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WorldCALL
Routledge Studies in
Computer Assisted Language Learning
EDITED BY CAROL CHAPPELLE
5. WorldCALL
International Perspectives on
Computer-Assisted Language
Learning
Edited by Mike Levy, Françoise Blin,
Claire Bradin Siskin and Osamu
Takeuchi
WorldCALL
International Perspectives on
Computer-Assisted Language Learning
The right of the editors to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of
the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections
77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereaf-
ter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
List of Figures ix
List of Tables xiii
Preface xv
Introduction xvii
PART I:
New Technologies, New Pedagogies
PART III:
Materials Design and Development
PART IV:
Learner Training
PART V:
Teacher Education
Contributors 313
Index 323
Figures
9.1 (b) Junge treelet unified with a determiner and an adjective. 134
9.1 (e) Linearly ordered tree spelling out the fi nal topological
slot positions of the major constituents of sentence (1). 134
Akio Iwasaki
School of Language Communication
Tokyo International University
Introduction
WorldCALL: International Perspectives
on Computer-Assisted Language Learning
Mike Levy
Françoise Blin
Claire Bradin Siskin
Osamu Takeuchi
Part I
New Technologies,
New Pedagogies
1 Blogging, Collaborative Writing,
and Multimodal Literacy in an
EFL Context
Hsien-Chin Liou
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, the screen plays a more important role in modern society than
ever before, although it may not immediately supplant paper. Scollon and
Scollon (2004) make it clear that a dichotomized view of face-to-face and
Internet-mediated life, and the difference between real and virtual, dis-
solves under examination of lived communicative practice (Thorne, 2005).
Internet-mediated language education emphasizes participation in dialogue
and development of the linguistic and meta-communicative resources nec-
essary for carrying out such processes (Thorne, 2005). Tandem learning,
reciprocity, and learner autonomy may evolve with Internet-mediated lan-
guage education. Visual elements in the new medium, particularly with
multimodal texts, have gained prominence. Multimodal texts integrate
not only text-based writing, but also sound (music and speech) and images
(still, animated, and video-based). The interest of readers dominates what
brings sense of the (written) representation. Digital technologies offer new
opportunities of literacy practice so that the reader can become author,
perhaps even in the process of reading, in ways that were not possible with
the book.
The advantages of setting up a blog-based language course lie in ease of
use and collecting information, the communicative features, and enhance-
ment of self-expression. We have commonly observed that young people
are more fluent with multimedia than print, compared with those from
older generations. As graphics, sound fi les, and video become common in
online texts, multiple means of communication enable personal arguments
(Nelson, 2006). How students make use of various modes of communica-
tion to make an argument and establish relationships with readers (Lin,
2008) is what researchers may want to know and what writing teachers
may want to teach to their learners.
While collaborative learning has been advocated in the general educa-
tion literature, the complexity and interactivity of online collaboration
cannot be dismissed easily. In Hertz-Lazarowitz and Bar-Natan (2002),
599 children were surveyed on their perceptions of writing efficiency,
4 Hsien-Chin Liou
self-regulation, and experiences of writing with computers. Computers and
peers are the key element for students’ writing development. Gollin (1999)
studied a collaborative writing project at a private consultancy in Austra-
lia. Written and spoken products were documented to show the impact of
their interactions with contributors and informants outside the team mem-
bers. This study demonstrated the complexity and interactivity inherent in
collaborative writing and the roles of personal and organizational power
in the writing process. In a study on network-based collaborative projects
among native and nonnative speakers of Spanish, Lee (2004) found that
such online collaboration promoted scaffolding for composing meaning
and form. Lee pointed out that learners’ language proficiency, computer
skills, and age differences were crucial factors that led to successful col-
laborative interaction.
In the project to be reported in this chapter, blogging is used as an
instructional platform as it enables traditional writing pedagogy, online
interaction, and multimodal expression. The target participants were 25
English-majoring undergraduate students who were taking a writing course
in an English as a Foreign Language college context. Various blog assign-
ments were designed that encouraged peer review, collaborative writing,
and incorporation of multimedia. Specific cases of 8 participants’ online
works were examined in detail to investigate their use of multimodal texts
on the blog with semiotic awareness through transduction and transforma-
tion (Kress, 2003). Before describing the details of the case study itself, a
brief literature concerning online peer review and multimodal expressions
will be discussed.
In this social and cultural environment, with these demands for com-
munication of these materials, for that audience, with these resources,
and given these interests of mine, what is the design that best meets
these requirements? Design focuses forward; it assumes that resources
are never entirely apt but will need to be transformed in relation to
all the contingencies of this environment now and the demands made.
(Kress, 2005, p. 20)
We should cultivate the type of EFL learners who are equipped with an
agency: the agency of “the individual who has a social history, a present
social location, an understanding of the potentials of the resources for com-
munication, and who acts transformationally on the resources environment
and, thereby, on self are requirements of communication” (Kress, 2005,
p. 20). What Kress means by a process of learning involves “transforma-
tive engagement in the world, transformation constantly of the self in that
engagement, transformation of the resources for representation outwardly
and inwardly” (p. 21).
A theory of multimodal meaning-making must account for the comple-
mentary processes of transformation and transduction, which Kress (2003)
explains as the purposive reshaping of semiotic resources within and across
modes, respectively. They are the psychological machinery of synaesthesia.
Kress (2005) argues that it is critical to explore the affordances of different
modes and media at this point because we are in a period of rapid and radi-
cal social, economic, political, cultural, and technological change, change
that is reorganizing and realigning the uses and effects of modes and media.
Synaesthesia is defi ned as the emergent creation of qualitatively new
forms of meaning as a result of “shifting” ideas across semiotic modes
(Kress, 2003, p. 36, cited in Nelson, 2006, p. 56). Nelson (2006) exam-
ined the process and product of five ESL freshman student writers taking
6 Hsien-Chin Liou
a multimedia writing class. For course design, he used Adobe Photoshop
for students to do digital storytelling by merging texts, sound (voice and
music), and imagery (still and video). The process writing approach was
adopted for the development of students’ digital essays in the course with
a theme on language, culture, and identity. Based on a tradition of design
experiments, Nelson used empirical data drawn from interviews, student
journals, and the digital story-related artifacts themselves, and demon-
strated how synaesthetically derived meaning emerged in the process of
creating multimodal texts. Through analyses, Nelson came up with catego-
ries of facilitators and hindrances to multimodal authorship (shown in the
students’ authorial voice): resemiotization through repetition, recognition
of language topology, and amplification of authorship as facilitators. The
analysis also acknowledged the influence of genre and over-accommoda-
tion of audience as hindrances.
It is argued that “synaesthesia can be the process and locus of ‘much
of what we regard as creativity’ (Kress, 2003, p. 36) in multimodal com-
municative practice” (Nelson, 2006, p. 59). Particularly, this is true when
one day in the future we all write with video, instead of texts. However,
“synaesthesia may have both amplifying and limiting effects” (p. 56) on the
projection of nonnative students’ authorial intention and voice. Nelson reit-
erates the importance of semiotic awareness, which refers to an ability to
look at and through media for decoding and designing multimodal mean-
ing. For implications of L2 writing pedagogy, awareness of multimodal
representation of meaning is important for learners, and so is an allowance
of freedom of using multimodality for sense-making in writing instruc-
tion. In a Japanese EFL context, Nelson (2008) delivered a digital storytell-
ing course and collected nine students’ works for analysis of multimodal
synthesis and the multimedia authors’ voices. Controlling the polysemy of
multimedia can let the students’ voice be heard.
Exploring “how multilingual writers negotiate and express their identi-
ties visually in multimodal genres” (p. 319), Tardy (2005) examined how
four graduate students used Microsoft PowerPoint presentation slides to
project both disciplinarity and individuality. She found that their habitus
was influenced by the discourse they met and their personal responses to
those discourses. Along the line of inquiry on multimodal literacy, Wysocki
(2004, p. 137) proposes an approach for analyzing the visual aspects of texts
by asking us to (a) name the visual elements in a text, (b) name the designed
relationships among those elements, and (c) consider how the elements and
relations connect with different audiences, contexts, and arguments.
Addressing this trend of research on the use of computers and writing
research, Lunsford (2006) expands the defi nition of writing to include epis-
temic, multivocal, multimodal, and multimediated practices in the comput-
ers and writing classroom. He further suggests that writing teachers should
“create classroom experiences that allow students to compose in ‘the most
compelling discursive modalities of their generation’” (p. 169).
Blogging, Collaborative Writing, and Multimodal Literacy 7
To sum up, a considerable amount of worldwide growth in weblogs in
a variety of different contexts and languages has attracted second or for-
eign language teachers to explore their impact on various language skills.
Using such features as archiving, hyperlinks, comments, and instant/self-
publishing, several teaching projects or empirical studies have been con-
ducted on the use of weblogs for language teaching. Among the research on
second language writing, students’ perceptions have been much examined
concerning online participation or peer review; however, few studies have
investigated both the students’ perceptions and their writing products, or
even the process. This chapter reports on a case study on blogging and writ-
ing instruction with contextual factors and student writing emphasized.
THE STUDY
Design of Tasks
The syllabus was designed with individual and pair writing tasks. Two spe-
cific tasks were designed for pair writing. In the first round, one of the pair
members served as the main author, while the other served as the contributor.
They went through brainstorming, drafting, commenting, and revising. In the
second round, the roles of the pair members were reversed. Blog entries were
designed as individual journal writing. An individual source-based project
was also included. Other assignment types included journal entries and indi-
vidual essays. All students’ writing was uploaded to the blog platform so that
participants could view one another’s essays. Peer comments were mandatory
in some weeks to encourage online class interaction with reading and writing.
A 13-item evaluation questionnaire was designed to obtain the partici-
pants’ perceptions on technology integration (such as privacy and blog writ-
ing, and comparison of writing on blogs and paper) and task design (see
Appendix 1.1). Specific cases of 8 participants’ online works were exam-
ined in detail to investigate their use of multimodal texts on the blog with
semiotic awareness through transduction and transformation.
8 Hsien-Chin Liou
Questionnaire Data
It was found that over 90 percent of the students agreed that the peer review
activity during the collaborative composing process was helpful, and 84
percent of them thought the collaborative essay was more effective than
individual work. Among factors that may have an influence on the students’
satisfaction, the collaborative process with their peers and the writing con-
tent were rated higher (4.54 out of 5.00) than other aspects of the essays. In
the fi rst pair writing task, online chat was implemented to assist discussion
or interaction after class; however, it was not regarded as helpful and the
students preferred face-to-face interaction. As for items related to blogging,
58.6 percent of them liked the experiences while the other half of them
expressed unfamiliarity with the media or the need of adding media to
their texts; 90 percent of them did not mind sharing blog entries with oth-
ers; and over 70 percent of them indicated other benefits of keeping a blog
entry regularly, such as going back to their blog entries to understand what
they had learned in the semester, making a writing course more interesting,
or viewing classmates’ blog entries and giving comments.
In sum, the collaborative process was generally regarded as beneficial,
although the collaborative essays were not necessarily better than individ-
ual works. Blogging was regarded as useful in terms of self-reflections on
their writing performance over a semester and as motivating in a writing
class, and it was also facilitative when combined with peer viewing and
commenting.
To illustrate, Kelly would relate her peer comments beyond the textual level
and evaluate how a piece of writing on blogs demonstrates its organization
and presentation style as in the following example:
You have a clear format on her blog; she titles each blog by numbers
and makes it very easy for professor, teaching assistant, and classmates
to locate those blogs. And I think you write in a lucid way that view-
ers can learn your feelings towards various topics or events very easily.
Pictures and video clips are interesting and well put.
In another case, Carol reflected how she had mastered the literacy of
blog writing:
Before entering collage, I had little knowledge about computer and the
internet . . . While most of my friends and classmates made good use of
the internet chatting and searching information, I remained a computer
phobic. To me, writing blog is a new way of sharing life, opinions, and
emotions with others. What distinguish blogging from other means of
communication is that once you post an entry, you share it not only
with your family and friends, but also the world since everyone online
can easily get access to your blog by merely a simple click.
For Carol, the traditional private writing act was transformed through
blogging into a public writing experience. Such new online writing experi-
ence enables new ways of self expression via new media:
This activity is really interesting. It’s not surprising to drive a car from
Beijing to Paris, and someone already did that in 1907. Now it’s really
amazing to cycling from Beijing to Paris. Therefore, they plan to spend
4 months to accomplish this magnificent feat, and their goal. Everyone
wants to save our world, but only a few people really set an example by
personally taking part. Everyone including me all have to think about it.
DISCUSSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The chapter is partially funded by the National Science Council under the
project number NC96–2411–H007–033–MY3. Help from the participat-
ing students and the research assistant, Vivian Wu, is acknowledged.
NOTES
1. The mp3 is an audio-specific format that was designed by the Moving Pic-
ture Experts Group as part of its MPEG-1 standard (http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/MP3).
2. The official website: http://www.beijingtoparis.com/ch-index.html. The par-
ticipants’ blog: http://www.deray.org/ (you really should see this one’s blog,
it’s really interesting, and you may want to go cycling as well after reading
his blog: http://www.crazyguyonabike.com/doc/HeatherB2P).
REFERENCES
Anson, C. M. (2003). Responding to and assessing student writing: The uses and
limits of technology. In P. Takayoshi & B. Huot (Eds.), Teaching writing with
computers (pp. 234–246). New York: Houghton Miffl in Co.
Blogging, Collaborative Writing, and Multimodal Literacy 17
Breuch, L. K. (2004). Virtual peer review: Teaching and learning about writing in
online environments. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Gollin, S. (1999). “Why? I thought we’d talked about it before”: Collaborative
writing in a professional workplace setting. In C. Candlin & K. Hyland (Eds.),
Writing: Texts, processes and practices (pp. 267–290). Harlow: Longman.
Hertz-Lazarowitz, R., & Bar-Natan, I. (2002). Writing development of Arab and
Jewish students using cooperative learning (CL) and computer-mediated com-
munication (CMC). Computers & Education, 39, 19–36.
Kress, G. (2003). Literacy in the new media age. London: Routledge.
Kress, G. (2005). Gains and losses: New forms of texts, knowledge, and learning.
Computers and Composition, 22, 5–22.
Lee, L. (2004). Learners’ perspectives on networked collaborative interaction with
native speakers of Spanish in the US. Language Learning & Technology, 8(1),
83–100.
Lin, Y. Y. (2008). A preliminary study of English multimedia writing: Implement-
ing weblog in a college composition class. Unpublished master’s thesis, Foreign
Languages and Literature, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu.
Liou, H. C. (2009). A case study of web-based peer review for college English writ-
ing. Curriculum and Instruction, 13(1), 173–208.
Liou, H. C., & Peng, C. Y. (2009). Training effects on computer-mediated peer
review. System, 37(3), 514–525.
Lunsford, A. A. (2006). Writing, technologies, and the fi fth canon. Computers and
Composition, 23, 169–177.
Nelson, M. E. (2006). Mode, meaning, and synaesthesia in multimedia L2 writing.
Language Learning & Technology, 10(2), 56–76. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.
edu/vol10num2/nelson/default.html
Nelson, M. E. (2008). Multimodal synthesis and the voice of the multimedia author
in a Japanese EFL context. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 2,
65–82.
Scollon, R., & Scollon, S. W. (2004). Nexus analysis: Discourse and the emerging
Internet. New York: Routledge.
Tardy, C. M. (2005). Expressions of disciplinarity and individuality in a multi-
modal genre. Computers and Composition, 22, 319–336.
Thorne, S. L. (2005). Pedagogical and praxiological lessons from Internet-medi-
ated intercultural foreign language education research. In J. A. Belz & S. L.
Thorne (Eds.), Internet-mediated intercultural foreign language education (pp.
2–30). Boston: Thomson and Heinle.
Wysocki, A. F. (2004). The multiple media of texts: How onscreen and paper texts
incorporate words, images, and other media. In C. Bazerman & P. Prior (Eds.),
What writing does and how it does it (pp. 123–163). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
INTRODUCTION
LITERATURE REVIEW
Podcast Design
Edirisingha et al. (2007) proposed a model with guidelines for the develop-
ment of educational podcasts. In this model, they identified three key fea-
tures that can facilitate students’ learning: (a) learner choice and flexibility,
(b) access to peers’ tacit knowledge through discussions, and (c) informal
learning.
With regard to the fi rst feature, Edirisingha et al. (2007) advocated that
podcasts should give learners sufficient choice and flexibility in approach-
ing and organizing their learning. They listed four flexibility dimensions as
planning guidelines:
PODCAST PROJECT
Project Background
Planning and preparations for the German 1 podcast project started in
May 2007 and the podcast was broadcast between August and November
2007. The German 1 podcast was intended to:
THE STUDY
Procedure
Qualitative and quantitative data were collected through three anonymous
questionnaires administered in weeks 2, 8, and 13 of the 13-week semester,
respectively, to 225 German 1 students who consented to participating in the
study. Questionnaire 1 was designed to elicit data on the respondents’ demo-
graphic background. It also sought to collect data on Internet, hardware, and
software resources available to students for podcast access. All 225 copies of
Questionnaire 1 were returned to the researchers. Questionnaires 2 and 3
were almost identical and each consisted of three parts. Multiple-choice and
multiple-response items were used in Part 1 to elicit data on the respondents’
podcast access and use (including the hardware and software used), and their
patterns of use. Part 2 comprised 5-point Likert-scale items designed to gauge
students’ perceptions of the usefulness and quality of the podcast, including
its contents and technical quality. Open-ended questions were included in
Part 3 to elicit qualitative evaluations of the podcast as well as suggestions for
future additions and improvements. For Questionnaire 2, 182 copies were
returned, and for Questionnaire 3, 203 copies.
The data were analyzed using SPSS Version 16. For the multiple-choice
and multiple-response items, frequency analyses were performed. Likert-
scale items in Questionnaires 2 and 3 were coded from 1 to 5 (“strongly
disagree” to “strongly agree”) and the frequency, mean, and standard devi-
ations of the responses were ascertained.
In reporting the results of the study, this chapter will restrict itself to
the most salient results from the analysis of the data from Questionnaires
Podcasting in Foreign Language Learning 27
1 and 3. The results of Questionnaire 2 were near identical to those of
Questionnaire 3 and did not show any significant differences. Furthermore,
as Questionnaire 3 was administered in the last week of the semester and
covered 13 of the 14 podcast lessons, it provided a more complete picture
of students’ podcast use and perceptions.
Questionnaire 1 Results
The average age of the 225 respondents was 20 and 68.6 percent were
female. About 68 percent of them were freshmen in that semester. The
respondents were from various faculties at the university, with the largest
groups being from Arts (43.1 percent), Engineering (20.9 percent), and Sci-
ence (18.2 percent).
All respondents owned a laptop and/or a desktop computer. In addi-
tion, all respondents had broadband Internet access at home and/or on
campus; 91.4 percent had broadband access at home, while 71.4 percent
reported using the campus network. The respondents were apparently
vastly exposed to the Internet, with 89.2 percent using the Internet daily.
More than three-quarters (77 percent) owned an mp3 player. It would thus
appear that students had the necessary hardware and Internet resources
necessary for podcast access.
However, only slightly more than a quarter (27 percent) subscribed
to podcasts, with only 10.3 percent subscribing to educational podcasts.
Hence, the statistics seem to suggest that the majority of the students had
little or no previous experience with podcasts, especially with educational
podcasts. Most of the students (67.7 percent) reported usually listening
to podcasts at home and only 11.3 percent said they did so on the go.
Ninety-three percent were reportedly prepared to spend 10 minutes or
more listening to a German-language learning podcast. Of these, the larg-
est group of 43.3 percent indicated their willingness to spend 15 to 30
minutes doing so.
Questionnaire 3 Results
Podcast Access
Figure 2.3 shows the number of podcast lessons students accessed, accord-
ing to Questionnaire 3 data. The majority of the students, 40.4 percent,
listened to at least 11 to 13 lessons. A further 15.3 percent reported
accessing 8 to 10 lessons. This means that over half of the students sur-
veyed listened to eight or more lessons in the course of the semester. Only
6 students (3 percent) did not listen to any podcast lesson at all. Five of
these 6 students volunteered a reason for not listening: While one said he/
she could not be bothered, the others stated technology-related reasons,
such as the following:
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
VI.
ORJATIE.
Kuinka voimme päästä vapaiksi, niin kauan kuin tuo mies elää,
heidän katseensa näytti sanovan. Ikäänkuin vahvistaakseen heidän
epäilyksiään Hassan, joka ymmärsi tai arvasi, mitä oli tapahtumassa,
kysyi, millä oikeudella me lupasimme vapautta hänen orjilleen.
*****
"Englantilaiset paholaiset!
ORJAIN RYNNÄKKÖ.
Pian kävi ilmi, että arabialaisia oli enemmän kuin olimme luulleet,
sillä noin viisikymmentä ampui eri suunnilta. Sitäpaitsi he vähitellen
etenivät, ilmeisesti aikoen kiertää meidät ja pyrkiä takanamme
olevalle harjanteelle. Muutamia me tietysti pysähdytimme heidän
juostessaan puun takaa toisen taakse, mutta tämä oli yhtä vaikeaa,
kuin tiheässä metsässä juoksentelevain kaniinien ampuminen, ja
ollakseni rehellinen minun on sanottava, että olin ainoa, joka sain
osumaan, sillä nopea silmäni ja pitkä harjaannus auttoivat.