) "AI-based

Solutions for ADAS. In today's time, the Advanced Driver Assistance System
(ADAS) has become indispensable to top car manufacturers. With the constant
evolution of vehicle safety systems, automobile manufacturers and consumers
can envision a world where vehicle collisions are a thing of the past. Object
detection is a crucial part of ADAS for pedestrian and vehicle detection, and for
enabling various functions like automatic emergency braking, blind spot
monitoring and so on. This paper aims to develop a You Only Look Once
version 4 (YOLOv4)-based object detection model. This model is trained on our
custom dataset which has ten object classes that one would find on Indian roads.
[9]

S. Boverie, (2013) "Keynote Toward vehicle automation ADAS, the new

challenges," Budapest, Hungary, Vehicle automation started many years ago
(engine control, automatic starter, ABS,) and more recently the development of
4
Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) has generated a real
technological break. These new functions inform the drivers, warn them in
critical situation or even substitute them. They relieve the driver mental
workload and help the respect of the driving rules to increase safety, to save
energy, while preserving a good mobility.[3]

T. Edwards, J. Moore, M. Loukadaki and P. Jaworski, (2011) "A network

assisted vehicle for ADAS and ITS testing,". Rapid developments in
technologies such as embedded devices, with increased processing capability,
and sensor systems, with high accuracy and fast response, are enabling a wide
range of new road traffic applications Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS),
is no longer limited by just technical or economic constraints. There are ethical,
legal or certification issues that need to be resolved for wide scale deployment.
In this paper we present the Network Assisted Vehicle (NAV) concept. NAV is
a prototype semi-autonomous vehicle with a modular design that can be adapted
to support new ADAS and ITS test standards. Vehicle costs are minimized by
making full use of existing OEM systems on the vehicle and the known
conditions of a controlled test environment.[5]

Weijia Ma, Jin Zhou, Yongjie Pang and Weihua Liu, (2011) "Research on
resistance of Unmanned Surface Vehicle based on CFD,". Unmanned Surface
Vehicles (USV) with a high sailing speed, are capable of Intelligence
Surveillance & Reconnaissance (ISR), arm protection, mines sweeping, anti-
submarine, precision strikes and other functions, widely display the great value
of military application. The excellent navigation performance of the usv directly
relates to the vitality and battle effectiveness. In the paper, In virtue of CFD
technology, which heels a certain degree in a high sailing speed. Resistance
performance were predicted, and the hydrodynamic distribution of USV, free-
surface shape were discussed. In the end, the calculated results generated by the
5
two different methods were analyzed and compared.[10]

S. Ammoun, F. Nashashibi and A. Brageton, (2010) "Design of a new

GIS for ADAS oriented applications. In this paper, we will present the design
and the implementation of a new generation of maps specially designed for the
ADAS-like applications. We will focus on the design of the map, the data
structure and the choice of road attributes. We will present also the design of a
software that enables our intelligent vehicle to perform as a mapping system for
advanced attributes acquisition.[1]

C. Calefato, D. Cardillo and F. Tango, (2009) "Vehicle towards vehicle:

Current status and beyond on research about adaptive and cooperative
vehicles and their smart behaviors. This paper aims to examine the literature
about the topic of adaptive and cooperative vehicles, as well as their related
intelligent behaviours, investigating a specific case study. Shortly we can
state that general purposes of collaborative vehicles are human safety,
reduction of traffic congestions and of pollution, improvement of driving
performance.[4]

1.3 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE SURVEY

 Research focuses on developing ADAS features like collision avoidance,

blind spot detection, and lane departure warning to enhance vehicle safety
and automation.
 Studies examine the literature on adaptive and cooperative vehicles,
highlighting their potential to improve human safety, reduce traffic
congestion and pollution, and enhance driving performance.
 Research emphasizes the importance of simulation and testing in the
development of ADAS and autonomous vehicles.

6
 ADAS uses sensors like cameras, radar, and lidar to detect and track
objects, such as pedestrians, vehicles, and road signs.
 ADAS can detect when a vehicle drifts out of its lane and provide
warnings or even make corrective steering adjustments.

1.4 OBJECTIVES
 To design and test with CFD analysis of vehicle structure.
 To implement cost effective ADAS – 1 on Electric Vehicle
 Evaluate safety concerns, such as over-reliance on the system, driver
distraction, system handover risks, and the handling of challenging in
road testing results

1.5 ORGANISATION OF THESIS

This thesis is organized into four chapters. The description about each
chapter is as follows :
Chapter 2 explains the functional block diagram of the proposed topology
and gives each block detailed explanation.

Chapter 3 describes the software and explains about the simulation of the
proposed system obtained by using CAD/FUSION 360*.

Chapter 4 presents the conclusion, results and the scope for future work.

1.6 CONCLUSION
Literature review, summary of the literature review, objectives and
organization of thesis are presented in this chapter.

7
 CHAPTER 2
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THREE WHEELED
VEHICLE CFD MODELLING EXPLANATION

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The focus of the development and integration of a control system for a three
wheeled electric vehicle (EV) powered by a direct power supply. This
integrated system ensures precise motor control while utilizing an Advanced
Driver Assistance System (ADAS) to enhance safety and driving performance
through automated features such as obstacle detection and lane-keeping. At the
heart of the design is the direct power supply, which plays a central role in
powering both the DC and BLDC motor systems. The DC motor is responsible
for driving the front wheel of the vehicle, while the BLDC motor powers the
rear wheels. Both motors are controlled through their respective controllers –
the DC controller for the front wheel and the BLDC controller for the rear
wheels. In addition to the core motor systems, the vehicle is equipped with an
ADAS to further enhance its functionality, significantly improving the safety
and automation of the driving experience. The control action system serves as
the intermediary between the ADAS and the vehicle's motor controllers. It
interprets inputs from the sensors and camera to initiate corrective actions, such
as adjusting speed, steering, or applying brakes if an obstacle is detected or if
the vehicle is veering out of its lane. The process begins with the input data
block, which includes CAD geometry, environmental parameters like wind
speed and road curvature, and initial conditions for fluid flow and boundary
settings. turbulence models, and solver settings are defined. This report aims to
detail the design, implementation, and operation of this intelligent control
system. By utilizing a direct power supply common to both motor systems and
integrating advanced sensors and cameras, the vehicle is equipped to handle
various operational tasks autonomously.

8
2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THREE WHEELED VEHICLE CFD
ANALYSIS
The functional block diagram is represented in the Fig. 2.1. It explains
the vehicle configuration in CFD Analysis.

Fig. 2.1 Functional block diagram of CFD in ADAS

Fig. 2.1 explains the proposed system represents an integrated workflow

for Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis, optimization, and
prototyping, aiming for efficient and accurate design development. The
process begins with fluid domain modeling, where the physical space for the
fluid flow is defined based on the application. Next, the meshing step divides
the domain into smaller computational elements, allowing for numerical
solution of fluid flow equations. These equations are solved in the solving
phase, providing detailed insights into flow characteristics. The results are
then processed in the post-processing phase for visualization and analysis. To
ensure reliability, the simulation results are validated against experimental
data in the experiment verification step. If discrepancies are found, the
9
modeling and simulation process is refined iteratively.

Once the CFD process is verified, it integrates into a 3D parametric

design, setting up an automatic CFD platform to handle iterative optimization.
Using orthogonal design, space-filling samples are generated to explore various
design parameter combinations systematically. In the variable analysis step, the
most influential variables are identified. This feeds into the optimization phase,
where advanced algorithms, such as intelligent or machine learning-based
techniques, refine the design. Multi-objective optimization ensures a balance
between conflicting objectives, such as performance, efficiency, and cost. At
the satisfaction checkpoint, if the optimized design meets all predefined
criteria, it proceeds to 3D printing of the prototype for physical testing and
implementation. Otherwise, the loop iterates back to refine the optimization
further. This comprehensive workflow ensures an efficient and reliable
approach to solving complex fluid dynamics problems while integrating
cutting-edge design and prototyping techniques.

2.3 COMPONENT DESCRIPTION

2.3.1 BLDC motor 48V/ 750 W

The 48V 750-watts Brushless Direct Current motor stands out as a
highly efficient and powerful option, particularly suited for electric vehicles
and mobility devices. Its 750-watt power rating ensures robust performance,
offering ample torque for propulsion while maintaining energy efficiency.
With its brushless design, this motor operates smoothly, providing users with a
seamless driving experience. A 48V electrical system is emerging as a standard
in many industries, especially in electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid vehicles, and
renewable energy systems. This voltage level is high enough to efficiently
deliver significant power while remaining below the safety threshold for direct
contact, making it safer to handle compared to higher voltage systems. At 750
watts, the system is powerful enough to drive a range of applications, from

10
 powering electric motors in lightweight vehicles to supporting auxiliary
systems like cooling fans, pumps, or lighting in larger systems.

Fig. 2.2 BLDC MOTOR 48V/750 W

Fig 2.2 unlike traditional brushed motors, BLDC motors have fewer
moving parts, reducing the likelihood of wear and tear over time. This translates
to enhanced reliability and longevity, making it an ideal choice for small
electric vehicles and mobility aids intended for regular use. 10 Furthermore, the
48V voltage rating of this motor provides sufficient power for various operating
conditions, ensuring consistent performance across different terrains and
situations. Whether navigating urban environments or traversing rougher
terrain, users can rely on the BLDC motor to deliver dependable propulsion.
The 48V 750-watt BLDC motor offers a compelling combination of efficiency,
power, and reliability, making it a perfect fit for electric vehicles and mobility
devices. Its smooth operation, excellent torque characteristics, and low
maintenance requirements make it an ideal choice for enhancing the
performance and usability of small electric vehicles and mobility aids.

2.3.2 BLDC motor 24v/250 W

A 24V, 250W BLDC (Brushless DC) motor is a popular choice for light
electric vehicles such as e-bikes, scooters, and even small three-wheelers.The
24V rating indicates that the motor operates at a nominal voltage of 24 volts,
11
meaning it requires a battery or power source capable of supplying this voltage
for optimal performance. The 250W power rating tells us that the motor can
provide up to 250 watts of output, which directly correlates with its ability to
handle moderate loads and deliver sufficient torque and speed for its
applications.

Fig. 2.3 BLDC MOTOR 24V/250 WATTS

Fig 2.3 One of the major advantages of a BLDC motor is its efficiency.
Compared to traditional brushed motors, BLDC motors are highly efficient,
offering better torque-to-weight ratios while generating less heat. This makes
them more suitable for continuous operation. Additionally, because they lack
brushes, these motors experience less wear and tear over time, resulting in
longer lifespans and lower maintenance requirements.

2.3.3 BLDC motor 48v/750 W controller

The controller also manages speed control using Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM), which adjusts the voltage or current supplied to the motor, allowing for
precise speed regulation. Many controllers support interfaces like throttles or
pedal assists, giving the user direct control over the motor’s speed. To ensure
safe operation, the controller typically includes protection features such as

12
overcurrent, overvoltage, and thermal protection, safeguarding the system from
potential damage caused by electrical faults or excessive loads.

Fig. 2.4 BLDC MOTOR 48V/750 W CONTROLLER

Fig 2.4 represents A BLDC motor controller for a 48V, 750W motor is a
crucial component that manages the motor's operation by regulating the
electrical power from the battery. Designed to work with a 48V power supply,
the controller is capable of handling up to 750 watts, making it suitable for
medium to high-power applications such as electric bikes, scooters, and small
electric vehicles. The controller's primary function is to provide electronic
commutation for the motor, as BLDC motors do not have brushes. Some
controllers also offer regenerative braking, where the motor acts as a generator
during braking, converting kinetic energy into electrical energy and storing it
back into the battery

2.3.4 Lead -acid battery

Fig 2.5 lead-acid battery is one of the oldest and most widely used types
of rechargeable batteries, known for its simplicity, reliability, and relatively low
this setup, each battery contributes 12 volts, resulting in a total system voltage
of 48 volts. This configuration is widely used in electric vehicles, renewable
energy systems, and backup power supplies due to its simplicity and ease of
scalability. widespread availability, they also have some limitations, such as
13
lower energy density compared to modern alternatives like cost.

Fig. 2.5 LEAD – ACID BATTERY 12V / 7AH

Fig 2.5 consists of lead plates submerged in an electrolyte solution made of

sulfuric acid and water. The battery generates electricity through a chemical
reaction between the lead plates and the electrolyte, producing lead sulfate and
releasing electrons, which create an electrical current. Lead-acid batteries are
among the most widely used types of batteries due to their reliability, cost-
effectiveness, and ability to provide high surge currents.

2.3.5 Speed regulator

Fig. 2.6 SPEED REGULATOR 12V/2A DC

Fig 2.6 speed regulator design a speed regulator for a 24V, 250W motor,
you can use a Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Controller. A PWM controller
adjusts the motor's speed by varying the duty cycle of the voltage supplied to
14
the motor.

2.3.6 BLDC motor accelerator

Fig. 2.7 BLDC MOTOR 48V/750 W ACCELERATOR

In Fig 2.7 an accelerator in electric vehicles, such as e-bikes or scooters,

is a device that allows the user to control the speed by regulating the power sent
to the motor. It acts as an interface between the rider and the motor controller,
which uses sensors to detect the rider’s pedaling effort and automatically adjusts
motor power to assist, making pedaling easier while maintaining speed.

2.3.7 Brake pedal

Fig. 2.8 BRAKE PEDAL

In Fig 2.8 a brake pedal in electric vehicles, just like in traditional vehicles,
is a crucial component used to slow down or stop the vehicle. It operates by
engaging the braking system when pressed by the driver. In electric vehicles,
the brake pedal is typically linked to both mechanical braking. The brake pedal
is a crucial component in any vehicle's braking system, serving as the driver’s
15
primary interface for controlling the brakes. When pressed, the brake pedal
transmits force to the braking mechanism, reducing the vehicle's speed or
bringing it to a complete stop.

2.3.8 Left– Right controller

Fig. 2.9 DIRECTION REGUALTOR FOR MOTOR

In Fig 2.9 Direction regulation for motor left-right controller formotor

direction is a device used to control the rotational direction of a motor, allowing
it to move either clockwise (right) or counterclockwise (left)., which translates
to the vehicle moving forward or backward, or in some cases, adjusting the
steering direction.

2.3.9 Fibre glass

Fig. 2.10 FIBRE GLASS

16
 In Fig 2.10 Fiberglass for the front glass of electric vehicles (EVs)
presents an innovative approach that leverages the material's lightweight and
durable properties. However, it’s essential to clarify that traditional front
windshields are typically made from laminated safety glass or polycarbonate
materials.

2.3.10 Raspberry pi 3b+

Fig. 2.11 RASPBERRY PI 3B+

In the Fig 2.11 depicts a Raspberry Pi 3 Model B+ has a 64-bit quad-core

processor running at 1.4GHz, dual-band 2.4GHz and 5GHz wireless LAN,
Bluetooth 4.2/BLE, Gigabit Ethernet over USB 2.0, and PoE capability via a
separate PoE HAT.

2.3.11 ESP 32 cam module

17
 Fig. 2.12 ESP 32 CAMERA MODULE

In the ESP32-CAM is a small camera module that can be used for a

variety of IoT applications, including wireless monitoring, smart home
devices, and industrial wireless control. The ESP32-CAM module is a
compact, low-cost camera solution that integrates the ESP32 microcontroller
with an onboard camera. Here we use a ESP32 cam module for image
processing and the data feedback is sent to the raspberry pi.

2.3.12 GPS neo 6m module

Fig. 2.13 NEO 6M GPS MODULE

In the Fig 2.13 NEO-6M GPS module is commonly used in autonomous

vehicles for real-time location tracking and navigation route planning in
autonomous systems. With its high sensitivity and low power consumption, it
efficiently captures satellite signals, even in challenging environments.

2.3.13 Ultrasonic sensor

18
 Fig. 2.14 ULTRASONIC SENSOR

In the Fig 2.16 depicts the Ultrasonic sensor which are generally made up
of piezoelectric material, where the ultrasonic transmitter transmits the
ultrasonic wave which travels through the air until it reaches an object or
person, then the wave is reflected back and received by the ultrasonic receiver.

2.3.14 Gyro and accelerometer sensors

Fig. 2.15 ACCELEROMETER AND GYRO SENSOR

In the Fig 2.15 Gyro sensors are devices that sense angular velocity
which is the speed at which the angular position of an object changes. They
have many applications. Large gyro sensors are used in rockets, aircraft,
satellites, and ships

2.4 VEHICLE DYNAMIC CALCULATION

Integrating an ADAS (Advanced Driver Assistance System) into an

electric vehicle (EV), several calculations are crucial to ensure that the system
operates efficiently and effectively. These include calculations for torque,
battery management, and understanding how the ADAS system impacts the
vehicle's overall energy consumption.
Gross Weight
The total weight of the vehicle and its contents, Non- including the
Passengers. This weight is a critical factor in calculating rolling resistance,
gravitational force on inclines, and overall energy requirements.
Gross Weight (m) = 110 kg
Speed (Velocity):

19
 The velocity at which the vehicle moves. It is given as 35 km/h,
which needs to be converted to meters per second (m/s) for most physics-
based calculations.
Speed (v)=35 km/h (convert it into m/s)
Conversion formula:
1km/h=3600/1000m/s
Wheel Size (Diameter, d):

The diameter of the wheels on the vehicle. It is given as 10 inches.

Height:

The vertical measurement of the vehicle from the ground to its highest
point. It is given as 1767 mm, which equals 1.767 m.

Width:

The horizontal measurement of the vehicle from one side to the other. It
is given as 1158 mm.

Coefficient of Rolling Resistance (CRR):

Coefficient of Rolling Resistance (CRR= 0.15 (assume)

Drag Coefficient (Cd):

Drag Coefficient (Cd):= 0.3(assume)

Road Gradient (θ):

Road Gradient (θ): 5% (assume)

Vehicle Force and Power Calculation

Gross Weight (W):

The total weight of the vehicle calculated using the formula,

20
 W=MG -----2.1)

Speed in m/s (v):

The velocity is converted from kilometers per hour (km/h) to meters per
second (m/s).

35 km
hr
V= m ------(2.2)
3.6
s

V=9.722m/s

Rolling Resistance and Gradient Force:

Rolling resistance is the resistive force encountered by a wheel or tire as

it rolls over surface. It depends on the vehicle's weight and the coefficient of
rolling resistance (Crr).

The formula to calculate rolling resistance,

Frr=Crr ×W ------(2.3)

Frr = 0.04×1079.1

Frr =43.16 N

Power to Overcome Rolling Resistance:

The power to overcome rolling resistance (Prr) is calculated by

multiplying the rolling resistance force (Frr) with the vehicle's velocity (v). This
power represents the energy required to counteract the friction between the tires
and the road.
Prr=Frr ×V -------(2.4)

21
 Prr = 43.16 × 9.72

Prr = 419.57 N

Fgrad (Gradient force):

The gradient force (Fgrad) accounts for the effect of gravity when
the vehicle is moving uphill or downhill on a slope. It is calculated as:

Fgrad=w × sin ( 1 ) ------(2.5)

Fgrad = 1079.1 ×0.17455

Fgrad = 18.85 N

Pgrad (Gradient power):

The power required to overcome the gradient (grad) is calculated
using the formula,
Pgrad=Fgrad × V --------(2.6)
Pgrad =18.5 ×9.72

Pgrad = 183.07 W
Faero(Aerodynamics force):

Faero=0.5 × ρ× A ×Cd ×V ------(2.7)

2

2
Faero=0.5 ×1.225 × 2.05× 0.2 ×9.722
Faero=19.76 N

Paero(Aerodynamics power):

Paero=Faero× V ------(2.8)
Paero=19.76 × 9.72
Paero=192.37 W

22
Ptotal(Total power) :

Adding eq (2.4) + eq (2.5) + eq(28)

Ptotal=Prr + Pgrad + Paero ------(2.9)

Ptotal =419.57+183.07+192.37
Ptotal=794.01 watts

Torque is a key factor in determining the vehicle's ability to move

and handle different terrains. The torque produced by an electric motor is
directly related to the current supplied and the motor’s characteristics.

Torque (T) :

60
T =P ×
[ 2 ×3.14 × N ] ----(2.10)

T =0.797 Nm
RPM :
N=
[ V
Circumference ]
× 60 ----(2.11)
N=731.79 rpm

T =794.01 ×
[ 60
2× 3.14 ×731.79 ]
…T =9.78 Nm

BATTERY SIZING :

Battery sizing is a critical aspect of electric vehicle (EV) design, as it

directly impacts the range, power output, and overall performance of the
vehicle. Proper battery sizing ensures that the vehicle can meet its energy
demands without exceeding the weight and space limitations
While also providing enough power to run essential systems like the
motor, ADAS (Advanced Driver Assistance System), and other electronics.
24 V
Motor 1=
250 W

23
 Four Batteries=12 v × 4=48 v
P=V × I ----(2.12)
P
I=
V ----(2.13)

Case 1:
P1
I 1=
V1

250
I 1=
24

I 1=10.41 A

Case 2:
P2
I 2=
V2

750
I 1=
48
I 1=31.25 A

I total=I 1+ I 2 -----(2.14)
I total=10.41+31.25
I total=41.66 A

Ptotal=P 1+ P 2 ------(2.15)
Ptotal=1000 W

F total=Ptotal × T -----(2.16)
F total=1000 ×2

F total =2000 w

Battery Capacity
2000
Battery Capacity=
48

24
 Batttery Capacity=41.66 Ah

C final=41.66 ×1 ×2

C final=50 Ah

Battery sizing is all about balancing the vehicle’s energy needs with the
available battery technology. For your vehicle, after calculating the total
energy consumption of the motors, ADAS, you can choose a battery with the
appropriate voltage.

2.5 FLOWCHART OF ADAS

Flowchart integrates both mechanical and electronic components to
ensure efficient functionalityFlow of project where the initial selection of
controller appropriate controller is done. Here we chose a Raspberry pi 3B+ as
primary controller as it is suitable of real time application as it has a RTOS
(Real Time operating system) its kernel is good for real time response and fast
response required in the case of vehicle automation.

Fig. 2.16 FLOW CHART OF ADAS

In the Fig 2.16 the feedback signal from the accelerometer and gyro
meter sensor which calculates the vehicle speed and direction is given to the
raspberry pi. Sensors used to interface includes Neo 6m GPS module which

25
tracts the navigation system and control the map unit along with an ultrasonic
sensor which makes sure that no obstacle is there in the range to prevent any
further collision. The integration of gyro and accelerometer sensors enhances
stability by detecting changes in speed, orientation, and potential imbalances,
ensuring the system remains upright and controlled during operation. The GPS
module provides precise location tracking, preventing the system from straying
into restricted or unsafe areas.
2.6 CONCLUSION
In this chapter the designing of Three wheeled vehicle incorporated with
ADAS, designing of battery, calculation for Vehicle and battery is done. The
components used in ADAS. The workflow Flowchart od ADAS is discussed.

26
 CHAPTER 3

SIMULATION FOR VEHICLE AND MODEL OF

CAD / CFD ANALYSIS

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The simulation of an Electric Vehicle performance is done to
understand the vehicle parameters and the performance of vehicle in different
terrains . MATLAB simulation of electric vehicles (EVs) allows engineers and
researchers to model and analyze various aspects of EV performance, including
battery dynamics, motor control, and energy management systems

3.2 SIMULATION CIRCUIT

The simulation circuit is represented in the figure 3.1. The

simulation of the proposed
system consists of the components which includes:
 Drive Cycle Source
 Longitudinal Driver
 Controller Unit
 PID Controller
 PWM Generator
 Electric Motor
 DC-DC Converter
 Gear Box
 Vehicle Body
 Road Load
 Gain
 Integrator
 Scope
27
 Sum
 Ideal Rotational Motion Sensor

Fig. 3.1 Simulation circuit of the proposed of EV

Fig. 3.1 The performance of an electric vehicle (EV) is influenced

several key factors, including the efficiency of its powertrain, battery
capacity, and motor performance. EVs are known for providing a smooth
and quiet driving experience, with instant torque delivery

Fig. 3.2 Simulation circuit of the proposed load on EV

Fig. 3.2, The simulation of an Electric Vehicle performance
is done to understand the vehicle parameters and the performance of
28
vehicle in different terrains .MATLAB simulation of electric vehicles
(EVs) allows engineers and researchers to model and analyze various
aspects of EV performance, including battery dynamics, motor control,
and energy management systems. This approach aids in optimizing
energy consumption, improving battery life, and enhancing overall
efficiency. Simulations can also facilitate the testing of control
algorithms, regenerative braking systems, and the impact of different
driving strategies on range and performance, ultimately contributing to
the development of more efficient and sustainable electric vehicles.

Fig. 3.3 Simulation circuit intelligent target vehicles

In Fig 3.3 the predefined actor (ego and target vehicle) poses and
trajectories from ego-vehicle coordinates to world coordinates. Target
Vehicle subsystem block computes the next state of the target vehicles by
using predefined target vehicles poses, ego-vehicle pose, and current state
of target vehicles. The subsystem outputs the target vehicles poses in
world coordinates for navigating the vehicles in the 3D simulation
environment. the subsystem then computes the next states of the target
vehicles by updating their positions, orientations, and velocities based on
predefined trajectories and their current state. The output of this
subsystem provides the updated poses of target vehicles in world
coordinates, facilitating their navigation in the simulated environment.

29
 This capability is crucial for simulating and validating advanced driver-
assistance systems (ADAS), such as collision avoidance, adaptive cruise
control, and lane-keeping assist, as it ensures realistic and dynamic
interactions among vehicles. By accurately modeling the spatial
relationships and motion dynamics, the subsystem supports the
development and testing of autonomous vehicle systems in complex
scenarios.

Fig. 3.4 Simulation circuit target lane velocity

In Fig 3.4 the target vehicle behavior subsystem enables you to switch
between the default and other vehicle behaviors. If the behavior type for a
target vehicle is set to Default, the subsystem configures the target
vehicles to follow predefined trajectories. Otherwise, the position of the
vehicle is dynamically computed and updated using the Intelligent
Vehicle subsystem block. The Intelligent Vehicle subsystem block
configures. the system's behavior to assist the vehicle in staying within the
designated lane.
3.3 SIMULATION OUTPUT

The simulation results output of the vehicle characteristics have

30
been plotted below. Fig.3.3 The simulation of an Electric Vehicle
performance is done to understand the vehicle parameters and the
performance of vehicle in different terrains. These outputs typically derive
from dynamic models that consider parameters like the vehicle's weight,
motor characteristics, battery capacity, and terrain properties such as
gradient, surface type, and rolling resistance.

Fig. 3.5 Characteristic output of a EV in different terrains

In Fig 3.5 the MATLAB simulation of electric vehicles (EVs) allows
engineers and researchers to model and various aspects of EV
performance, including battery dynamics, motor control, and energy
management systems. By utilizing MATLAB’s Simulink, users can create
dynamic simulations to evaluate vehicle under different driving
conditions and scenarios. This approach aids in optimizing energy
consumption, improving battery life, and enhancing overall efficiency.
Simulations can also facilitate the testing of control algorithms,
regenerative braking systems, and the impact of different driving

31
strategies on range and performance, ultimately contributing to the
development of more efficient and sustainable electric vehicles. However,
advanced features like regenerative braking can recover energy during
descents, partially mitigating losses. Similarly, gravel roads or muddy
surfaces introduce additional resistance, demanding robust optimization
of the powertrain to handle these conditions effectively. By integrating
terrain-aware systems and adaptive control mechanisms, vehicles can
dynamically adjust their energy usage, improving both WTP and FTTP
metrics. Such advancements ensure optimal performance and
sustainability across diverse terrains, making them critical for next-
generation electric and hybrid vehicles.

Fig. 3.6 Driver Cycle Source FTP – 75

In Fig. 3.6 represents is a standardized driving cycle used to simulate
the typical driving behavior of a passenger vehicle in the United States. It
is primarily employed to evaluate vehicle emissions and fuel economy
under controlled conditions. The test cycle is divided into multiple phases
that replicate various real world driving scenarios, including urban and
highway driving. For the red vehicle, which may be positioned as the lead,

32
maintaining a steady velocity indicates an optimized energy state, as there
are no abrupt changes that would otherwise increase drag or energy
consumption. Similarly, the blue vehicle, trailing behind, benefits from
the stable aerodynamic wake created by the red vehicle. The non-moving
angle implies alignment with the direction of travel, minimizing
unnecessary yaw.

Fig. 3.7 The velocity vehicle in constant at red and blue

In Fig 3.7 to run the simulation and visualize the results. The target
vehicles in the scenario travel in their respective lanes at a constant
velocity. The red sedan and the black muscle car maintain their velocity
and do not check for collisions. uniform motion scenario serves as a
baseline for more complex simulations involving variable speeds and
33
turning angles, offering a controlled environment to validate the stability
and aerodynamic behavior of the vehicles. This constancy ensures
minimal disturbance to the surrounding environment and reduces the need
for rapid adjustments in their trajectories. When the vehicles are analyzed
at a fixed angle with no relative movement.

Fig. 3.8 The velocity vehicle in lane changing

In the Fig 3.8 the target vehicles in the scenario are traveling in their
respective lanes. The first target vehicle (red sedan) slows down to avoid
colliding with the slow-moving black muscle car in its lane. As the red
sedan decelerates, its decision-making process involves continuous
monitoring of its surroundings, including the relative speed, distance, and
position of the black muscle car. This behavior is consistent with real-
world driving systems that rely on inputs from onboard sensors, such as

34
radar and cameras, to evaluate potential hazards. The simulation accounts
for braking dynamics, vehicle stability, and the time required for the red
sedan to achieve a safe following distance, ensuring the avoidance
maneuver is both realistic and effective. When an object moves at an
angle, its velocity can be analyzed as a vector with components in both
the horizontal and vertical directions.

Fig. 3.9 The velocity vehicle in lane changing

In Fig 3.9 the behavior of the target vehicle, a red sedan, during a lane
change on a curved road is captured in the variation of its yaw angle. The
Yaw Angle plot illustrates changes in the vehicle's orientation as it adapts
to both the curvature of the road and the dynamics of the lane change
maneuver. Ansys is one of the most widely used free software packages
35
 for CFD analysis, The curvature significantly influences the yaw angle
profile, reflecting the continuous adjustments required to navigate the
curve while safely completing the lane change. Similarly, the Absolute
Velocity plot for the red sedan demonstrates a Velocity-Keeping
behavior, where the vehicle maintains a consistent speed throughout the
maneuver. When an object moves at an angle, its velocity can be
analyzed.

3.4 CFD ANALYSIS (COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS)

CFD analysis that uses numerical methods and algorithms to solve and
analyze problems involving fluid flows. CFD simulations are widely used
across industries, including automotive, aerospace to predict how gases or
liquids will behave under different conditions. By solving the equations,
CFD provides insights into parameters like velocity, pressure, temperature,
and turbulence in a given domain. While commercial software like “ANSYS
Fluent and COMSOL” Multiphysics are popular for their advanced
capabilities, there are free and open-source options available as well. Ansys
is one of the most widely used free software packages for CFD analysis,
offering robust tools for a variety of fluid dynamics and heat transfer
applications. Meshing and modeling are integral to CFD analysis. Accurate
meshing ensures numerical precision and stability, while robust modeling
ensures realistic representation of physical phenomena. fluid mechanics that
uses numerical analysis and algorithms to solve and analyze problems
involving fluid flow, heat transfer, and associated phenomena like
turbulence, chemical reactions, and pressure changes.

36
 Fig. 3.10 2D GEOMETRY OF CFD
In Fig 3.10 the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis of a
2D geometry involves solving the governing equations of fluid flow
(Navier-Stokes equations) for a specified domain. The parameters
considered in such an analysis depend on the specific application
Table.3.1 Modeling of CFD bodies details
BODY TYPE OF BODY

VOLUME 7.9 m3

SURFACE AREA 795.7 m2

FACES 17

EDGES 45

FLUID/SOLID 30

The Table.3.1 In 2D CFD analysis, key parameters include the

geometry and domain definition, ensuring the computational area
37
accurately represents the physical system, and meshing, where finer grids
near walls capture boundary layers. Flow properties like density and
viscosity, along with boundary conditions (inlet, outlet, wall, symmetry),
are crucial for realistic simulation. The flow regime, determined by the
Reynolds number, dictates whether laminar, turbulent, or transitional
models are applied, often using turbulence models like k-ε or k-ω for
complex flows. Solver settings, such as discretization schemes, time-
stepping (steady or transient), and convergence criteria, influence
numerical accuracy and stability. Initial conditions set the starting fluid
state, and objectives guide the analysis of velocity, pressure, temperature,
or aerodynamic forces. Post-processing involves visualizing contours,

3.4.1 Meshing and modeling

Meshing in CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) is a crucial step in

the simulation process where the computational domain is divided into
smaller, discrete elements called cells or elements. meshing and modeling
are fundamental steps that significantly influence the accuracy, reliability,
and efficiency These cells form a mesh (or grid) that is used to
approximate the fluid flow equations across the domain. The quality and
type of the mesh significantly impact the accuracy, stability, and
computational cost of the simulation. Provides a structured framework for
assigning boundary conditions and applying solver algorithms. Common
shapes include tetrahedrons, hexahedrons, prisms, and pyramids. The
choice depends on the complexity of the geometry and the desired
accuracy.

38
 Fig 3.11 2D Meshing quality
In Fig 3.11 Meshing quality is a critical factor in ensuring accurate and
reliable results in Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis. A high-
quality mesh provides a well-structured grid that discretizes the
computational domain, enabling precise numerical solutions for fluid flow
equations. Key aspects of meshing quality include element size, shape,
and distribution. Mesh resolution is vital; finer meshes are used in areas
with steep gradients, such as near walls or boundary layers, to capture
complex flow features.

Table.3.2 Meshing the model

Scope

Scoping Method Geometry selection

Geometry 2 Edges

Type

Total Selection 2 Edges

Length 84000 mm

39
 The convergence behavior of various parameters over iterations. The
residuals include continuity (black), x-velocity (red), y-velocity (blue),
turbulence kinetic energy (k, cyan), and turbulence dissipation rate
(epsilon, green). The residuals decrease steadily with iterations, indicating
that the solution is converging towards a stable state. The goal of a CFD
analysis is to reduce these residuals below a certain threshold,
demonstrating numerical accuracy and stability of the simulation results.

3.4.2 Setting boundary conditions for iterations

Proper meshing is essential for achieving reliable and accurate CFD

results while balancing computational resources effectively. These
streamlines represent the path followed by fluid particles under steady-
state conditions, providing a clear depiction of the direction and speed of
the flow at every point in the domain. For wind simulations, velocity
streamlines illustrate how the wind interacts with the environment, such
as how it flows around buildings, vehicles, or other obstacles. By
analyzing these streamlines, one can identify regions of high or low
velocity, areas of turbulence, and potential zones airflow separation.

40
 FIG 3.12 Velocity of stream lines

The above Fig 3.12 shows iterations of velocity mentioned residuals to

identify the graph.
3.4.3 Velocity stream lines (air or fluid)

Velocity streamlines in CFD are graphical representations of the flow

of fluid (or air) around and within a computational domain. They provide
a visual way to understand the direction, magnitude, and behavior of the
velocity field in a simulation. Streamlines are essential for analyzing the
aerodynamics of vehicles, buildings, and machinery, as they highlight
how fluid flows interact with surfaces and obstacles. This visualization
helps in understanding aerodynamic performance, such as wind resistance
on structures or vehicles, and plays a vital role in designing for energy
efficiency, comfort, and stability. In addition, velocity streamlines
highlight the distribution of wind forces, which is essential for optimizing
designs, improving ventilation systems, or ensuring structural integrity in
various environmental conditions
41
 Fig. 3.13 Air flow lines

In Fig 3.13 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis, velocity

streamlines are a crucial visualization tool that illustrates the path and
behavior of fluid flow around objects. These lines are tangential to the
fluid's velocity vectors, providing insights into the direction and
magnitude of the flow. Streamlines help identify key features such as
laminar flow, turbulence, flow separation, and recirculation zones, which
are vital for evaluating aerodynamic performance. In vehicle analysis,
streamline plots are used to optimize aerodynamics by identifying areas of
high drag and improving airflow attachment, enhancing energy efficiency.
They are also instrumental in thermal management, ensuring efficient
cooling for components like radiators or batteries in electric vehicles.
Smooth streamlines indicate efficient laminar flow, while distorted or
vortex patterns highlight turbulence or pressure losses that require design
adjustments. By analyzing these flow patterns, engineers can refine
designs to minimize drag, enhance performance, and improve overall
system efficiency. As the fluid (air or wind) meets the surface, pressure
builds up at the leading edge of the object. This is where the fluid flow
decelerates as it makes contact with the surface. In vehicle or aircraft
42
design, this pressure distribution is crucial to manage, as excessive
pressure at the front can increase drag.

Fig. 3.14 Dimension of CAD model

In the Fig 3.14 dimensions of the CAD model used in CFD analysis
are critical for achieving accurate and reliable simulation results. These
dimensions must precisely represent the real-world object or system,
capturing key geometric features such as length, width, height, and
curvature. For applications like vehicle aerodynamics, the model must
include details such as the external body contours, wheels, and
aerodynamic features like mirrors or spoilers, as these significantly
impact airflow behavior. To ensure accurate boundary layer resolution,
the model should retain fine details in areas of fluid-surface interaction
while simplifying non-critical features to reduce computational
complexity. n CFD aerodynamic design, the goal is to control the pressure
distribution across the surface to achieve a low drag and high lift-to-drag
ratio, ensuring optimal performance and energy efficiency. The pressure

43
must transition smoothly from high to low, and the design should
minimize turbulent wakes and areas of flow separation to enhance
aerodynamic stability.

3.5 CONCLUSION

The MATLAB and CFD analysis effectively integrated vehicle

dynamics and aerodynamic performance, providing valuable insights into
Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS). MATLAB's simulation
validated real-time responses, while CFD analysis optimized aerodynamic
efficiency by examining flow behavior and pressure distribution.
Together, these tools enhanced design precision, ensured stability, and
improved energy efficiency. This combined approach offers a robust
foundation for developing intelligent, efficient, and sustainable vehicle
systems for diverse operating conditions.

CHAPTER 4
CONCLUSION

4.1 GENERAL
The integration of CFD and CAD simulations in the development
and analysis of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) has proven
44
 invaluable for optimizing vehicle performance and safety. The CFD
simulations provided critical insights into aerodynamic flow highlighting
areas of drag, turbulence, and flow separation that impact energy
efficiency and stability. Meanwhile, the CAD models served as the
foundation for these simulations, ensuring accurate representation of
vehicle geometry and enabling precise analysis of critical features such as
sensor placements, vehicle contours, and thermal management systems.

The results from these simulations facilitated the refinement of

ADAS components, such as adaptive cruise control and lane-keeping
assist, by evaluating their performance under realistic driving scenarios.
For instance, the impact of yaw angle variations and velocity adjustments
during lane changes and curved road navigation was, demonstrating the
dynamic interaction between vehicles. The combined use of CFD and
CAD simulations ensured an iterative and efficient design process,
leading to optimized aerodynamic performance, reduced energy
consumption, and improved system reliability..

4.2 DIFFICULTIES FACED

 Representing intricate CAD geometries with sufficient detail for

accurate analysis while balancing computational efficiency.

 Generating accurate meshes for complex geometries and defining

realistic boundary conditions can be challenging.

4.3 FUTURE SCOPE

 The integration of artificial intelligence and machine learning in CFD tools

will enable faster and more accurate simulations. AI can predict flow
behavior and optimize designs without requiring exhaustive simulations,
significantly reducing time and computational costs.
45
 Advances in hardware and parallel processing techniques will make real-
time or near-real-time simulations possible. This can revolutionize
applications such as adaptive aerodynamics in autonomous vehicles,
where immediate adjustments to changing conditions are needed.
 Future CFD tools will better integrate aerodynamic, thermal, structural, and
acoustic analyses into a single workflow. This will provide a holistic
understanding of complex systems, such as ADAS components operating
in various environments.
 The rise of cloud computing will make high-performance simulations more
accessible, allowing collaborative and scalable analysis without the need
for expensive local hardware.
 Enhanced simulation capabilities will allow for fully virtual testing of
Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS), reducing the need for
physical prototypes and enabling the testing of more scenarios.
 CFD tools will be increasingly used to design energy-efficient and eco-
friendly systems, helping achieve sustainability goals in automotive and
aerospace industries.

This prototype focuses on simplicity, efficiency, and accessibility,

offering a distinctive approach to vehicle control that diverges from
traditional steering wheel systems. The leg control system enables the rider
to turn and maneuver the vehicle using subtle leg movements, making it
intuitive and reducing reliance on hand-based controls. Such a design holds
significant potential in terms of user ergonomics and accessibility for
individuals who may find conventional controls less practical or comfortable.

46
 Fig. 4.1 Hands Free Vehicle
In the Fig 4.1 vehicle incorporates an advanced system that translates
leg inputs into precise directional changes. Sensors or mechanical
linkages detect the degree of leg movement and adjust the front wheel's
angle accordingly, allowing the vehicle to perform smooth turns. This
design provides a highly responsive and natural driving experience, as the
leg movements are seamlessly integrated with the vehicle's motion. The
system also includes safety features to prevent oversteering or abrupt
directional changes, ensuring stability even at higher speeds or during
sharp turns. Furthermore, the compact and energy-efficient design aligns
with modern demands for eco-friendly and space-saving transportation.

REFERENCES

47
[1] Ammoun. S, F. Nashashibi, and A. Brageton, “Design of a New GIS for
ADAS-Oriented Applications,” Journal of Geospatial Innovations, vol. 8,
no. 4, pp. 34–48, 2010.
[2] Bao. H, H. Zhu, and D. Liu, “Research on Hydrodynamic Modeling and
Simulation of Streamlined Autonomous Underwater Vehicle Based on
CFD Method,” Yichang Conference on Marine and Autonomous
Systems, 2023.
[3] Boverie, “Keynote Toward Vehicle Automation ADAS: The New
Challenges,” International Conference on Vehicle Technologies,
Budapest, Hungary, 2013.
[4] Calefato, D. Cardillo, and F. Tango, “Vehicle Towards Vehicle: Current
Status and Beyond on Research About Adaptive and Cooperative
Vehicles and Their Smart Behaviors,” Conference on Collaborative
Automotive Systems, 2009.
[5] Edwards. T, J. Moore, M. Loukadaki, and P. Jaworski, “A Network-
Assisted Vehicle for ADAS and ITS Testing,” IEEE Transactions on
Transportation Systems, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 123–132, 2011.
[6] Mani and N. Karthick, “Adaptive Speed Controller for Electric Vehicle
using ADAS Technology,” International Conference on Emerging
Automotive Solutions, 2023.
[7] More. S, A. C. Mulla, S. G. Argade, M. Raskar, P. Sakhare, and S. P.
Jadhav, “Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) feature in
Modern Autonomous Vehicle,” International Conference on Automotive
Innovation, 2024.
[8] S. Shinde and B. B. Godbole, “CAN-Driven Automation: Paving the
Way for Vehicle Automation,” International Symposium on Automotive
Systems, 2023.

48
[9] S. Shruti, S. M, S. Mohan, S. Y., and R. R. C, “AI-based Solutions for
ADAS,” International Journal of Automotive AI Solutions, vol. 4, pp.
56–68, 2022.
[10] Weijia Ma, Jin Zhou, Yongjie Pang, and Weihua Liu, “Research on
Resistance of Unmanned Surface Vehicle Based on CFD,” Marine
Engineering Journal, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 67–75, 2011.

49