B.E Eee Batchno 14

DUAL AXIS SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of

Bachelor of Engineering Degree in
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
By
S. SUPRIYA (Register No. 37140080)

B.VINOBA (Register No. 37140094)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
SATHYABAMA
INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
(DEEMED TO BE UNIVERSITY)
Accredited with Grade “A” by NAAC
JEPPIAAR NAGAR, RAJIV GANDHI SALAI, CHENNAI - 600 119
APRIL 2021
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this Project Report is the bonafide work of

S.SUPRIYA (Reg. No. 37140080) and B.VINOBA (Reg. No. 37140094) who carried out
the project entitled “DUAL AXIS SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM” under our supervision
from December 2020 to April 2021.
Mrs.M.KAVITHA
Internal Guide
Dr. V. SIVACHIDAMBARANATHAN
Head of the Department
Submitted for Viva voce Examination held on
Name:
Signature:
Internal Examiner External Examiner
ii
DECLARATION
We S. SUPRIYA (Reg. No. 37140080) and B. VINOBA (Reg. No. 37140094)
hereby declare that the Project Report entitled “DUAL AXIS SOLAR TRACKING
SYSTEM” done by us under the guidance of Mrs. M. KAVITHA is submitted in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Bachelor of Engineering degree in
Electrical and Electronics Engineering.
1.
2.
DATE:
PLACE: SIGNATURE OF THE CANDIDATES
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are pleased to acknowledge our sincere thanks to Board of Management of

SATHYABAMA for their kind encouragement in doing this project and for completing it
successfully. We are grateful to them.
We convey our thanks to Dr. N. M. Nandhita., Dean, School of Electrical and

Electronics Engineering and Dr. V. Sivachidambaranathan, Head of the
Department, Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for providing us
necessary support and details at the right time during the progressive reviews.
We would like to express our sincere and deep sense of gratitude to our Project
Guide Mrs. M. KAVITHA for her valuable guidance, suggestions and constant
encouragement paved way for the successful completion of our project work.
We wish to express our thanks to all Teaching and Non-teaching staff members
of the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering who were helpful in many
ways for the completion of the project.
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ABSTRACT
This project deals with dual-axis solar tracking to collect maximum rays
using LDRs. It resolves the problem by providing an arrangement for a solar panel
to track the movement of the sun on both axes. With the increase of scarcity of
nonrenewable resources, people are trying to identify alternate sources of energy.
From all available renewable resources, solar energy is relatively easy to convert
to electrical energy. The use of solar panels to convert the sun’s energy to
electrical energy is very popular. But due to the movement of the Sun from east to
west the fixed solar panels may not be able to generate ideal energy. Hence
single-axis solar tracking systems were introduced aiming to generate ideal
energy. But even single-axis solar tracking has been analyzed and results show
that it can track sun rays on only one axis (either north-south or east-west). Hence
a prototype is constructed more efficiently to track maximum sun rays in both the
axes (both north-south and east-west). It is a low-cost system that provides better
efficiency. Here the analog signals are analyzed and controlled by Arduino Uno.
This automatic system is completely programmed. The energy obtained from the
sun is collected using a solar panel by arranging four LDRs. The amount of energy
obtained and positions at two LDRs on the same axis are compared and analyzed
to decide the movement of the servo motors which moves the panel to the
direction where more energy is available. It has an LCD to display the output visual
information of the type of rotation needed and angle of rotation and inclination.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO
ABSTRACT v
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF TABLES xiv
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xv
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY 2
1.3 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT 8
1.4 OBJECTIVE 9
1.5 ADVANTAGES OF TECHNIQUE 9
1.6 APPLICATIONS 9
2 PROJECT DESCRIPTION
2.1 INTRODUCTION 10
2.2 EXISTING SYSTEM BLOCKDIAGRAM 10
2.3 EXISTING SYSTEM ADVANTAGES 11
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2.4 PROPOPSED SYSTEM 11
BLOCK DIAGRAM
2.4.1 SOLAR PANEL 12
2.4.2 LDR SENSORS 14
2.4.2.1 TYPES OF LDRs 14
2.4.2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF 15
LDRs
2.4.3 SERVO MOTOR 15
2.4.4 BATTERY 16
2.4.4.1 TYPES OF BATTERIES 16
2.4.5 CHARGE CONTROLLER 17
2.4.6 BRIDGE RECTIFIER 18
2.4.7 MOTOR DRIVER IC 18
2.5 PROPOSED SYSTEM ADVANTAGES 20
3 STUDY OF FLOODS IN INDIA
3.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION ABOUT 21
SOLAR ENERGY
3.2 SIMULATION SOFTWARES 21
3.2.1 TYPES OF SIMULATION SOFTWARES 21
3.2.2 PV*SOL SOFTWARE 22
3.3 SIMULATION PROJECT OVERVIEW 23
3.3.1 PV MODULES SELECTION 24
vii
3.3.2 INVERTER SELECTION 24
3.3.3 CABLES SELECTION 26
3.3.4 ELECTRIC VEHICLE SELECTION 27
3.3.5 ELECTRIC BATTERY SYSTEM 29
SELECTION
3.3.6 SIMULATION ANALYSIS 30
3.4 PV SOLAR SYSTEM 31
3.4.1 PV MODULE ANALYSIS 31
3.4.2 IRRADIANCE PER MODULE AREA 32
3.4.3 ANALYSIS OF PV ENERGY 35
3.5 ENERGY FLOW OF SYSTEM 36
3.6 INVERTER ANALYSIS 38
3.6.1 PERFORMANCE RATIO 38
3.7 ELECTRIC BATTERY STSYEM ANALYSIS 40
3.7.1 SOC OF BATTERY 40
3.8 LOADS 41
3.8.1 HOUSEHOLD LOAD FEED IN DATA 41

SPECIFICATIONS
3.8.2 ELECTRIC VEHICLE – PART OF LOAD 43
SOC OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE
3.9 ENERGY FORECASTING 44
viii
3.9.1 PRODUCTION FORECAST WITH 45
CONSUMPTION
3.9.2 USE OF PV ENERGY 46
3.9.3 COVERAGE OF CONSUMPTION 48
3.9.4 TOTAL COVERAGE CONSUMPTION 49
3.10 CONCLUSION FROM THE SIMULATION 51
4 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
4.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF PROPOSED SYSTEM 52
4.2 POWER SUPPLY 53
4.2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF POWER SUPPLY 53
4.3 HARDWARE COMPONENTS 54
4.3.1 ARDUINO 55
4.3.1.1 ARDUINO SPECIFICATIONS 56
4.3.2 TRANSFORMER 56
4.3.2.1 TRANSFORMER 57
SPECIFICATIONS
4.3.3 VOLTAGE REGULATOR 57
4.3.4 LCD DISPLAY 54
4.3.5 SERVO MOTOR 59
4.3.5.1 SERVO MOTOR 60

SPECIFICATIONS
4.3.6 SOLAR PANEL 60
4.3.6.1 SOLAR PANEL 61

SPECIFICATIONS
ix
4.3.7 LDR SENSORS 62
4.3.7.1 LDR SENSORS 62

SPECIFICATIONS
4.4.1 PROTOTYPE FABRICATION 63
4.4.2 TRACKING PROCESS 64
4.4.2.1 CASES OF SOLAR PANEL 65

MOVEMENT
4.4.3 TABLE OF VOLTAGE RECORDED IN 71

DIFFERENT CASES
5 CONCLUSION AND SCOPE OF THE PROJECT
5.1 CONCLUSION 72
5.2 FUTURE SCOPE 73
6 REFERENCES 74
x
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE No. TITLE PAGE No.
1.1 Solar panels 1
2.1 Existing System block Diagram 10
2.2 Block diagram of proposed system 12
2.3 PV Solar module 13
2.4 LDR circuit symbol 14
2.5 Characteristics of LDR 15
2.6 Battery charge controlling 17
2.7 Bridge rectifier 18
2.8 Output waveforms 18
2.9 Motor Driver IC Pin Diagram 19
2.10 H Bridge 20
3.1 Circuit Diagram of Grid Connected PV system 23

with Electric vehicle, Electric Battery and
Electric appliances
3.2 Selection of Inverter for various tracking systems 25
3.3 Selection of cables 26
3.4 Cable losses 26
3.5 Cables overview 27
3.6 Typical electric vehicle 28
3.7 Selection of Electric Vehicle 28
3.8 Electrical details of Electric vehicle 29
3.9 Selection of electric battery system 29
3.10 Overview of simulation results 30
3.11 Irradiance per module area 33
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3.12 Energy Flow Diagram 37
3.13 Graph representing Performance Ratio of Inverter 38
3.14 SOC of battery 40
3.15 Load profiles 41
3.16 Graph of Monthly consumption 42
3.17 Monthly consumption data 43
3.18 SOC of Electric vehicle 44
3.19 Production Forecast with consumption 45
3.20 Use of PV energy 47
3.21 Consumption coverage 48
3.22 Coverage of total consumption 50
4.1 Circuit Diagram of proposed system 52
4.2 Block diagram of Power Supply 53
4.3 Circuit of Power Supply 54
4.4 Arduino Controller 55
4.5 Step down transformer 56
4.6 Voltage Regulator 58
4.7 16x2 line Hitachi HD44780 display 58
4.8 Servo motor 60
4.9 Types of solar panels 61
4.10 Hardware prototype 63
4.11 circuit connections 64
4.12 Azimuth and Elevation angles 65
4.13 When LDR1 has more light intensity 66
xii
4.17 When LDR1=LDR2=LDR3=LDR4 61
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE No TITLE PAGE No
2.1 Types of batteries 16
3.1 TYPES OF PV BASED SOFTWARES 22
3.2 Specifications of PV Modules 31
3.3 Global Irradiance per module 34
3.4 Results per module area 35
3.5 PV Energy analysis 36
3.6 Performance ratio values of Dual axis trackin 39

system
3.7 Production Forecast With Consumption 46
3.8 Usage of PV Energy 47
3.9 Coverage consumption 48
3.10 Coverage of total consumption 51
4.1 Output voltage in different cases 71
xiv
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
LCD - Liquid Crystal Display
LDR - Light Dependent Resistor
DC - Direct Current
AC - Alternating Current
PV - Photo Voltaic
IC - Integrated Circuit
2D - 2Dimensional
WLTP - Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicle Test Procedure
SOC - State of Charge
EV - Electric Vehicle
LED - Light Emitting Diode
xv
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Nowadays the depletion of conventional energy resources forced many

researchers to search for various renewable energy sources. Among the non-
conventional resources available, solar energy has the greatest potential to be
converted into electrical energy. Converting solar energy into electrical energy
signifies one of the favorable technologies, providing dirt-free, dependable with
negligible environmental impact. Solar energy is well known as an unrestricted,
endless source, and involves no pollution filtrates or greenhouse gases emission.
Fig 1.1 Solar panels

Figure 1.1 represents solar panels arranged in a specific area. The solar
photovoltaic industry has been improving very well recently. Most of the currently
installed PV systems are of the fixed-tilt mounting design, of which the PV
1
modules are tilted at an optimal angle. For this type, these PV modules are
reduced to severe cosine losses during harnessing of solar energy, especially
early in the morning, and in the late evening. This project employs a sun-tracking
solar panel to track the maximum rays using LDR's. This is more acceptable when
compared to the light-sensing method that may not be accurate. The main aim of
this work is to design a system that could track the sun with solar panel in a more
efficient way compared to the existing system. This is obtained by coupling the
LDR sensors with a DC servo motor to the solar panel such that the panel
maintains its face always perpendicular to the sun to generate maximum energy.
This is achieved by employing a programmed ARDUINO IC.
1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY
Prof. (Dr.) Mukesh Pandey et al., (2020) described exploring the usage of solar
trackers and their cost-effectiveness in a paper with the title “A Review Paper on
Solar tracking System for Photovoltaic Power Plant”. This paper talks about a Solar
tracking system that is defined by its degrees of rotation. According to the degrees of
rotation, tracking systems can be categorized namely Single Axis Solar Tracking and
Dual Axis Solar Tracking. Single-axis solar tracking is able to track the sun either
horizontally or vertically. Dual-axis solar tracker could track the sun in both horizontal
and vertical ways and guarantees maximum efficiency. There are several methods of
solar tracking namely Active tracking, Passive tracking, and Chronological tracking.
G. Pavan Kalyan et al., (2019) discussed sun tracking system in “Sun tracking
system using microcontroller”. This paper explains the movement of the motor by an
indication from a sensor circuit when the intensity of solar rays is heightened. This
project discusses the construction of a prototype that features a single axis of
freedom. The different ways of accelerating the efficiency of solar panels are
discussed here. Very efficient trackers will show high efficiency because they're ready
to track the sun with accuracy.
2
D. T. Cotfas et al., (2019) listed very important methods to enhance the
efficiency and the lifetime of photovoltaic panels in a paper “Multi concept methods to
enhance photovoltaic system efficiency”. Several cooling methods and the maximum
power point tracker methods are presented in this paper. The methods to increase
the solar radiation which pounce on the PV panels are Sun tracking system,
Reflective system, active reflectance, Passive reflectance, refractive system. The
clear and detailed classification of various types of solar trackers is discussed in this
paper. The Important cooling methods of the photovoltaic panels that are mentioned
in this paper are Air cooling, Water cooling, Phase change material, and
Thermoelectric. Karami et al. gave some criteria in choosing the best MPPT
technique for various applications like Implementation, sensors, efficiency, and cost.
M. Prem Kumar et al., (2019) discussed various MPPT methods for the PV
systems in their research paper “An effective maximum power point tracker for
partially shaded solar photovoltaic systems”. This paper talks about a maximum
power point tracking technology to obtain the peak power from the PV array during
partially shaded conditions. The results from the simulation show that the Whale
Optimization technique presents high efficiency of tracking and less merging time with
lesser power oscillations. The PV solar characteristics under different operating
conditions with graphs are mentioned.
Shin'ya Obara et al., (2018) proposed the development of a solar tracking

system of a nonelectric power source by using a metal hydride actuator. This study
deals with the sun tracking system of a non-electric power source by employing a
metal hydride actuator with a sun radiation drive. The proposed tracking system
includes two MH reactors that are placed perpendicular to the photovoltaic cell array.
This study showed the result of the proposed system after four months of testing. In
order to attain highly reliable solar tracking with the proposed system, excessive
cooling by wind should be prevented by installing a windshield. The Hydrogen
element is discharged from MH by heating, and it is reserved by cooling. The
pressure of the proposed reactor depends on its MH temperature. Therefore, it's
3
possible to modify the actuator by creating a temperature difference between the MH
reactors, which then creates a pressure difference.
Jose A. Carballo et al., (2018) introduced a new low-cost solar tracking system
based on open-source hardware for educational purposes. In his paper, a small
prototype based on low-cost open-source hardware is developed in Simulink. This
prototype has been developed to be a powerful tool that can be used for a wide range
of applications. The accuracy is conditioned by constant aberrations. In the literature,
there are reviews about solar tracking systems one and two axes tracking systems
with open-loop, closed-loop, control based on continuous movements, maximum
beam, electro-optical sensors, solar equations, or a hybrid. In this work, a new solar
tracker is proposed, with the main objective of developing a unique educational tool to
understand solar tracking problems regardless of solar technology. The proposed
system can detect the position of the Sun and the receiver; also it is time and location
independent.
Fabio Moacir Hoffmann et al., (2017) discussed monthly profile analysis based
on a two-axis solar tracker proposal for photovoltaic panels. The objective of this
study is to develop a dual-axis solar tracker and evaluate the performance of a solar
panel, compared to a fixed system. Each system is composed of a mechanical
structure, a solar panel, and a resistive load. This work talks about the development
and performance of a dual-axis solar tracker and evaluates the movement cost of the
PV system. To study the alternatives, this paper depicts the development of a dual-
axis solar tracker.
Masoumeh Abdollahpour et al., (2018) proposed a dual-axial tracker that

works based on processing images of a bar shadow through a research paper
“Development of a machine vision dual-axis solar tracking system”. The system is
composed of a shadow casting particle, a webcam, few electronic circuits, and
stepper motors. The study results presented that the tracking system followed the sun
with an accuracy of about ±2° and generates an increased power output. Arul Kumar
4
and Arjun, 2016 developed an automatic solar tracking system that was a single axis,
five positions in the LDR sensor, and was designed for low power. Kadmiri et al.
showed a novel solar tracker system based on Omni-directional vision technology.
Performance of the morphological and regression analyses was compared in terms of
root-mean-square error and mean absolute percentage error. In this study, a
moderated dual-axis tracker independent of initial settings and local location based on
image processing of a bar shadow was developed, which uses the shadow length to
determine the zenith angle and height.
Boon-Han Lim et al., (2020) explained the design of a dual-axis sun tracker
with a vertical axis and multiple row elevation. The algorithm of the software
determines the number of counts is required to set the amount of pin-gear rotation to
a specific amount. For every excitation of the motor initiated by a control signal, the
number of rotations will be constant due to feedback control in the form of a counter;
therefore, a good tracking precision is achieved. The range of motion and slew rate
for various months is studied for both tracking axes.
L.M. Fern_andez-Ahumada et al., (2019) proposed a unique backtracking

approach for two-axis solar PV tracking plants. One of the foremost important aspects
in tracking is shading between the modules and also appearance of hot spots within
the modules. The tactic presented here is useful for the optimization of the planning of
the latest photovoltaic two-axis tracker plants. Therefore, this novel backtracking
approach explains that the tracker must point towards the irradiance direction within
the non-shaded region. Consequently, this novel method is expected on algorithms
that are significantly more simple and fast. Thus, this method is simpler to be wont to
simulate energy production with different radiative models.
Muhammad E. H. Chowdhary et al., (2019) proposed a new algorithm in a

research paper “A Low-Cost Closed-Loop Solar Tracking System Based on the Sun
Position Algorithm”. The Astronomical Almanac’s algorithm was executed for its
5
reliability, simplicity, and fast computation capability of the solar position. Results
revealed that incorporation of the sun position algorithm in a solar tracking system
supports in performing the stable system and optical tracking system. AS a fact, there
are few ways to increase the efficiency of PV systems like to increase the efficiency of
power generation of the PV cells, the efficiency of the control algorithms for the
energy translation, and to endorse a tracking system to achieve extreme solar
energy. The core area of this paper is to accelerate efficiency by blending the second
and third approaches. The angle between the direction of the sun and the zenith is
called the zenith angle. A real-time solar position tracking system is successfully
executed using the AA algorithm.
Rafid Khan et al., (2018) described Enhanced energy extraction in an open-

loop single-axis solar tracking system with tracker rotation about a tilted axis.
Fathabadi came up with a dual-axis solar tracker with minimum tracking error. Based
on the tracking algorithm, solar tracking systems can be broadly classified as open-
loop and closed-loop systems. Al Naima and Yaghobian proposed the dual-axis solar
tracking system based on astronomical coordinates of the sun and demonstrated that
the system performed better than conventional sensor-controlled systems.
A.Z. Hafez et al., (2018) discussed technologies and tracker drive types in their
paper “Solar tracking systems: Technologies and trackers drive types – A review”. A
single-axis sun tracking system helps to track the sun from one side to another using
a single pivot point to rotate. This system has three types: horizontal, vertical, and
tilted single-axis tracking system. Nomenclature, Greek symbols, and acronyms are
listed in this paper. The historic overview of the solar tracking systems is described
and new techniques of the solar tracking systems are discussed. The solar tracking
system types are described, as well as introduced the solar trackers drive types.
Finally, the conclusion is summarized.
6
Jose A. Carballo et al., (2018) proposed a new approach for sun tracking
systems based on computer vision and deep learning. Nowadays, STSs are
classified as agreeing with the definition method of the sun's relative position within
the sky. There are two important methods namely, solar position algorithms or optical
methods/algorithms. It is often concluded that the new approach proposed is valid,
fully functional, and shows a good margin for improvement. The new approach is
unrestrained of solar technology, system size, location, and time.
Najibhamisu Umar et al., (2018) listed PV power simulation softwares in this

research paper “Comparison of different PV power simulation software: a case study
analysis of 1 MW grid-connected PV solar power plant”. In this, ten simulation
softwares SAM, PVsyst, PV F-Chart, HOMER, RETScreen, PV*SOL, Solarius PV,
HelioScope, SOLARIS, and Solar Pro are explained. A study on performance
analysis of I MW grid-connected PV solar energy plant has been explained using
these simulation tools. Simulation results are compared with actual data of the power
plant to identify the suitable and most effective software for research and
development. This study is very helpful for further study on degradation and
performance analysis of PV power plant and a comparison of various PV simulation
tools to identify the most suitable software.
V. Baby Shalini et al., (2019) presented a pre-feasibility estimation of a grid-

connected roof-mounted solar PV system on the roof of the buildings in the campus
of JNTUH College of Engineering Jagitial, Telangana, India. To compute the solar
yields precisely, a true exposition of the shading of the various locally present
arbitrary objects at the chosen location is essential, this is exactly what PV-SOL
premium does i.e., all roof-mounted systems are often visualized-even on the ground-
with modules and 3D object shading are often calculated. System Advisor Model
(SAM) software is defined by the NREL (USA). It analyses the technical also as
economic performances of varied solar plants depending upon the actual inputs.
7
Linta Khalil et al., (2020) described the Optimization and designing of hybrid
power systems using HOMER pro. HOMER stands for Hybrid Optimization Model for
Electric Renewals. In HOMER Pro this data is fed to the HOMER Pro. The basic
objective is to optimize the minimization of pollution gas emission and consumption.
Huseyin Gunhan Ozcan et al., (2019) suggested a comprehensive evaluation

of PV electricity production methods. This paper presented the study about electricity
generation from solar photovoltaic technology-supported four different methodologies
with some performance indicators. Installation of cleaner production systems has
recently increased rapidly due to environmental concerns, in terms of global warming,
the Paris Agreement, and low carbon, etc. The performance of the observed system
indicated the difference from STC due to the meteorological part of the system,
energy conversion phenomena. While FF and CUF were annually determined to be
almost similar based on the theoretical approach and the PVSOL program
Rakhi Sharma (2019) introduced urban flash flood observation, mapping, and
prediction via a tailored device network system. Optimization of a PV system is
completed by simulation software system tool PVsyst five.52. Choice of PV array,
controller, pumping unit, water system network is needed to fulfill style needs. The
theoretical study has supported the factors that are specialized in simulation software
systems. The theoretical analysis of the solar PV water pumping system includes
hydraulic power calculation, filler of electrical phenomenon array, motor filler, and
efficiency calculation of the system. This study represents a simplified style
optimization approach for a solar photovoltaic Water Pumping System with the help of
theoretical computations and PVsyst simulation software system.
1.3 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT
In this work, an improved solar tracking system with a dual-axis tracking

mechanism has been proposed. Due to the transition of the sun from east to west, the
fixed solar panel may not be able to generate optimum energy. Single-axis solar
8
tracking couldn’t produce ideal energy. The proposed system solves this problem by
an arrangement for the solar panel to obtain maximum sun rays throughout the day.
1.4 OBJECTIVE
The objectives of the proposed work are as follows
➢ To design a dual solar tracking system that can collect maximum amount of
sunlight on the solar panel.
➢ To optimize and increase the efficiency of output than existing system.
➢ To analyze the performance of various solar tracking and find out the best
efficient way to maximize the output.
1.5 ADVANTAGES OF TECHNIQUE
➢ More efficient.
➢ Less maintenance.
➢ Less complexity.
➢ More economical.
➢ Increased output.
➢ More accurate.
1.6 APPLICATION
➢ Used for solar power towers
➢ Used to improve solar pumping system
➢ Used for street lightning system
➢ Used to provide electricity in remote areas.
9
CHAPTER 2
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter block diagram of the existing system and its disadvantages are
discussed along with the block diagram of proposed system and its advantages.
2.2 EXISTING SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM
Fig 2.1 Existing system block diagram
Fig 2.1 shows the block diagram of the single-axis solar tracking system which is
considered an existing system. It consists of a microcontroller, sensors, voltage
regulator, driver circuit, dc geared motor, and solar panel frame axis. Here the
sensors are arranged in such a way that the solar panel rotates in only one degree of
freedom. When the sun travels from east to west, the sun’s highest position also
changes. Hence this system is only helpful in tracking either of the axes. Due to this
ideal energy is not provided to the solar panel. As a result, the output energy is also
not ideal.
10
2.3 EXISTING SYSTEM DISADVANTAGES
➢ Lower energy output during sunny conditions, when compared to dual-axis
trackers and during cloudy days the efficiency of the single-axis tracker, is
almost close to the fixed panel.
➢ It involves less technological advancement.
➢ It also requires an additional focus on company stability and bankability in
large-scale implementation. When it involves getting projects financed, these
systems are more complex and thus are seen as a better risk from a financier’s
viewpoint.
➢ Even with the evolution in reliability, there is more maintenance required than a
traditional fixed rack, though the quality of the solar tracker can play a role in
how much how frequently often this maintenance is required.
➢ It has access to only one degree of freedom i.e. either horizontal or vertical
axis. So the output performance gets reduced on annual basis.
2.4 PROPOSED SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM
Here Fig 2.2 shows the block diagram of the Dual-axis solar tracking system that
tracks the maximum sun rays using LDR sensors. This block diagram is designed
according to track solar rays in both axes all day. The system includes a power
supply, Arduino, two servo motors, four LDR sensors, battery, charge controller, and
solar panel. This total system is designed in a form so that it tracks the sun efficiently
and obtains maximum solar energy from the sun and increases the output efficiency
and provides better performance even in cloudy conditions. The power supply is
given to Arduino. The LCD is also powered by the Arduino. The analog information is
transferred from LDRs to Arduino. According to the Arduino program, instructions are
given to the servo motors and these motors eventually provide movement to the solar
panel. The overall blocks connection is represented in order.
11
Fig 2.2 Block diagram of proposed system
2.4.1 SOLAR PANEL
The array of the solar panels is named non-literally for a photovoltaic module.
A PV module can be coined as an assembly of photovoltaic cells mounted during a
framework for installation. PV cells use sunlight as an energy source and produce DC
electricity. Arrays of a PV system supply solar electricity to electrical equipment. PV
modules use light energy from the Sun to get electricity through the photovoltaic
effect. Most of the modules use crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells. The structural
members of a module are often either the upper layer or the rear layer. These must
be protected against mechanical damage and moisture. Most modules are rigid, but
semi-flexible ones supported thin-film cells also are available. The specifications from
the manufacture on solar panels are seen under the standard conditions which is not
the real operating condition the solar panels are exposed to on the installation site.
12
Each one of the modules is rated by its DC output power under standard test
conditions and thus the on-field output power might vary with various circumstances.
Power values typically ranges from 100 to 365 Watts.
Fig 2.3 PV Solar module
Figure 2.3 represents the conversion of the solar cells into a PV system. The
efficiency of a module determines the area of a module given a similar rated output –
an 8% efficient 230 W module will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 W
module. Some commercially available solar modules exceed 24% efficiency. Hence,
most of the incident sunlight energy is wasted by PV modules and another design
concept is to separate sunlight into six to eight different wavelength ranges that may
produce unique color sunlight and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to those
range. To produce electricity, solar cells are made from a semiconducting material
that converts light into electricity. The most common material used as a
13
semiconductor during the photovoltaic cell manufacturing process is silicon. Both
monocrystalline and polycrystalline solar panels have cells made from silicon wafers.
2.4.2 LDR SENSORS
An LDR is defined as a component that features a resistance that varies with the
sunlight intensity that falls upon it. This allows them to include in light sensing circuits.
Figure 2.4 represents the LDR circuit symbol.
Fig 2.4 LDR circuit symbol
When the light is projected on its surface, the material conductivity decreases, and
also the electrons in the valence band of the device are jumped or excited to the
conduction band. These photons in the incident light should have energy greater than
the band gap of the semiconductor material considered.
2.4.2.1 TYPES OF LDRs
LDRs are categorized based on the materials used in them. Intrinsic Photo-
resistors are made of pure semiconductor devices like silicon or germanium. When
the light falls on the LDR, then the electrons get excited and the number of charge
carriers increases. Extrinsic Photo Resistors are injected with impurities and these
impurities produce a new energy band over the valence band. These are filled with
electrons. Therefore, this decreases the band gap and a small amount of energy is
needed for moving them. These are mainly implemented for applications with long
wavelengths.
14
2.4.2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF LDR
LDR sensor is very sensitive to light. The resistance is inversely proportional to

strength of light. With the increase of illumination intensity, the resistance value of the
LDR’s photo resistor decreases rapidly. When a light-dependent resistor is kept in
dark, its resistance is extremely high. This resistance is known as dark resistance. It
is very high and if the device is allowed to absorb light its resistance will be decreased
drastically. The characteristics are shown in figure 2.5 below.
Fig 2.5 Characteristics of LDR
Photocells are nonlinear devices. The sensitivity of these photocells differs with
the wavelength of light falling on them. Based on the material used, different cells
have a different spectral response.
2.4.3 SERVO MOTOR
A servo motor is a motor that rotates with great precision. Normally this kind of
motor comprises a control circuit that comes up with feedback on the present position
of the motor shaft; this allows the motors to run with great precision. It comes with a
gear arrangement that helps us to get a very high torque servo motor in lightweight
15
packages. It is a closed-loop system where it makes use of a positive feedback
system to control motion and the final position of the shaft.
2.4.4 BATTERY
A battery is interpreted as an electrochemical device made up of numerous

electrochemical cells, connected to external inputs and outputs. They are widely
employed to power small electric devices such as mobile phones, remotes, and
flashlights. They are broadly divided into two categories, namely primary batteries
and secondary batteries.
2.4.4.1 TYPES OF BATTERIES
Table 2.1 Types of batteries
SNO BATTERY TYPE CHARACTERISTICS APPLICATIONS
1. Zinc – Carbon Common, low cost, Radios, toys,

variety of sizes instruments
2. Magnesium (Mg/MnO2) High capacity, long shelf Military and aircraft
life Radios
3. Mercury (Zn/HgO) Very high capacity, long Medical (hearing aids,
shelf life pacemakers),
photography
4. Alkaline Very popular, moderate Most popular primary
(Zn/Alkaline/MnO2) cost, high performance batteries
5. Silver/Zinc (Zn/Ag2O) Highest capacity, costly, Hearing aids,
flat discharge photography, pagers
6. Lithium/Soluble High energy density, Wide range of
Cathode good performance, wide applications with
temp range capacity between 1 –
10,000 Ah
7. Lithium/Solid Cathode High energy density, low Replacement for
temp performance, long button and cylindrical
shelf life cells
8. Lithium/Solid Low power, extremely Memory circuits,
Electrolyte long shelf life medical electronics
16
Table 2.1 shows different types of batteries. There are various types of batteries
available for various purposes. The nine-volt battery, or a 9-volt battery, maybe a
common size of battery that was introduced for the first transistor radios. The nine-
volt battery format is usually available in primary carbon-zinc and alkaline chemistry,
in primary lithium sulfide. Carbon-zinc is made up of six flat cells with a stack,
enclosed during a moisture-resistant wrapper to stop drying. Primary lithium types are
made with three cells serial.
2.4.5 CHARGE CONTROLLER
A charge controller is a regulator to avoid batteries from overcharging. If there's no

regulation the batteries are damaged from overcharging. Nearly all PV panels rated
over 140 watts aren't standard 12-volt panels, and can't be used with standard charge
controllers.
Fig 2.6 Battery charge controlling
17
2.4.6 BRIDGE RECTIFIER
Rectifiers are electrical components used to convert AC to DC power. It can be

described as a type of full-wave rectifier that uses four or more diodes in a bridge
circuit configuration to convert alternating current to a direct current efficiently. Figure
2.7 represents a bridge rectifier circuit. The input of the bridge rectifier is ac input. The
input signal is provided across terminals A and B and the output DC signal is gained
across the load resistor RL between terminals C and D. In figure 2.8 the output
waveforms of the bridge rectifier are shown.
Fig 2.7 Bridge rectifier Fig 2.8 Output waveforms
2.4.7 MOTOR DRIVER IC
The motor driver IC is used as a motor controlling unit in robots and embedded
circuits. It is a small current Amplifier that takes a low-current control signal and then
turns it into a higher-current signal that can drive a motor. Motor Driver ICs are used
in uncontrolled robotics only. Most microprocessors operate at low voltages. They
require a small amount of current to operate while the motors require a relatively
higher voltage and current.
18
Fig 2.9 Motor Driver IC Pin Diagram
The L293D is a type of Motor driver which can drive 2 DC motors

simultaneously. L293D and ULN2003 are the most common motor Driver ICs. Figure
2.9 represents L293D motor driver IC. L293D is a dual H-bridge motor driver
integrated circuit. L293D IC transfers signals from the microprocessor to the motors.
It’s two voltage pins, one among which is employed to draw current for the working of
the L293D, and therefore the other is employed to use voltage to the motors. The
L293D is a 16 pin IC that is dedicated to the controlling of a motor. L293D consists of
two H-bridge. H-bridge is that the simplest circuit for controlling a low current rated
motor.
In the given figure 2.10, the arrow represents flow on the left points to the higher
potential side of the input voltage of the circuit. L293D has 2 sets of arrangements
where one set has input 1, input 2, output 1, and output 2 and another set has input
3, input 4, output 3, and output 4.
19
Fig 2.10 H Bridge
2.5 PROPOSED SYSTEM ADVANTAGES
The various advantages of proposed system are listed below.
➢ Dual axis solar tracking panel can increase the power output by 40% when
compared to fixed and additional 5% when compared to single axis system.
➢ Receiving continuous energy from the sun throughout the day more efficiently
and maximize the absorption of sun rays can be achieved by this proposed
system.
➢ The system will tend maximize the amount of power per unit area.
20
CHAPTER 3
SIMULATION OF GRID CONNECTED PV SYSTEM USING PV*SOL
3.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION ABOUT SOLAR ENERGY
Solar energy is an inexhaustible, unbounded, and immense source of the

energy. The power from the sun interrupted by the earth is many thousands of times
larger than the current consumption rate on the earth of all other energy sources.
Contrary to fossil fuels and nuclear power, it is an environmentally pure and non-
polluting source of energy. The real challenge in using solar energy is economic
apprehension.
3.2 SIMULATION SOFTWARES
Simulation is the perception of the important word processing system. Simulation

is used for modeling and investigating the system or process performance. There is
much expansion of online simulation softwares, which are categorized within the
simulation tool, economic evaluation tools, photovoltaic industry-related tools,
analysis and planning tools, monitoring and control tools, radiation maps. Solar
design software makes it easier to automate system design.
3.2.1 TYPES OF SIMULATION SOFTWARES
In this section, table 3.1 is mentioned which gives the information about various
simulation software that can be used for PV system simulation. There are many types
of software available which are tabulated below according to its usage. Here in this
table various simulation softwares are categorized according to their type of usage.
The various types described in the table are Simulation type tools, Economic
21
evaluation tools, Photovoltaic industry-related tools, Analysis and planning tools,
Monitoring and control tools, and solar radiation maps.
TABLE 3.1 TYPES OF PV BASED SOFTWARES
S.NO TYPES OF SOFTWARES NAMES OF SOFTWARES
1 Simulation type tools INSEL and TRNSYS
2 Economic evaluation tools HOMER, Solar Advisor Model (SAM),

RET Screen, SOL invest and
Energy Periscope
3 Photovoltaic industry related APOS photovoltaic Stat Lab and PV

tools cost simulation tool
4 Analysis and planning tools String Design Tool, PV*SOL, Blue Sol,
PV F-CHART, Sol metric PV Designer,
DDSCAD PV, Polysun, REA System
Sizing Tool, PVSYST and Solar Pro
5 Monitoring and Control Tools Meteocontrols, SPYCE, pvspot,
Autodesk ECOTECT Analysis,
METEONORM
6 Solar radiation maps Focus Solar, SolarGIS, 3TIER and

PVGIS
3.2.2 PV*SOL SOFTWARE
PV*SOL is a 2-dimensional design tool for simulating the performance of a

photovoltaic system. It designs PV systems with no limit on the number of arrays in
2D and includes graphic 2D and Photographic roof and ground layout. It visualizes
detailed energy balance with all stage losses. It is capable of Power clipping to
reduce grid export when limited. Simulation of electric vehicles in combination with PV
systems can also be done in this software.
22
3.3 SIMULATION PROJECT OVERVIEW
Fig 3.1 Circuit Diagram of Grid Connected PV system with Electric vehicle,
Electric Battery and Electric appliances
Four various tracking systems are compared in this simulation of the project.
All the four types of tracking systems are connected in the fig 3.1 circuit diagram.
Overall, 72 PV modules of 200Wp-si polycrystalline, 8 inverters of 1MPP-1700W, one
battery system of 2kW-AC Coupling-14.45kWh, and an Electric vehicle of 22kWh are
included in this simulation project..
This is simulation of a Grid connected PV system with Electric appliances, Electric

vehicle and Battery system in the location MADRAS, India. The latitude and longitude
details are:
❖ Latitude: 130 0I 0II and Longitude: 80010I58II
❖ Time zone: UTC+5.5
❖ Annual sum of global irradiation: 1926 kWh/m2
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❖ Annual Average Temperature: 28.2 0c
❖ Time steps for simulation: 1 Minute (for precise simulation)
❖ Power losses resulting from drop in voltage at bypass diodes: 0.5%
❖ Power losses resulting from mismatched yield: 2.0%
❖ AC Mains: Mains voltage between phase and neutral = 230 v
❖ No. of phases = 3 and Displacement power factor ꝋ= 1
3.3.1 PV MODULES SELECTION
In many applications, strings are bound to form a module. The PV panel is the
basic building block of a PV system and multiple panels can be connected together to
give the desired output. For all four types of systems, the type of PV module used is
200W-si polycrystalline. The number of PV modules per tracking system is
18(3.60kW) and the installation type of PV module is also the same for all the four
tracking systems i.e. Mounted roof type installation. The inclination details of the No
tracking system are Inclination angle is 110, the Orientation angle is 1800, and the
Azimuth angle is 00. The inclination details of a Single north-south axis tracking
system are Rotation axis Inclination: 100 and Rotation angle of opening: 1600. The
inclination details of the Single east-west axis tracking system are Inclination: 00 and
Rotation angle of opening 1800. The inclination details of the Dual-axis tracking
system are the Rotation axis Inclination 900 and Rotation angle of opening 2000.
3.3.2 INVERTERS SELECTION
The inverter or the Power conditioning unit converts DC power into AC power. The
conversion from DC to AC voltage includes losses. PV*SOL determines the output
power as a function of the input power. Selection of Inverters is represented in figure
3.2
24
Figure 3.2 Selection of Inverter for various tracking systems
On the Inverter page, the selection of inverters are defined. A connection can be
defined in three different ways:
❖ Manual connection
❖ Propose connection
❖ Select connection
One module surface is connected by default. To interconnect different module

surfaces together, select the specified module surfaces within the tree view and click
on the button.
25
3.3.3 CABLES SELECTION
Fig 3.3 Selection of cables
The selection of cable profiles is shown in the figure 3.3 selection of cables. The
cable losses of PV system are defined on the cables page. The safety devices are
defined without depending on the cable losses. If total loss is selected for the input of
the cable losses, the losses are used in the simulation as a lump sum. Fig 3.4 shows
the selection of cable losses.
Fig 3.4 Cable losses
26
Fig 3.5 cables overview
In figure 3.5 the selection of cables for each type of tracking systems is represented.
Cable losses are assumed to be zero as ideal case.
3.3.4 ELECTRIC VEHICLE SELECTION
A solar electric vehicle is an electric vehicle that runs remarkably on direct solar
power. PV cells contained in the panels convert the sun's energy directly into electric
energy. The battery inverter is the charging station of the vehicle. The battery system
takes precedence over the mains. A typical electrical vehicle is shown in figure 3.6.
All the parts are mentioned in the figure. Here the solar panel is attached at the top of
the electric vehicle. The solar panel is connected to the peak power tracker next to a
battery pack which is connected with motor control. This motor control is connected
with the motor that has to be controlled.
27
Fig 3.6 Typical electric vehicle
Figure 3.7 Selection of Electric Vehicle
Electric vehicles can be connected on the Electric Vehicles page. Various

electric vehicles with different user behavior can be grouped with the number of
vehicles in each group, set in addition to the opting of manufacturer and model of the
vehicle. Figure 3.7 describes all the specifications of the electric vehicle selected for
the simulation. The charging power of the electric vehicle is 3.7kW.
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Fig 3.8 Electrical details of Electric vehicle
Figure 3.8 shows the details of electric vehicle that has been selected for simulation.
The range of that vehicle in accordance with Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicle
Test Procedure (WLTP) is 190km. The battery capacity of the electrical vehicle is
21.6kWh. The consumption assumed calculated is often 12.9/11.4kWh/100 km. The
engine power is 125Kw/170PS.
3.3.5 ELECTRIC BATTERY SYSTEM SELECTION
Fig 3.9 selection of electric battery system
29
Figure 3.9 represents all the specification details about the electric battery system.
The Battery system for the simulation is chosen on the Battery system page. The
navigation can be chosen for respective grid-connected PV systems. Based on the
system, a PV inverter with an MPP tracker could be integrated, but these are
independent devices. The battery is classified into AC- and DC-coupled types. In AC-
coupled, the PV module and battery components are bound behind the DC/AC
inverter. These are the most adjustable types to design, easy to modify into existing
systems, and can take energy from the grid. Battery systems store the energy that
comes from the PV system and release it to consumers. For certain types of battery
charging, they can absorb energy from the grid. The specifications of the battery used
here are 2v, 1050Ah valve-regulated battery.
3.3.6 SIMULATION ANALYSIS
Fig 3.10 Overview of simulation results
Figure 3.10 represents overall simulation results profile at the end of simulation
process. The return on the assests is expected to be 16.55%. The PV generated
energy (AC Grid) is 24,524kWh/year. The Specific annual yield is 1702.89 kWh/ kWp.
The Grid feed-in value is 17,486kWh/year. The energy from the Grid is 758kWh/year.
30
3.4 PV SOLAR SYSTEM
A photovoltaic system, also a PV system, is considered as a power grid designed

to contribute consumable solar energy by using photovoltaics. It includes appointing
several components, which includes solar panels to soak up and converting sunlight
into electricity, a solar inverter and other electrical supplementary for a system. It
uses solar tracking system to enhance the overall performance of system and
includes an integrated battery. A solar battery can only enclosure the association of
solar panels, the visible part of the PV system.
3.4.1 PV MODULES ANALYSIS
Table 3.2 Specifications of PV Modules
S No Type Of Module Type No Of PV Installation Inclination &

Tracking Modules Type
Orientation
1. No Inclination: 110
Tracking Orientation:
1800
2. Single Inclination: 100

North- Rotation angle
South Axis No of PV of opening:
Tracking 200Wp – si 1600
modules: Mounted
polycrystalline
3 Single East 18 (3.60 Roof Inclination: 00
module
- West Axis kW) Rotation angle:
Tracking 1800
4. Dual axis Rotation axis

Tracking Inclination: 900
Rotation angle:
2000
31
Designing the PV generator is the second step within the simulation for
photovoltaic systems. The electrical behavior of the photovoltaic modules is simulated
from the output data of the radiation modeling. The result of the current-voltage
characteristics takes place at each step within the simulation for every module. The
characteristic curves of the modules are overlayed in series or parallel.
In table 3.2, all the specifications of the PV module are tabulated. For all the four
types of tracking the type of PV module used is 200W-si polycrystalline. The number
of PV modules per tracking system is 18(3.60kW) and the installation type of PV
module is also the same for all the four tracking systems i.e. Mounted roof type
installation. The inclination details of the No tracking system are Inclination angle is
110, the Orientation angle is 1800, and the Azimuth angle is 00. The inclination details
of a Single north-south axis tracking system are Rotation axis Inclination: 100 and
Rotation angle of opening: 1600. The inclination details of the Single east-west axis
tracking system are Inclination: 00 and Rotation angle of opening 1800. The inclination
details of the Dual-axis tracking system are the Rotation axis Inclination 900 and the
Rotation angle of opening 2000.
The PV system generator output is 14.4 kW. The average performance ratio of the
PV system is 78.1%. The PV generator AC GRID energy is 24,524kWh/year. The
own power consumption is 28.7%. The grid feed-in value is 17,486kWh/year. The
specific annual yield as per the assumed case is approximately 1,702.89kWh/kWp.
The battery charge includes an amount of 2317kWh/year.
3.4.2 IRRADIANCE PER MODULE AREA
Solar irradiance is defined as the power per unit area obtained from the Sun in
electromagnetic radiation and is measured in the wavelength range. It is measured in
watt per square meter in SI units and is often separated during that time period. This
integrated solar irradiance is also called solar exposure or solar insolation.
32
Fig 3.11 Irradiance per module area
In this figure 3.11 the graph is plotted between each month of the year and energy in
kWh/m2. The top slope in the graph with red color represents irradiance onto tilted
surface in Dual axis tracking. The yellow color slope indicates the irradiance of single
north-south axis tracking system. The grey color slope indicates the irradiance of
single east-west axis tracking system. The blue color slope indicates horizontal plane
irradiance. The annual average irradiance per module of different tracking systems
are 1853.57kWh/m2 for No tracking system, 2264.9kWh/m2 for Single north - south
axis tracking system, 1961.91kWh/m2 for Single east - west axis tracking system and
2414.1kWh/m2 for Dual axis tracking system. Various irradiance per module values
per each month for variou tracking systems included in the simulation. For all the
months values are tabulated in the table 3.3.
33
Table 3.3 Global Irradiance per module
S.No Months No Single East- Single North- Dual Axis

Tracking West Tracking South Tracking Tracking
1. January 156.1 174.2 191.2 210.1
2. February 168.5 178.3 211.2 226
3. March 192.3 192.2 242.8 252.4
4. April 182.3 186 228.4 240
5. May 174.1 189.3 214.8 235.1
6. June 150.9 168.7 183.9 203.3
7. July 145.1 158.6 173.5 189.2
8. August 150.6 155.5 180.1 188.8
9. September 153.2 153.2 188.6 194.9
10. October 135.8 137.7 160.4 163.6
11. November 117 124.7 138.5 146.5
12. December 127.8 141.4 151.2 164.5
34
The highest irradiance value in the dual-axis tracking system was recorded as
252.4kWh/m2 in the month of March. However, the irradiance values of dual-axis
tracking system are more when compared to other available tracking systems.
Table 3.4 Results per module area
SNO Type of PV PV Spec. Performance

tracking generator generator Annual ratio
output energy Yield
(AC grid)
1. No tracking 3.6 kWp 5391.5 1497.6 77.5%

kWh/year kWh/kWp
2. Single 3.6 kWp 6516.9 1810.2 78.3%

north – kWh/year kWh/kWp
south axis
tracking
3. Single east 3.6 kWp 5691.3 1580.9 77.8%

– west axis kWh/year kWh/kWp
tracking
4. Dual axis 3.6 kWp 6924.1 1923.4 78.7%

tracking kWh/year kWh/kWp
In the table 3.4 the various factors like PV generated output, PV generated energy
(AC Grid) values, and Specific annual yield and performance ratio were tabulated.
The performance ratio of No tracking system is 77.5%, for Single north-south axis
tracking is 78.3%, for Single east-west axis tracking is 77.8% and for dual axis solar
tracking system is 78.7% which is highest of all the other compared tracking systems.
3.4.3 Analysis of PV Energy
The energy related with PV system is analyzed in this section. The following table
3.4 represents PV energy values in the simulation output. The DC PV energy in No
35
tracking system is 5752.56kWh, in Single north – south axis Tracking is 6956.29 kWh,
in Single east – west axis Tracking is 6069.69 kWh and in Dual axis Tracking is
7390.15 kWh. This table shows that the PV energy of dual axis tracking system is
highest among all the other values.
Table 3.5 PV Energy analysis
SNO Type of tracking Rated PV Energy PV Energy (DC)
1. No Tracking 6677.68 kWh 5752.56 kWh
2. Single north – south 8158.41 kWh 6956.29 kWh

axis Tracking
3. Single east – west 7068.98 kWh 6069.69 kWh

axis Tracking
4. Dual axis Tracking 8698.49 kWh 7390.15 kWh
The rated PV energy values are also tabulated in the table 3.5. The rated PV energy
of No tracking system is 6677.68kWh, Single north – south axis tracking system is
8158.41kWh, Single east – west axis tracking system is 7068.98kWh and dual axis
tracking system is 8698.49 kWh. Here also the rated PV energy value of dual axis
solar tracking system is highest when compared to all other tracking systems.
3.5 ENERGY FLOW OF SYSTEM
Energy Flow Diagrams are used to represent energy transformation visually

and quantitatively. Figure 3.12 represents the energy flow of the system designed in
simulation. The yellow color represents energy flow from PV generator to grid,
36
consumer, battery, and electrical vehicle. The purple color indicates energy flow from
a car battery to the consumer. The blue color indicates energy flow from the grid to an
electric vehicle, electric battery, and consumer end. The green color indicates energy
flow from electric battery to electric vehicle and consumer. The energy generated at
the PV system is 24,524Kw. The energy flow from the PV system to the Electric
battery is 2,317 kW, to Electric vehicle is 2,895 kW, to the consumer is 1830 kW and
to Grid is 17,486 kW. The energy at the Electric battery system is 1,799 kW. The
energy flow from the battery to the electric vehicle is 2kW and to the consumer are
1,797 kW.
Fig 3.12 Energy Flow Diagram
The energy flow from the Grid to electric vehicle is 3 kW and to Electric battery
system is 72 kW. The energy cannot flow from electric vehicle to other factors so it is
zero practically. The total energy sent to consumer end is 4,310 kW. The standby
37
consumption of inverter is 2kW. All the energy flow values are mentioned in the
energy flow diagram in detail.
3.6 INVERTER ANALYSIS
In this section outputs related to the inverter like performance ratio are discussed.
3.6.1 PERFORMANCE RATIO
The performance ratio is described as the ratio of measured output to expected

output for a given period depending upon the system name-plate rating index. Ratio
analysis collates the data from financial statements to reveal insights of profitability,
liquidity, operational efficiency, and solvency. The main purposes of performance
monitoring of PV are:
• Identifying performance trends in an individual system

• localizing potential faults in system
• comparing PV system performance to design expectations
• comparing PV systems of various configurations
• comparing PV systems at various locations
Fig 3.13 Graph representing Performance Ratio of Inverter
38
Table 3.6 Performance ratio values of Dual axis tracking system
Month Dual-axis tracking performance ratio
January 80.2
February 79.8
March 78.2
April 77.9
May 77.8
June 78.3
July 78.1
August 77.9
September 78.2
October 78.7
November 79.3
December 80.1
In the fig 3.13 graph, the grey color represents the performance ratio of the inverter of
no tracking system and the green color represents the performance ratio slope of the
inverter of the dual-axis tracking system. The blue color represents the performance
ratio slope of the inverter in single north-south axis tracking which has similar values
with the performance ratio of inverter in single east-south axis tracking represented by
the yellow color in the graph. Hence both lie on the same line and can’t be seen
clearly in the graph. Here the x-axis of the graph is each month of the year and the y-
axis of the graph is the performance ratio in values. From the graph, we can clearly
say that the slope of performance ratio of the dual-axis is high when compared to
slopes of the other tracking systems. The performance ratio values of the dual-axis
tracking system for all months of a year are tabulated in the table 3.6.
39
3.7 ELECTRIC BATTERY SYSTEM ANALYSIS
In this section the State of Charge of the battery system is discussed.
3.7.1 SOC OF BATTERY
State of Charge (SOC) is defined as the level of charge of a battery with

respect to its capacity. Its units are percentages. The other form of the measure is the
depth of discharge. SOC is used while describing the current state of a battery.
Fig 3.14 SOC of battery
As we can see, SOC is not measured directly. In a few techniques, the battery tries to
get charge and discharge at the same rate such as Coulomb-counting. This gives the
exact estimation of battery SOC. SOC of electric battery is termed as the ratio of its
current capacity to the nominal capacity. In figure 3.14 the graph represents the state
of charge of the battery in each month in a year or the SOC slope of the battery
system throughout the year. The x-axis is each month of the year and the y-axis is
SOC of battery in %. The highest percent recorded was 80.6% in May. The lowest
percent recorded was 68.2% in November. From the graph, we can understand that
40
the energy obtained from the PV module can keep the battery charges 80% on
average throughout the year.
3.8 LOADS
An electrical load is an electrical component or portion of a circuit that consumes

electrical power, like electrical appliances and lights inside the house. The term may
additionally confer with the power consumed by a circuit. this can be in opposition to a
power source, like an electric battery or generator, which produces power. If an
electrical circuit has an output port, a pair of terminals that produces an electrical
signal, the circuit connected to the present terminal is that the load. Mains power
outlets provide a simple example: they provide power at constant voltage, with
electrical appliances connected to the facility circuit collectively making up the load.
3.8.1 HOUSEHOLD LOAD FEED IN DATA SPECIFICATIONS
Fig 3.15 Load profiles
41
Consumption details to be assumed are 2 person household with 2 children. The
assumed consumption is 4308 kWh (approximate) per year. Various appliances are
available like Load profiles / Individual appliances, Monthly/annual consumption for
net metering, and Surplus consumption. The selecting details and options are shown
in detail in figure 3.15.
Fig 3.16 Graph of Monthly consumption
The figure 3.16 gives monthly information of energy consumed by various appliances
for assumed consumption case of 2 person household with 2 children. The analysis of
monthly values of consumption is plotted in the graph and mentioned in the below
table. The x-axis represents each month and y-axis represents energy consumed per
each month in kWh. The load peak in this case is 10 kW. The resolution of the data is
1 Minute. The values are imported in table represented in the figure 3.17, which are
used for the simulation.
42
Fig 3.17 Monthly consumption data
3.8.2 ELECTRIC VEHICLE - PART OF LOAD - SOC OF ELECTRIC

VEHICLE
Electric Vehicle chargers are getting more efficient, smarter, and faster with every
generation. The latest DC fast chargers can know the EV battery’s state of charge
because it is plugged in and charging. In a battery electric vehicle, hybrid vehicle or
plug-in hybrid electric vehicle, SOC for the battery pack is that the equivalent of a fuel
indicator. It is important to mention that state of charge, presented as a gauge, or
43
perceptual value at any vehicle dashboard, especially in plug-in hybrid vehicles, may
not be representative of a real level of charge.
3.18 SOC of Electric vehicle
In the above graph in figure 3.18 the SOC values of electrical vehicle are plotted and
slope is drawn. The x-axis parameter is each month of the year and y-axis is SOC in
%. The highest percentage recorded was 81.2% in the month of June. This graph
shows the charge of electric vehicle in each month maintained by the energy from PV
module.
3.9 ENERGY FORECASTING
Energy forecasting is forecasting the demand for electricity and other

renewable energy sources. Forecasting is often expected price value and
probabilistic forecasting.
44
3.9.1 PRODUCTION FORECAST WITH CONSUMPTION
Forecasting is to maintain how to separate their budgets or plan for various

expenses for an upcoming period of time. This is based on the represented projects
for the goods and services they offer.
Fig 3.19 Production Forecast with consumption
The graph in figure 3.19 shows an analysis of the production forecast with
consumption all over the year. The x-axis of the plotted graph is each month and the
y-axis is energy in kWh. The yellow color indicates PV Generator Energy (AC Grid).
The pale blue indicates Energy from the grid. The dark blue indicates Grid feed-in
energy. The dark grey color indicates standby consumption (Inverter). The light grey
color indicates energy consumed by the appliances. The purple color indicates the
charge of the electric vehicle. The dark green indicates the battery charge. The light
green indicates battery energy for the covering of consumption. In table 3.7, the
energy generation and consumption for January month are shown. PV Generator
Energy (AC Grid) is 2152.5 kWh, Battery Energy For The Covering Of Consumption
is 177.9kWh and Energy From Grid is 64.6kWh. The consumption of Appliances is
399.7 kWh, Battery Charge is 225.9 kWh, Charge Of Electric vehicles is 241.4 kWh,
45
and Grid Feed-In is1527.8 kWh. Similarly, all the values of energy consumed and
energy generated can be recorded and tabulated for all the months.
Table 3.7 Production Forecast With Consumption
SNO ENERGY VALUES
1. PV Generator Energy (AC 2152.5 kWh

Grid)
2. Battery Energy For The 177.9kWh

Covering Of Consumption
3. Energy From Grid 64.6kWh
4. Appliances -399.7 kWh
5. Battery Charge -225.9 kWh
6. Charge Of Electric Vehicle -241.4 kWh
7. Grid Feed In -1527.8 kWh
3.9.2 USE OF PV ENERGY
The graph in Fig 3.20 depicts how the energy generated is used by various
consumption factors. The yellow color represents PV energy (ac grid). The purple
color represents the charge of the electric vehicle. The green color represents the
battery charge. The blue color represents grid feed-in and the grey color represents
direct own use. The x-axis of the graph is each month and the y-axis of the graph is
energy in kWh.
46
Fig 3.20 Use of PV energy
For the month of January, the values of energy are tabulated below in the table 3.8.
Table 3.8 Usage of PV Energy
PV generator energy 2152.5 kWh
Charge of electric vehicle -241.4 kWh
January Battery charge --220.5 kWh
Grid feed-in -1527.8 kWh
Direct own use -162.8 kWh
The table shows values of generated energy and consumed energy. The generated
energy values are given in positive whereas the consumed energy values are given in
negative. Similar tabulation can be done for all the other months. The highest value of
47
PV generation is recorded in the month of March with a value 2519.1 kWh which is
shown in the graph.
3.9.3 COVERAGE OF CONSUMPTION
Fig 3.21 Consumption coverage
S.NO Month Coverage of consumption Energy in kWh
1. Appliances 399.7 kWh
2. Covered by battery 177.9 kWh
January
3. Covered by grid 59.3 kWh
4. Covered by PV power 162.8 kWh
Table 3.9 Coverage consumption
48
In figure 3.21, the graph represents how consumption is covered among all the
included factors. The x-axis of the graph is each month in a year and the y-axis of the
graph is the energy consumed in kWh. The light grey color indicates appliances and
the dark grey color indicates standby consumption values. Since standby
consumption values are negligible they are not visualized in the graph. The yellow
color indicates consumption covered by PV power. The blue color indicates energy
consumed by the grid. The green color indicates energy consumed by the battery.
The purple color indicates the energy consumed by the electric vehicle. Below table
3.9 shows the values of energy consumed in January in detail. The energy covered
by Appliances is 399.7kWh, the battery is 177.9 kWh, the grid is 59.3 kWh and by PV
power is 162.8 kWh. The energy values of other months also can be tabulated.
3.9.4 TOTAL COVERAGE CONSUMPTION
In this section, the total consumption and how the energy generated is divided
into various consumptions were analyzed. The graph in figure 3.22 shows the
coverage of total consumption. The light grey implies appliances. The dark green
implies battery charge by Grid. The purple color indicates the charge of the electric
vehicle. The yellow color indicates energy produced by the PV system. The blue color
indicates energy produced by the grid. Light green indicates energy drawn from the
battery. Light purple color indicates energy taken from the electric vehicle. Since it is
very negligible it is not visible in the graph. We can observe that all the light colors
indicate energy generated by each part and dark colors indicate energy consumed by
them. The x-axis of the graph is each month of year and the y-axis is the energy in
kWh. The standby consumption is also neglected because of its minor values. The
below table shows the values recorded for the month of January. Similarly, tables can
be drawn from the values of other months. In the table 3.10, the values of coverage of
total consumption are tabulated. The energy consumed by appliances is 399.7 kWh,
by battery is 177.9 kWh, by the Grid is 59.3 kWh, and by PV power is 162.8 kWh. The
49
energy covered by Battery charge (Grid) is 5.3 kWh and by Battery charge (System)
is 5.3 kWh. All the values for other months can also be tabulated.
Fig 3.22 Coverage of total consumption
50
Table 3.10 Coverage of total consumption
S.NO Month Coverage of consumption Energy in kWh
1. Appliances 399.7 kWh
2. Covered by battery 177.9 kWh
3. Covered by grid 59.3 kWh
4. Covered by PV power 162.8 kWh

January
5. Battery charge (Grid) 5.3 kWh
6. Battery charge (System) 220.5 kWh
7. Charge of electric vehicle 241.4 kWh
3.10 CONCLUSION FROM THE SIMULATION
From the above simulation output and all the graphs obtained, the following points are
concluded:
➢ Simulation of GRID connected PV system with electrical appliances, battery

and electric vehicle is analyzed and outputs are noted.
➢ The performance ratio of Dual axis solar tracking system is 1.1 times more
when compared to all other types of tracking systems.
➢ The Global Irradiance of Dual axis solar tracking system is 1.3 times more
when compared to all other types of tracking systems.
51
CHAPTER 4
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
4.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF THE PROPOSED SYSTEM
Fig 4.1 Circuit Diagram of proposed system
Figure 4.1 explains the circuit diagram of the proposed system. Here four LDRs
namely LDR1, LDR2, LDR3, and LDR4 are connected to the pins A5, A4, A1, and A0
of the Analog section in the Arduino respectively. The resistors R8, R7, R9, and R10
are connected to LDR1, LDR2, LDR3, and LDR4 respectively. These four resistors
are connected with the power supply. A switch with one side connected to the ground
and the other side connected to resistor R6 with power supply is connected to the
RESET pin connection in the Arduino. Besides the reset pin, the RESET button is
arranged. The VSS and RVV pins in the LCD are connected to the ground along with
the resistor RV1, VDD pin is connected to the power supply along with the RV1. VEE
pin is directly connected to the resistor RV1. The RS pin, E pin of LCD are connected
to the PD2/INT0 pin and PD2/INT1 pin of the Arduino respectively. The other pins D4,
52
D5, D6 and D7 are connected to P4, PD5, PD5 and PD6 pins of Arduino respectively.
The pins PB2 and PB3 (10 &11) of Arduino are connected to second pin of the servo
motors M2 and M1 respectively. The pin3 in both the motors are grounded. The pin 1
in both motors is connected with power supply.
4.2 POWER SUPPLY
In this section block diagram and circuit diagram of Power supply are discussed in
detail.
4.2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF POWER SUPPLY
Fig 4.2 Block diagram of Power Supply
Figure 4.2 represents the block diagram and figure 4.3 represents the circuit diagram
of power supply connections involved in the system. They both represent 230V AC 50
HZ supply, 12V step down transformer, Bridge rectifier, Filter, and Regulator. Below
figure 4.3 represents its circuit diagram. The 230V AC supply is given to a 12V step-
down transformer. The transformer steps down the voltage into 12V and supplies it to
the bridge rectifier. The bridge rectifier consists of 4 diodes forming a Bridge Rectifier
that delivers pulsating dc. This bridge rectifier converts ac voltage to dc voltage. This
converted DC 12V is connected to filter dc which is then filtered by an electrolytic
capacitor of about 470microf to 100microF and sends the resultant voltage to the
voltage regulator. The voltage regulator regulates the 12V voltage. The regulated5V
is filtered using an electrolytic capacitor to avoid noise caused by the circuit. An LED
53
is associated with this 5V point in series with a resistor of 330ohms which is
connected to the ground i.e. negative voltage to specify 5V power supply availability.
Fig 4.3 Circuit of Power Supply
4.3 HARDWARE COMPONENTS
The hardware components involved in the project are as follows,
➢ Arduino Uno R3
➢ Transformer
➢ Voltage regulator 5V
➢ LCD display (16*2)
➢ Servo motors
➢ Solar panel
➢ LDR sensors
➢ Capacitors
➢ Resistors
➢ Diode IN4007
54
4.3.1 ARDUINO
The Arduino Uno R3 is described as a microcontroller board that depends upon a

removable, dual-inline-package (DIP) ATmega328 AVR microcontroller. it contains 20
digital input/output pins (of which 6 are often used as PWM outputs and 6 are often
used as analog inputs). Programs are loaded onto it from the easy-to-use Arduino
program. The Arduino has a spacious support community, which makes it much easy
to be started working with embedded electronics. This is often the 3rd revision of the
Uno (R3), which has several changes: The USB controller chip changed from
ATmega8U2 to ATmega16U2. This doesn't increase the flash or RAM available to
sketches. Three new pins are added which are duplicates of previous pins. The I2C
pins (A4, A5) are also been brought out on the side of the board near AREF. There's
an IOREF pin next to the reset pin, which is the duplicate of the 5V pin. The reset
option is now next to the USB connector, making it more accessible when a shield is
employed. Fig. 4.4 shows the Arduino Controller.
Fig 4.4 Arduino Controller
55
4.3.1.1 ARDUINO SPECIFICATIONS
The Arduino Uno R3 board includes the following specifications.

➢ The Operating Voltage of the Arduino is 5V
➢ The recommended input voltage ranges from 7V to 12V
➢ The i/p voltage limit is 6V to 20V
➢ Analog i/p pins are 6
➢ DC Current for each I/O Pin is 20 mA
➢ DC Current used for 3.3V Pin is 50 mA
➢ EEPROM is 1 KB
➢ The speed of the CLK is 16 MHz
➢ Length and width of the Arduino are 68.6 mm X 53.4 mm
➢ The weight of the Arduino board is 25 g
4.3.2 TRANSFORMER
Fig 4.5 Step down transformer
Figure 4.5 represents a step-down transformer. For this step-down

transformer, the secondary coil has lesser windings than the primary. The primary
56
winding is the first set of coils that connects to an alternating source. The secondary
coil is connected to the load, allocating the electrical power from the transformer.
The alternating current flowing in the primary voltage produces an alternating

magnetic flux which induces a similar current in the secondary coil that creates a
secondary voltage. Here, the reduced winding numbers in the secondary coil reduces
the output voltage, hence stepping down the voltage to a lesser value while
maintaining a constant frequency.
4.3.2.1 TRANSFORMER SPECIFICATIONS
➢ Input Voltage: 230V AC

➢ Output Voltage: 12V or 0V
➢ Output Current: 5A
➢ Mounting: Vertical mount type
➢ Winding: Copper
4.3.3 VOLTAGE REGULATOR
A voltage regulator helps in creating and maintaining a fixed output voltage,

and independent of changes in input voltage. Voltage regulators are used for
DC/DC power conversion, AC/AC, or AC/DC power conversion. Figure 4.6 shows a
5V voltage regulator. Voltage regulators are created to maintain and stabilize voltage
levels. Voltage regulators can be used to step down from a single higher output
source.
57
Fig 4.6 Voltage Regulator
4.3.4 LCD DISPLAY
Fig 4.7 16x2 line Hitachi HD44780 display
An LCD is a display module that uses liquid crystal to provide a visible image.
It is a basic module that is used commonly. It displays 16 characters for a line in 2
such lines. It has 16 connection pins, from left to right. The LCD modules form an
important part of many Arduino-based embedded systems to improve the user
interface of the system. When Arduino is interfaced with LCD, it gives the
programmer more freedom to modify the code easily. The nominal operating voltage
of LED is 5V at full brightness, with dimming at lower voltages. Figure 4.7 represents
an LCD 16*2 display. The pin out is as follows:
58
1. Ground
2. VCC +3.3 to +5V (typical)
3. Contrast adjustment is an analog input connected to a potentiometer. Register
Select (RS). RS=0: Command, RS=1: Data
4. Read/Write (R/W). R/W=0: Write, R/W=1: Read Clock. Falling edge triggered
5. Bit 0 (Not used in 4-bit operation)
9. Bit 4
10. Bit 5
11. Bit 6
12. Bit 7
13. Backlight Anode (+) (If applicable)
14. Backlight Cathode (-) (If applicable)
4.3.5 SERVO MOTOR
There are different servo motors available and every one has its unique specialty
and applications. Most of the servo motors operate from 4.8V to 6.5V, but most
ordinarily they're utilized at +5V. Most servo motors can rotate only from 0° to 180°
because of their gear arrangement. The gears within the motors are involved to wear
and tear. The commonly available one is that the 2.5kg/cm torque which comes with
the Towerpro SG90 Motor. This 2.5kg/cm torque means the motor can pull a weight
of two .5kg when it's suspended at a distance of 1cm. Figure 4.8 represents the servo
motor used for the hardware designing of the system.
59
4.3.5.1 SERVO MOTOR SPECIFICATIONS
➢ 3 pole ferrite, all nylon gear

➢ Top ball bearing
➢ Operating Voltage: 4.8V~6.0V
➢ Operating speed: 0.12sec/60 degree
➢ Output torque: 1.6kg/cm 4.8V
➢ Dimension: 21.5 x 11.8 x 22.7mm
➢ Weight: 9
Fig 4.8 Servo motor
4.3.6 SOLAR PANEL
Most of the solar array options currently available slot in one among three types:
Monocrystalline, polycrystalline, and thin-film. These solar panels vary in how they’re
made, appearance, performance, costs, and therefore the installations each are best
fitted to. Counting on the sort of installation you’re considering, one option could also
60
be more suitable than the others. In the figure, 4.9 types o solar panels with their
advantages and disadvantages are tabulated.
Fig 4.9 Types of solar panels
The Monocrystalline type has high efficiency and provides better performance but
higher cost. The polycrystalline are low cost but lower efficiency. The thin-film type of
solar panel is portable, flexible, and very lightweight. The disadvantage is that they
have the lowest efficiency of all the types of solar panels.
4.3.6.1 SOLAR PANEL SPECIFICATIONS
➢ DC Output Voltage (V): 12

➢ Max. Output Current (Amp): 1.03 -1.4
➢ Max Power Output (W): 20
➢ Weight (gm): 2880
➢ Material: Polycrystalline Silicon
➢ Application: Outdoor Power Bank
➢ Shipment Dimensions: 75 × 37 × 1 cm
61
4.3.7 LDR SENSORS
Light-dependent resistors are used in electronic circuits where it is needed to

detect the presence of light. These components can be described by a variety of
names from the light-dependent resistor, LDR, photo-resistor, or even photocell,
photocell, or photoconductor. In view of their low cost, easy manufacture, and simple
use, LDRs are utilized in a range of various applications. At one time LDRs were
employed in photographic light meters, and even now they're still utilized in a range of
applications where it's necessary to detect light levels. Light-dependent resistors are
widely available:- they're normally stocked by electronic component distributors, and
seeable of the way the industry supply chain operates recently, this is often the
conventional method to obtain them. Electronic component distributors large and tiny
will typically have a decent selection.
4.3.7.1 LDR SENSORS SPECIFICATIONS
➢ Diameter: 5mm
➢ No. of Pins: 2
➢ Type of Mounting: PCB Through Hole
➢ Maximum Operating Temperature: +800°C (Approx.)
➢ Dark resistance:1-20 Mohm
4.4 HARD WARE PROTOTYPE
This section explains the workflow of modelling and simulation of the prototype
hardware.
62
4.4.1 PROTOTYPE FABRICATION
Fig 4.10 Hardware prototype
Figure 4.10 shows the full hardware combined with the circuit. This section
explains the process of the fabrication of the prototype dual-axis solar tracker. The
initial part is the base of the dual-axis solar tracker. A square box is used for the
bottom of the base so that it can hold the top part and support the servo motors. Then
square cardboard is used to support the motor in the middle so that the motor can
turn the azimuth axis position. Square cardboard is used to support the bottom part of
the pcb board so that it can hold stronger. A 12V stepdown transformer is installed
near to PCB board. While connecting motors small box pieces of cardboard are
attached to the motor to arrange grip in connecting and holding the solar panel and
also the LDRs. To support the square board at the top, a rectangular box is attached
which goes through the center of the beam with another DC motor so that the top part
can turn the elevation axis. The Arduino Uno R3 in each circuit is a microcontroller
board based on the Atmega328 which is programmed in C language. Once the
Arduino board gets powered from the power supply, it starts controlling the features of
63
the devices interfaced to it. The Arduino Uno R3 and devices interfaced with it are
shown in figure 4.11.
Fig 4.11 circuit connections
4.4.2 TRACKING PROCESS
DC servo motor movement will follow the condition of the LDR. In dual-axis solar
tracking system, there are 2 DC servo motors. One motor is used to control the
elevation axis and another motor is used to control the azimuth axis.
64
Fig 4.12 Azimuth and Elevation angles
Figure 4.14 represents the Azimuth angle and Elevation angle for a solar
panel. The vertical tilt of the solar panel is called the Elevation angle. The horizontal
orientation of the solar panel is called the Azimuth angle. To lean toward more
production in the summer panel is tilted at location latitude minus 10-15°. To lean
toward more production in the winter, the panel is tilted at location latitude plus 10-
15°.
4.4.2.1 CASES OF SOLAR PANEL MOVEMENT
There are various cases to study to decide the position of solar panel using LDRs.
65
Case 1: LDR1 light intensity > LDR2, LDR3 and LDR4
Fig 4.13 when LDR1 has more light intensity
Figure 4.13 shows that LDR sensor 1 has the highest intensity of light hit on it thus
producing a higher voltage output than the other sensors. In this simulation, the solar
energy is taken by solar panel and analog signals of LDR values are compared with
each other. For case 1, Servo motor 1 rotates in clockwise direction and servo motor
2 rotates counter-clockwise direction. Servo motor 1 will control the movement of
66
elevation axis of the solar tracker and servo motor 2 will control the azimuth axis of
solar tracker. The voltage recorded while measuring with multimeter is 15.7V.
Figure 4.14 shows the condition when LDR sensor 2 gains the highest intensity of
light. The position of light in this case is at position 2. Therefore, in order to make all
the sensor gain the same intensity of light the elevation axis has to move counter-
67
clockwise and the azimuth axis move clockwise as shown by the servo motor 1 and 2
in Figure 4.16. The voltage recorded while measuring in multimeter is 15.8V.

Figure 4.15 is the condition when light is placed on position 3, thus LDR sensor
3 gains the highest intensity of light compared to other sensors. In order for the entire
LDR sensor to achieve the same light intensity the elevation axis which is servo motor
2 rotates clockwise. On the other hand, azimuth axis which is controlled by servo
motor 1 will rotate counter-clockwise. The voltage recorded while measuring the
multimeter is 19.4V.
68

Figure 4.16 shows the condition when LDR sensor 4 received the highest intensity of
light and the position of light is at position 4. At this case, the solar tracker needs to
rotate its elevation axis clockwise and the azimuth axis must rotate counter-clockwise.
In this case, servo motor 1 moves counter-clockwise and servo motor 2 will rotate
clockwise. The voltage recorded while measuring with multimeter is 18.5V.
69
Case 5: LDR1 light intensity = LDR2 = LDR3 = LDR4
Fig 4.17 when LDR1=LDR2=LDR3=LDR4

Figure 4.17 is the final case of programming part. This compares the entire sensor on
one fixed values which means all the sensors are receiving the same light intensity.
The position of light is placed at position 5 where light distributed are equally.
Therefore, the servo motor 1 and 2 stay at the same position instead of rotating.
70
4.4.3 TABLE OF VOLTAGE RECORDED IN DIFFERENT CASES
Table 4.1 Output voltage in different cases
SNO LDR CONDITION VOLTAGE IN V
1. LDR1>LDR2, LDR3, LDR4 15.7
Table 4.1 shows the real-time voltage output measurements of the 4 LDR sensors
when the light intensity varies its position concerning the sensor positions. It is noted
that the output voltage of the LDR sensor is not that stable. Some uncertainty occurs
in each of the sensor values. This is because the connection of the LDR sensor
towards the Arduino controller is by using a voltage divider apart from the LDR
sensors directly.
71
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND SCOPE OF THE PROJECT
5.1 CONCLUSION
In this project, a dual-axis solar tracking system has been proposed. This
project deals with dual-axis solar tracking to collect maximum rays using LDRs. It
resolves the problem by providing an arrangement for a solar panel to track the
movement of the sun on both axes. Here two DC Servo motors are used to give two
types of movement i.e. horizontal axis and vertical axis directions. Motor Driver IC is
arranged such that it can control both the servo motors simultaneously. Here the LDR
sensors are used to sense the photovoltaic cells and analog signals are sent to the
comparator where the voltage is compared and using Arduino the direction of
movement is decided and it is displayed on the LCD display. The simulation
conducted on a Grid-connected PV system with an electric vehicle, electric battery,
and load resulted in concluding that Dual axis tracking is the best efficient method of
tracking when compared to other existing sun-tracking methods thereby, increasing
the output obtained. It is a low-cost system that provides better efficiency. Here the
analog signals are analyzed and controlled by Arduino Uno. This automatic system is
completely programmed. The positions and amount of energy obtained at two LDRs
on the same axis are compared and analyzed to decide the movement of the servo
motors which moves the panel to the direction where more energy is available. It has
an LCD display to output visual information of the type of rotation needed an angle of
rotation and inclination.
72
5.2 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT
➢ This project can be implemented as a completely automated system in

future. The input signals which are given through the comparator are directly
obtained from the LDRs.
➢ The fluctuations in the output can be overcome using proper DC-DC

converter. They can improve the steady-state accuracy by reducing the steady
state error.
➢ There are various types of controllers like linear and non linear types. To
make the output voltage high and constant proper controllers like SEPIC, Zeta,
Interlewed and many other which are suitable to system are analyzed and
connected with the system for improving its output features.
➢ Sometimes non linear type of controllers like fuzzy logic, fuzzy with PID
controller and other types can also be studied and suitable one is included with
the system.
➢ This system is also used to provide ac supply by using proper dc-ac

inverter.
73
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DUAL AXIS SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of

S. SUPRIYA (Register No. 37140080)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

This is to certify that this Project Report is the bonafide work of

Submitted for Viva voce Examination held on

Internal Examiner External Examiner

We S. SUPRIYA (Reg. No. 37140080) and B. VINOBA (Reg. No. 37140094)

SYSTEM” done by us under the guidance of Mrs. M. KAVITHA is submitted in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Bachelor of Engineering degree in

Electrical and Electronics Engineering.

PLACE: SIGNATURE OF THE CANDIDATES

We are pleased to acknowledge our sincere thanks to Board of Management of

We convey our thanks to Dr. N. M. Nandhita., Dean, School of Electrical and

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

LIST OF TABLES xiv

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xv

1.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1

1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY 2

1.3 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT 8

1.5 ADVANTAGES OF TECHNIQUE 9

2.2 EXISTING SYSTEM BLOCKDIAGRAM 10

2.3 EXISTING SYSTEM ADVANTAGES 11

2.4.1 SOLAR PANEL 12

2.4.2 LDR SENSORS 14

2.4.2.1 TYPES OF LDRs 14

2.4.3 SERVO MOTOR 15

2.4.4.1 TYPES OF BATTERIES 16

2.4.5 CHARGE CONTROLLER 17

2.4.6 BRIDGE RECTIFIER 18

2.4.7 MOTOR DRIVER IC 18

2.5 PROPOSED SYSTEM ADVANTAGES 20

3 STUDY OF FLOODS IN INDIA

3.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION ABOUT 21

3.2 SIMULATION SOFTWARES 21

3.2.1 TYPES OF SIMULATION SOFTWARES 21

3.2.2 PV*SOL SOFTWARE 22

3.3 SIMULATION PROJECT OVERVIEW 23

3.3.1 PV MODULES SELECTION 24

3.3.3 CABLES SELECTION 26

3.3.4 ELECTRIC VEHICLE SELECTION 27

3.3.5 ELECTRIC BATTERY SYSTEM 29

3.3.6 SIMULATION ANALYSIS 30

3.4 PV SOLAR SYSTEM 31

3.4.1 PV MODULE ANALYSIS 31

3.4.2 IRRADIANCE PER MODULE AREA 32

3.4.3 ANALYSIS OF PV ENERGY 35

3.5 ENERGY FLOW OF SYSTEM 36

3.6 INVERTER ANALYSIS 38

3.6.1 PERFORMANCE RATIO 38

3.7 ELECTRIC BATTERY STSYEM ANALYSIS 40

3.7.1 SOC OF BATTERY 40

3.8.1 HOUSEHOLD LOAD FEED IN DATA 41

3.8.2 ELECTRIC VEHICLE – PART OF LOAD 43

SOC OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE

3.9 ENERGY FORECASTING 44

3.9.2 USE OF PV ENERGY 46

3.9.3 COVERAGE OF CONSUMPTION 48

3.9.4 TOTAL COVERAGE CONSUMPTION 49