DELHI PUBLIC SCHOOL, VASANT KUNJ

PHYSICS, CLASS 12
ELECTRONIC DEVICES
1. Metals They possess very low resistivity or high conductivity.
ρ ~ 10-2.10-8 Ωm, σ ~102. 108 Sm-1
2. Semiconductors They have resistivity or conductivity intermediate to metals and
insulators.
ρ ~ 10-5. 106 Ωm, σ ~ 10+5 .10-6 Sm-1
Types of Semiconductors Types of semiconductors are given below:
(i) Elements Semiconductors These semiconductors are available in natural form, e.g.
silicon and germanium.
(ii) Compound Semiconductors These semiconductors are made by compounding the
metals, e.g. CdS, GaAs, CdSe, InP, anthracene, polyaniline, etc.
3. Insulators They have high resistivity or low conductivity.
ρ ~ 1011 . 1019 Ωm, σ ~ 10-11. 10-19 Sm-1
4. Energy Band In a crystal due to interatomic interaction, valence electrons of one atom
are shared by more than one atom in the crystal. Now, splitting of energy level takes place.
The collection of these closely spaced energy levels are called an energy band.

5. Valence Band Valence band are the energy band which includes the energy levels of the
valence electrons.
6. Conduction Band Conduction band is the energy band above the valence band.
7. Energy Band Gap The minimum energy required for shifting electrons from valence
band to conduction band is called energy band gap (Eg ).
8. Differences between conductor, insulator and semiconductor on the basis of energy bands
are given below:

9. Fermi Energy It is the maximum possible energy possessed by free electrons of a

material at absolute zero temperature (i.e. 0K)
10. On the basis of purity , semiconductors are of two types:
(i) Intrinsic Semiconductors It is a pure semiconductor without any significant dopant
species present
ne = nh =ni
where , ne and nh are number densities of electrons and holes respectively and ni is called
intrinsic carrier concentration.
An intrinsic semiconductor is also called an undoped semiconductor or i-type
semiconductor

(ii) Extrinsic Semiconductors Pure semiconductor when doped with the impurity, it is
known as extrinsic semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconductors are basically of two types: (a) n-type semiconductors
(b) p-type semiconductors
NOTE: Both the type of semiconductors are electrically neutral.
11. In n-type semiconductor, majority charge carriers are electrons and minority charge
carriers are holes, i.e. ne> nh .
Here, we dope Si or Ge with a pentavalent element, then four of its electrons bond with the
four silicon neighbours, while fifth remains very weakly bound to its parent atom.
Formation of n-type semiconductor is shown below:

12. In p-type semiconductor, majority charge carriers are holes and minority charge
carriers are eletron i.e. nh > ne .
In a p-type semiconductor, doping is done with trivalent impurity atoms, i.e. those atoms
which have three valence electrons in their valence shell.
13. At equilibrium condition, ne nh = ni2
14. Minimum energy required to create a hole-electron pair, hv > Eg where, Eg is energy
band gap.
15. Electric current, I = eA(neve + nhvh) where, A is area of cross-section.
18. Formation of Depletion Region in p-n Junction During formation of p-n junction, due
to the concentration gradient across p and n sides, holes diffuse from p-side to n-side (p —>
n) and electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side (n —> p).
This space charge region on either side of the junction together is known as depletion
region.
Depletion region is free from mobile charge carriers. Width of depletion region is of the
order of 10-6 m. The potential difference developed across the depletion region is called the
potential barrier.
 After the PN junction diode is formed –
i)Holes from P region diffuse into N region due to difference in concentration.
ii)Free electrons from N region diffuse into P region due to the same reason.
iii)Holes and free electrons combine near the junction.
iv)Each recombination eliminates an electron and a hole.
v)The uncompensated negative immobile ions in the P region do not allow any more free
electrons to diffuse from N region.
vi)The uncompensated positive immobile ions in the N region do not allow any more holes to
diffuse from P region.
The positive donor ions in the N region and the negative acceptor ions in the P region are
left uncompensated.
vii)The region containing the uncompensated acceptor and donor ions is called ‘depletion
region’ because this region is devoid of mobile charges.
viii)Since the region is having only immobile charges, therefore, this region is also called ‘space
charge region’.
ix)The N region is having higher potential than P region.
x)So, an electric field is set up as shown in the figure.
xi)The difference in potential between P and N regions across the junction makes it difficult
for the holes and electrons to move across the junction. This acts as a barrier and hence
called ‘potential barrier’ or ‘height of the barrier’.
xii)The physical distance between one side and the other side of the barrier is called ‘width of
the barrier’.
xiii) Potential barrier for Si is nearly 0.7 V and for Ge is 0.3 V.
xiv) The potential barrier opposes the motion of the majority carriers.
xv) However, a few majority carriers with high kinetic energy manage to overcome the
barrier and cross the junction.
ix) Potential barrier helps the movement of minority carriers.
x)Terms Related to p-n Junction
(i) Depletion Layer At p-n. junction a region is created, where there is no charge carriers.
This region is called depletion layer. The width of this region is of the order of 106 m.
(ii) Potential Barrier The potential difference across the depletion layer is called potential
barrier. Barrier potential for Ge is 0.3 V and for Si is 0.7 V.
(iii) Forward Biasing In this biasing, the p -side is connected to positive terminal and n-
side to negative terminal of a battery. In this biasing, forward current flows due to majority
charge carriers. The width of depletion layer decreases.
(iv) Reverse Biasing In this biasing, the p-side is connected to negative terminal and n-
side to positive terminal of a battery.
pn junction

Forward biased
A P-N junction diode is said to be forward biased when the positive terminal of a cell or
battery is connected to the p-side of the junction and the negative terminal to the n side.
When diode is forward-biased the depletion region narrows and consequently, the potential
barrier is lowered. This causes the majority charge carriers of each region to cross into the
other region. The electrons travel from the n-side to the p-side and go to the positive
terminal of the battery. The holes that travel from the p-side to the n-side combine with the
electrons injected into the n-region from the negative terminal of the battery. This way the
diode conducts when forward-biased.

Reverse-biased pn junction diode

A pn-junction diode is said to be reverse biased when the positive terminal of a cell or
battery is connected to the n-side of the junction and the negative terminal to the p-side.
When reverse biased, the depletion region widens and the potential barrier is increased. The
polarity of the battery extracts the majority charge carriers of each region. The holes in the
p-region from the electrons injected into the p-region from the negative terminal of the
battery. The electrons in the n-region go to the positive terminal of the battery. This way,
the majority charge carrier concentration in each region decreases against the equilibrium
values and the reverse biased junction diode has a high resistance.

Breakdown
Zener Break Down Diode
When the reverse voltage is increased across the PN junction diode, then the electric field
across the diode junction increases. This will result in a force of attraction on a negatively
charged electron across the junction. The force from this junction will frees electron from its
covalent bond and moves those free electrons to conduct the band. When the electric field
increases, i.e., with the applied voltage then more and more electrons are freed from its
covalent bonds.
This will result in drifting the electrons across the junction and electron hole recombination
occurs. Finally, net current will be developed and it will increase with an increase in the
electric field. Zener diode occurs in a PN junction diode with thin junction and heavy
doping.
Avalanche Break Down Diode
Avalanche breakdown occurs in a PN junction. It is moderately doped and has thick
junction. Normally Avalanche breakdown occurs when we apply a high reverse voltage
across the diode. When there is an increase in applied reverse voltage then there will be an
 increase in the electric field across the junction. Suppose the applied reverse voltage is Va
and the depletion layer width is d.
The generated electric field Ea = Va/d
The generated electric field applies force on the electronics at the junction and it frees them
from covalent bonds. These free electrons will gain acceleration and will start moving
across the junction with a high velocity. This will result in collision with neighbouring
atoms. Because of this collision very high velocity, which will further generate free
electrons. Finally, these electrons will start drifting and electron hole pair recombination
across the junction. The net current will increase.

Half Wave Rectifier Circuit

A half-wave rectifier is the simplest form of the rectifier and requires only one diode for the
construction of a halfwave rectifier circuit.

Working of Half Wave Rectifier

In this section, let us understand how a half-wave rectifier transforms AC into DC.

1. A high AC voltage is applied to the primary side of the step-down transformer. The
obtained secondary low voltage is applied to the diode.
2. The diode is forward biased during the positive half cycle of the AC voltage and
reverse biased during the negative half cycle.
3. The final output voltage waveform is as shown in the figure below:
Full wave Rectifier

A simple full way rectifier consists of two transformers mutually inducted and two diodes
which filter the negative cycle of alternating current. At any instant the voltage at A(input
voltage of diode 1) and end B (input voltage of diode 2) of the secondary with respect to the
centre tap will be out of phase. Suppose during a positive half cycle of Ac input, the end A
is positive and end B is negative with respect to the centre tap. Then diode 1 gets forward
biased(allows the flow of current) and diode 2 gets reversed biased(does not allow the flow
of current). Hence the current flows through the diode 1 towards the centre tap along the
path AXY as shown in the above diagram. Similarly, during the negative half cycle of Ac
input the end B becomes positive and end A becomes negative.
Advantages of Full Wave Rectifier

• The rectification efficiency of full wave rectifiers is double that of half wave
rectifiers. The efficiency of half wave rectifiers is 40.6% while the rectification
efficiency of full wave rectifiers is 81.2%.
• The ripple factor in full wave rectifiers is low hence a simple filter is required. The
value of ripple factor in full wave rectifier is 0.482 while in half wave rectifier it is
about 1.21.
• The output voltage and the output power obtained in full wave rectifiers are higher
than that obtained using half wave rectifiers.
The only disadvantage of the full wave rectifier is that they need more circuit elements than
the half wave rectifier which makes, making it costlier.

Peak Inverse Voltage

Peak inverse voltage is the maximum voltage a diode can withstand in the reverse-biased
direction before breakdown. The peak inverse voltage of the full-wave rectifier is double that
of a half-wave rectifier. The PIV across D1 and D2 is 2Vmax.

Filter Circuit
A filter circuit is a device which removes the a.c. component of rectifier output and allows
only d.c. component to reach the load. A filter circuit is installed between the rectifier and
the load.

Ripple factor
The ripple factor is defined as The ratio of the RMS value of an alternating current
component in the rectified output to the average value of rectified output.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. How does the width of the depletion layer of the p-n-junction diode change with a
decrease in reverse bias?
ANS. The width of the depletion layer of p-n junction diodes decreases with a decrease in
reverse bias.

2. What does a photodiode do?

ANS. A photodiode is a special-purpose p-n junction diode fabricated with a transparent
window to allow light to fall on the diode. It is operated under reverse bias.

3. Define valence band and conductor band.

ANS. Valence band: The valence band is the energy band consisting of valence (tightly bound)
electrons.

Conduction band: The conduction band is the energy band consisting of conduction (loosely
bound) electrons.

4. What do you mean by depletion region and potential barrier in junction diode?
Ans: Depletion region: A layer around the intersection between p and n sections of a junction
diode where charge carriers, electrons, and holes are less in number is called the depletion
region.

Potential barrier: The potential difference created due to the diffusion of charge carriers across
the junction is called the potential barrier.

5. What is a semiconductor diode? How can we symbolize this?

ANS. A semiconductor diode is basically a p-n junction with metallic contacts provided at the
ends for the application of an external voltage. It is a two-terminal
device.

A p-n junction diode is symbolically represented as shown in fig. a and fig b.

6. What is reverse saturation current?

ANS. For the diode in reverse bias, the current is very small (~µA) and almost remains constant
with change in bias. It is called reverse saturation current.

7. What is Fermi level in semiconductors?

Ans. Fermi level (denoted by EF) is present between the valence and conduction bands. It is
the highest occupied molecular orbital at absolute zero. The charge carriers in this state have
their own quantum states and generally do not interact with each other. When the temperature
rises above absolute zero, these charge carriers will begin to occupy states above the Fermi
level.

In a p-type semiconductor, there is an increase in the density of unfilled states. Thus,

accommodating more electrons at the lower energy levels. However, in an n-type
semiconductor, the density of states increases, therefore, accommodating more electrons at
higher energy levels.

8. Why does the resistivity of semiconductors go down with temperature?

Ans. The difference in resistivity between conductors and semiconductors is due to their
difference in charge carrier density.

The resistivity of semiconductors decreases with temperature because the number of charge
carriers increases rapidly with an increase in temperature, making the fractional change i.e., the
temperature, it works as a conductor.

9. What are some important properties of semiconductors?

Ans. The important properties of the semiconductors are as follows –

1. Semiconductor acts like an insulator at Zero Kelvin. On increasing the temperature, it

works as a conductor.
2. Due to their exceptional electrical properties, semiconductors can be modified by
doping to make semiconductor devices suitable for energy conversion, switches, and
amplifiers.
3. Lesser power losses.
4. Semiconductors are smaller in size and possess less weight.
5. Their resistivity is higher than conductors but lesser than insulators.
 6. The resistance of semiconductor materials decreases with the increase in temperature
and vice-versa.

10. Pure silicon semiconductor at 500K has equal electrons and holes (1.5 × 1016 m-3).
Doping by indium increases nh to 4.5 × 1022 m-3. Calculate the type and electron
concentration of the doped semiconductor.
Since, n2i = ne nh
(1.5 × 1016)2 = ne (4.5 × 1022)
Therefore, ne = 5 × 109
Given nh = 4.5×1023
⇒ nh >> ne
Therefore, the semiconductor is p-type and ne = 5 × 109 m-3.

11. Why is the valence band in semiconductors partially empty, and the conduction band is
partially filled at room temperature?
In semiconductors, the conduction band is empty, and the valence band is completely filled at
zero Kelvin. No electron from the valence band can cross over to the conduction band at this
temperature. But at room temperature, some electrons in the valence band jump over to the
conduction band due to a small forbidden gap, i.e., 1 eV.

12. In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of conduction electrons is 7 × 1019 m3.

Find the total number of current carriers in the same semiconductor of size 1 cm × 1
cm × 1 mm.

In an intrinsic semiconductor ne = nh
Given, ne = 7 × 1019 per m3
Therefore, nh = ne = 7 × 1019 m3
So, the total current carrier density = ne + nh = 7×1019 + 7×1019 = 14×1019 per m3
Now, the total number of current carriers = Number density × Volume
= (14 × 1019 per m3 ) × (10-2m × 10-2m × 10-3m) = 14×1012.
The energy gap of silicon is 1.14 eV. What is the maximum wavelength at which silicon will
begin absorbing energy?

Since hc/λ = Energy (E)

Therefore, λ = hc/E
= [(6.628 × 10-34) × (3×108)]/1.14×1.6×10-19J
= 10.901 × 10-7 m = 10901 Å.
13. (i) With the help of circuit diagrams, distinguish between forward biasing and reverse
biasing of a p-n junction diode.
(ii) Draw V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode in
(a) forward bias,
(b) reverse bias. (All India 2009)
Answer:

14. Draw a labelled diagram of a full wave rectifier circuit. State its working principle.
Show the input-output waveforms. (All India 2009)
Answer:
p-n junction diode as full wave rectifier
A full wave rectifier consists of two diodes and special type of transformer known as
centre tap transformer as shown in the circuit. The secondary of transformer gives the
desired a.c. voltage across A and B.
During the positive half cycle of a.c. input, the diode D1 is in forward bias and
conducts current while D2 is in reverse biased and does not conduct current. So we
 get an output voltage across the load resistor RL.

During the negative half cycle of a.c. input, the diode D1 is in reverse biased and does
not conduct current while diode D2 in forward biased and conducts current. So we get
an output voltage across the load resistor RL.
NOTE: This is a more efficient circuit for getting rectified voltage or current.
15. Draw V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode.
Answer the following questions, giving reasons:
(i) Why is the current under reverse bias almost independent of the applied potential
upto a critical voltage?
(ii) Why does the reverse current show a sudden increase at the critical voltage.
Name any semiconductor device which operates under the reverse bias in the
breakdown region.
(All India 2012)
Answer:
(i) In reverse bias of p-n junction diode the small current is due to minority carrier and
hence resistance is also very high. Increase in voltage leads to a very-very small
increase in reverse bias currents so we conclude that in reverse bias reverse
 current is almost independent of applied potential upto a critical voltage
because after this critical voltage, current increases suddenly.

(ii) In reverse bias, reverse current through junction diode is due to minority charge
carriers. As reverse bias voltage is increased, electric field at junction becomes
significant. When reverse bias voltage becomes equal to zener voltage, electric field
strength across junction becomes high. Electric field across junction is sufficient to
pull valence electrons from the atom on p- side and accelerate them towards n-side.
The movement of these electrons across the function account for high current which is
observed at breakdown reverse voltage. Zener diode and photo diode operate under
reverse bias.
16. Write any two distinguishing features between conductors, semiconductors and
insulators on the basis of energy band diagrams. (All India 2012)
Answer:
Distinguishing features between conductors, semiconductors and insulators :
(i) Insulator. In insulator, the valence band is completely filled. The conduction band
is empty and forbidden energy gap is quite large. So no electron is able to go from
valence band to conduction band even if electric field is applied. Hence electrical
conduction is impossible. The solid/ substance is an insulator.
(ii) Conductors (Metals). In metals, either the conduction band is partially filled or the
conduction and valence band partly overlap each other. If small electric field is
applied across the metal, the free electrons start moving in a direction opposite to the
direction of electric field. Hence, metal behaves as a conductor.
(iii) Semiconductors. At absolute zero kelvin, the conduction band is empty and the
valence band is filled. The material is insulator at low temperature. However the
energy gap between valence band and conduction band is small. At room
temperature, some valence electrons acquire thermal energy and jump to
conduction band where they can conduct electricity. The holes left behind in
 valence band act as a positive charge carrier.

17. Distinguish between N-type and p-type semi-conductors on the basis of energy band
diagrams. Compare their conductivities at absolute zero temperature and at room
temperature. (Comptt. Delhi 2014)
Answer:
Distinction between n-type and p-type semiconductors on the basis of energy level
diagram :

(i) In n-type semi conductors an extra energy level (called donor energy level) is
produced just below the bottom of the conduction band, while in the p-type
semiconductor, this extra energy band (called acceptor energy level) is just above the
top of the balanced band.
(ii) In n-type semiconductors, most of the electrons come from the donor impurity
 while in p-type semiconductor, the density of holes in the valence band is
predominantly due to the impurity in the extrinsic semiconductors.
(iii) At absolute zero temperature conductivities of both types of semi-conductors will
be zero.
(iv) For equal doping, an n-type semiconductor will have more conductivity than a p-
type semiconductor, at room temperature.
18. Explain the two processes involved in the formulation of a p-n junction diode. Hence
define the term ‘barrier potential’. (Comptt. Delhi 2017)
Answer:
(a) Two important processes that occur during the formation of a p-n junction are
(i) diffusion and
(ii) drift.
(i) Diffusion: In n-type semiconductor, the concentration of electrons is much greater
as compared to concentration of holes; while in p-type semiconductor, the
concentration of holes is much greater than the concentration of electrons. When a p-n
junction is formed, then due to concentration gradient, the holes diffuse from p side to
n side (p ➝ n) and electrons diffuse from n side to p-side (n ➝ p). This motion of
charge carriers gives rise to diffusion current across the junction.

(II) Drift: The drift of charge carriers occurs due to electric field. Due to built in
potential barrier an electric field directed from n-region to p-region is developed
across the junction. This field causes motion of electrons on p-side of the junction to
n-side and motion of holes on n-side of junction to p-side. Thus a drift current starts.
 This current is opposite to the direction of diffusion current.

19. (a) Explain the formation of depletion region for p-n junction diode. How does the
width of this region change when the junction is
(i) forward biased,
(ii) reverse biased?
Answer:
(a)
As soon as a p-n junction is formed, the majority charge carriers begin to diffuse from
the regions of higher concentration to the regions of lower concentrations. Thus the
electrons from the n-region diffuse into the p-region and where they combine with the
holes and get neutralised. Similarly, the holes from the p-region diffuse into the n-
region where they combine with the electrons and get neutralised. This process is
called electron-hole recombination.

The p-region near the junction is left with immobile -ve ions and n-region near the
junction is left with +ve ions as shown in the figure. The small region in the vicinity
of the junction which is depleted of free charge carriers and has only immobile ions is
called the depletion layer. In the depletion region, a potential difference VB is created,
called potential barrier as it creates an electric field which opposes the further
diffusion of electrons and holes.
 (i) In forward biased, the width of depletion region is decreased.
(ii) In reverse biased, the width of depletion region is increased.
20. (a) Define the terms ‘depletion layer’ and ‘barrier potential’ for a p-n junction. How
does
(i) an increase in the doping concentration and
(ii) biasing across the junction, affect the width of the depletion layer?
Answer:
(a) (i) Depletion layer. The layer containing unneutralized acceptor and donor ion
across a p-n junction is called depletion layer. It is called depletion layer because it is
depleted of mobile charge carriers.
(ii) Barrier potential. The electric field between the acceptor and donor ions is called
the barrier. The difference of potential from one side of the barrier to the other side is
called barrier potential.
(i) The increase of doping concentration will reduce width of depletion layer in semi
conductor.
(ii) depletion layer widens under reverse bias and vice versa.

CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS

Case Study Questions

1. Read the Case Study given below and answer the questions that follow:

Consider a thin p-type silicon (p-Si) semiconductor wafer. By adding precisely a small quantity
of pentavelent impurity, part of the p-Si wafer can be converted into n-Si. There are several
processes by which a semiconductor can be formed. The wafer now contains p-region and n-
region and a metallurgical junction between p-, and n- region. Two important processes occur
during the formation of a p-n junction: diffusion and drift. We know that in an n-type
semiconductor, the concentration of electrons (number of electrons per unit volume) is more
compared to the concentration of holes. Similarly, in a p-type semiconductor, the concentration
of holes is more than the concentration of electrons. During the formation of p-n junction, and
due to the concentration gradient across p-, and n- sides, holes diffuse from p-side to n-side (p
→ n) and electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side (n → p). This motion of charge carries gives
rise to diffusion current across the junction.

I.How can a p-type semiconductor be converted into n- type semiconductor?

a) adding pentavalent impurity
b)adding trivalent impurity
c)not possible
d) heavy doping
Ans : a

II.Which of the following is true about n type semiconductor?

a) concentration of electrons is less than that of holes.
b)concentration of electrons is more than that of holes.
c)concentration of electrons equal to that of holes.
d)None of these
Ans:b

III.Which of the following is true about p type semiconductor?

a) concentration of electrons is less than that of holes.
b)concentration of electrons is more than that of holes.
c)concentration of electrons equal to that of holes.
d)None of these
Ans:a

lV.Which of the following is the reason about diffusion current?

a) diffusion of holes from p to n
b)diffusion of electronss from n to p
c) both (a) and (b)
d) None of these
Ans. c

V. What are the processes that occur during formation of a p-n junction?
a) drift
b) diffusion
c) both (a) and (b)
d)None of these
Ans: c

2. Read the Case Study given below and answer the questions that follow:
A solar cell is basically a p-n junction which generates emf when solar radiation falls on the
p-n junction. It works on the same principle (photovoltaic effect) as the photodiode, except that
no external bias is applied and the junction area is kept much larger for solar radiation to be
incident because we are interested in more power.
A p-Si wafer of about 300 µm is taken over which a thin layer (~0.3 µm) of n-Si is grown on
one-side by diffusion process. The other side of p-Si is coated with a metal (back contact). On
the
top of n-Si layer, metal finger electrode (or metallic grid) is deposited. This acts as a front
contact. The
metallic grid occupies only a very small fraction of the cell area (<15%) so that light can be
incident
on the cell from the top. The generation of emf by a solar cell, when light falls on, it is due to
the following three basic processes: generation, separation and collection—
(i) generation of e-h pairs due to light (with hν > E).

I. Working principle of solar cell is same as:

a) Photodiode
b) Zener diode
c) LED
d) Half wave rectifier
Ans : a
II.Which type of external biasing is applied in Solar cell?
a) Forward
b) Reverse
c) both (a) and (b)
d) No external biasing is applied
Ans : d
III. Which of the following is true for a solar cell?
a) hv < E
b) hv>E
c) E = hv
d) None of these
Ans : b
IV. What is the principle of Solar cell?
Ans: Photovoltaic Effect
V. In a solar cell,
a) Junction area is large
b) Junction area is small
c) Junction area is negligible
d) None of these
Ans: a

3. Read the Case Study given below and answer the questions that follow:

It is a heavily doped p-n junction which under forward bias emits spontaneous radiation. The
diode is encapsulated with a transparent cover so that emitted light can come out. When the
diode is forward biased, electrons are sent from n → p (where they are minority carriers) and
holes are sent from p → n (where they are minority carriers). At the junction boundary the
concentration of minority carriers increases compared to the equilibrium concentration (i.e.,
when there is no bias). Thus at the junction boundary on either side of the junction, excess
minority carriers are there which recombine with majority carriers near the junction. On
recombination, the energy is released in the form of photons. Photons with energy equal to or
slightly less than the band gap are emitted. When the forward current of the diode is small, the
intensity of light emitted is small. As the forward current increases, intensity of light increases
and reaches a maximum. Further increase in the forward current results in decrease of light
intensity.

I. Which special purpose diode is mentioned above?

a) Solar cell
b)LED
c) Photodiode
d) Zener Diode
Ans: b
II. Which of the following device is forward biased?
a) Solar cell
b)LED
c) Photodiode
d) Zener Diode
Ans: b
III) Energy is released in the form of
a) Electron
b) Proton
c) Photon
d) None of these
Ans: c
IV. Which of the following is false?
a) As forward current increases, intensity of light increases.
b) Increase in further forward current decreases the intensity of light.
c) Photons with energy greater than band gap is emitted.
d) Photons with energy less than band gap is emitted.
Ans. c
V. What happens at the junction?
a) Excess minority carriers recombine with majority majority carriers.
b)Excess majority carriers recombine with majority majority carriers.
c)Excess minority carriers recombine with majority minority carriers.
d) None of these
Ans : a

4. Read the Case Study given below and answer the questions that follow:

Zener diode is fabricated by heavily doping both p and n sides of the junction. Due to this,
depletion region formed is very thin (<10–6 m) and the electric field of the junction is extremely
high (~5×106 V/m) even for a small reverse bias voltage of about 5V. It is seen that when the
applied reverse bias voltage(V) reaches the breakdown voltage (Vz) of the Zener diode, there
is a large change in the current. Note that after the breakdown voltage Vz, a large change in the
current can be produced by almost insignificant change in the reverse bias voltage. In other
words, Zener voltage remains constant, even though current through the Zener diode varies
over a wide range. This property of the Zener diode is used for regulating supply voltages so
that they are constant.

I. Zener diode is:

a) Heavily doped
b) lightly doped
c) not doped
d) None of these
Ans : a
II. After breakdown voltage ,
a) a small current is produced
b) there is no change in current
c) a large current is produced
d) None of these
Ans : c
III. Main use of Zener Diode is in :
a) voltage regulator
b) optoelectronic devices
c) solar cells
d) None of these
Ans: a
IV. Depletion region of Zener Diode is :
a) very thick
b) very thin
c) thin
d) thick
Ans: b
V. Zener diode is
a) forward biased
b) reverse biased
c) not biased
Ans: b

5. Read the Case Study given below and answer the questions that follow:

A Photodiode is again a special purpose p-n junction diode fabricated with a transparent
window to allow light to fall on the diode. It is operated under reverse bias. When the
photodiode is illuminated with light (photons) with energy (hν) greater than the energy gap (E)
of the semiconductor, then electron-hole pairs are generated due to the absorption of photons.
The diode is fabricated such that the generation of e-h pairs takes place in or near the depletion
region of the diode. Due to electric field of the junction, electrons and holes are separated
before they recombine. The direction of the electric field is such that electrons reach n-side and
holes reach p-side. Electrons are collected on n-side and holes are collected on p-side giving
rise to an emf. When an external load is connected, current flows. The magnitude of the
photocurrent depends on the intensity of incident light.

I. Photo Diode is
a) forward biased
b) reverse biased
c) Not biased
Ans : b
II. Which of the following is true about photodiode?
a) E > hv
b) E = hv
c) E < hv
d) None of these
Ans: c
III. Magnitude of photocurrent depends on
a) Intensity of light
b) Biasing
c) Potential
d) None of these
Ans: a
IV. Electrons and holes are separated before they recombine by:
a) Diffusion current
b) Drift current
c) Electric field
d) Electric potential
Ans : c
V. Direction of electric field is such that
a) electrons reach n- side
b) holes reach p- side
c) Both (a) and (b)
d) holes reach n side
Ans: c
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS:
1. In a semiconductor, the forbidden energy gap between the valence band and
the conduction band is of the order of:
(a)1Mev
(b) 1 ev
(c) 0.1 Mev
(d) 5ev
2. If the conductivity of a semiconductor is only due to break of the covalent
band due to the thermal excitation, then the semiconductor is called:
(a) intrinsic
(b) extrinsic
(c) Acceptor
(d) none of these
3. A hole in a p-type semiconductor is-
(a) an excess electron
(b) A missing atom
 (c) A missing electron
(d) A donor level.
4. The mobility of conduction electrons is greater than that of holes since
electrons is greater than that of holes since electrons.
(a) are negatively charged.
(b) are lighter
(c) require smaller energy for moving through the crystal lattice.
(d) Undergo smaller number of collisions.
5. The conductivity of semiconductors like Ge and Si:
(a) increases when it is doped with pentavalent impurity.
(b) increases when it is doped with trivalent impurity.
(c) increases when it is doped with pentavalent or trivalent impurity.
(d) none
6. In which case is the junction diode forward biased.

7. Assuming that the junction diode is ideal, the current in the arrangement
shown here is:

(a) 2 mA
(b) 30 mA
(c) 20 mA
(d) 10 mA
8. Which of following statements is not true?
(a) Resistance of an intrinsic semiconductor decreases with increase in
temperature.
(b) Doping pure Si with trivalent impurities gives p-type semiconductor.
(c) The majority carriers in n-type semiconductor are holes.
(d) A p-n junction can act as semiconductor diode
9. What happens to the forbidden energy gap of a semiconductor with
the fall of temperature?
a) Decreases
b) Increases
c) Unchanged
d) Sometimes decreases and sometimes increases

10. In a semiconductor, what is responsible for conduction?

a) Electrons only
b) Holes only
c) Both electrons and holes
d) Neither electrons nor holes
 Two statements are given – One labeled assertion (A) and other labeled reason (R).
Select the correct answer to these questions from the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) as
given below:
a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
c) A is true but R is false.
d) A is false but R is true.
1. Assertion (A): A Pure semiconductor has negative temperature coefficient of
resistance.
Reason (R): On raising the temperature, more charge carriers are released,
conductance increases and resistance decreases.
2. Assertion (A): The colour of light emitted by LED depends on its forward biasing.
Reason (R): The reverse biasing of p-n junction will lower the width of depletion layer.
3. Assertion (A): Semiconductor do not obey’s Om’s Law.
Reason (R): Current is determined by the rate of flow of charge carrier
4. Assertion (A): Silicon is preferred over germanium for making semiconductors device.
Reason (R): The energy gap for germanium is more than the energy gap of silicon.
5. Assertion (A): At a fix temperature, silicon will have a minimum conductivity when it
has a smaller accepter doping.
Reason (R): The conductivity of and intrinsic semiconductor is slightly higher than of a
lightly doped p-type.

6. Assertion : Silicon is preferred over germanium for making semiconductor devices.

Reason : The energy gap in germanium is more than the energy gap in silicon.
7. Assertion : Electron has higher mobility than hole in a semiconductor.
Reason : The mass of electron is less than the mass of the hole.
8. Assertion : When two semi conductor of p and n type are brought in contact, they
form p-n junction which act like a rectifier.
Reason : A rectifier is used to convent alternating current into direct current.
9. Assertion : The diffusion current in a p-n junction is from the p-side to the n-side.
Reason : The diffusion current in a p-n junction is greater than the drift current when
the junction is in forward biased.
10. Assertion : A p-n junction with reverse bias can be used as a photo-diode to measure
light intensity.
Reason : In a reverse bias condition the current is small but it is more sensitive to
changes in incident light intensity.
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

1. Photoelectric Effect The phenomenon of emission of photoelectron from

the surface of metal, when a light beam of suitable frequency is incident
on it, is called photoelectric effect. The emitted electrons are called
photoelectrons and the current so produced is called photoelectric
current.
Hertz’ Observation The phenomenon of photo electric emission was
discovered in 1887 by Heinrich Hertz during his electromagnetic wave
experiment. In his experimental investigation on the production of
electromagnetic waves by means of spark across the detector loop were
enhanced when the emitter plate was illuminated by ultraviolet light from
an arc lamp.
Lenard’s Observation Lenard observed that when ultraviolet radiation were
allowed to fall on emitter plate of an evacuated glass tube enclosing two
electrodes, current flows. As soon as, the ultraviolet radiations were
stopped, the current flows also stopped. These observations indicate that
when ultraviolet radiations fall on the emitter plate, electrons are ejected
from it which are attracted towards the positive plate by the electric field.
2. Terms Related to Photoelectric Effects
There are many terms related to photoelectric effects which are of follow:
(i) Free Electrons In metals, the electrons in the outer shells (valence
electrons) are loosely bound to the atoms, hence they are free to move
easily within the metal surface but cannot leave the metal surface. Such
electrons are called free electrons.
(ii) Electron Emission The phenomenon of emission of electrons from the
surface of a metal is called electron emission.
(iii) Photoelectric Emission It is the phenomenon of emission of electrons
from the surface of metal when light radiations of suitable frequency fall
on it.
(iv) Work Function The minimum amount of energy required to just eject
an electron from the outer most surface of metal is known as work
function of the metal.

(v) Cut-off Potential For a particular frequency of incident radiation, the

minimum negative (retarding) potential V0 given to plate for which the
photoelectric current becomes zero, is called cut-off or stopping potential.

(vi) Cut-off Frequency The minimum frequency of light which can emit
photoelectrons from a material is called threshold frequency or cut-off
frequency of that material.
(vii) Cut-off Wavelength The maximum wavelength of light which can emit
photoelectrons from a material is called threshold wavelength or cut-off
wavelength of that material.
3. Effect of Intensity of Light on Photo current For a fixed frequency of
incident radiation, the photoelectric current increases linearly with
increase in intensity of incident light.
4. Effect of Potential on Photoelectric Current For a fixed frequency and
intensity of incident light, the photoelectric current increases with increase
in the potential applied to the collector. When all the photoelectrons reach
the plate A, current becomes maximum it is known as saturation current.

5. Effect of Frequency of Incident Radiation on Stopping Potential We

take radiations of different frequencies but of same intensity. For each
radiation, we study the variation of photoelectric current against the
potential difference between the plates.

6. Laws of Photoelectric Emission

(i) For a given material and a given frequency of incident radiation, the
photoelectric current number of photoelectrons ejected per second is
directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
(ii) For a given material and frequency of incident radiation, saturation
current is found to be proportional to the intensity of incident radiation,
whereas the stopping potential is independent of its intensity.
(iii) For a given material, there exists a certain minimum frequency of the
incident radiation below which no emissions of photoelectrons takes
place. This frequency is called threshold frequency.
Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectron or equivalent stopping potential is independent of intensity
of incident light but depends only upon the frequency (or wavelength) of
the incident light.
(iv) The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process. The time lag
between the incidence of radiations and emission of photoelectron is very
small, less than even 10-9 s.
7. Einstein Photoelectric Equation Energy Quantum of Radiation, Kmax =
hv – Ф0 where, hv = energy of photon and Ф = work-function
NOTE: According to Planck’s quantum theory, light radiations consist of
tiny packets of energy called quanta. One quantum of light radiation is
called a photon which travels with the speed of light.
8. Relation between Stopping Potential (V0) and Threshold Frequency (v0)

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS:
1. An electron and alpha particle have the same de-Broglie wavelength
associated with them. How are their kinetic energies related to each
other? (Delhi 2008)
2. Two lines, A and B, in the plot given below show the variation of de-
Broglie wavelength, λ versus 𝐕V Where V is the accelerating
potential difference, for two particles carrying the same charge.
Which one of two represents a particle of smaller mass ? (All India
2008)

3. The figure shows a plot of three curves a, b, c, showing the variation

of photocurrent vs. collector plate potential for three different
intensities I1, I2 and I3 having frequencies V1, v2 and v3 respectively
incident on a photosensitive surface.

Point out the two curves for which the incident radiations have
same frequency but different intensities.
4. The stopping potential in an experiment on photoelectric effect is
1.5 V. What is the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
emitted? (All India 2008)
5. Show graphically, the variation of the de- Broglie wavelength (λ)
with the potential (V) through which an electron is accelerated from
rest.
6. Define the term ‘stopping potential’ in relation to photoelectric
effect. (All India 2011)
7. A proton and an electron have same kinetic energy. Which one has
greater de-Broglie wavelength and why? (All India 2011)
8. A proton and an electron have same kinetic energy. Which one has
smaller de-Broglie wavelength and why? (All India 2011)
9. Why is photoelectric emission not possible at all frequencies?
(Comptt. All India 2011)
10. The given graph shows the variation of photo-electric current (I)
versus applied voltage (II) for two different photosensitive materials
and for two different intensities of the incident radiation. Identify
the pairs of curves that correspond to different materials but same
intensity of incident radiation. (Delhi 2013)

11. An electron is revolving around the nucleus with a constant speed

of 2.2 × 108 m/s. Find the de-Broglie wavelength associated with it.
(Comptt. Delhi 2014)
12. Draw a plot showing the variation of de Broglie wavelength of
electron as a function of its K.E.(Comptt. Delhi 2014)
13. Write Einstein’s photoelectric equation. State clearly the three
salient features observed in photoelectric effect, which can be
explained on the basis of the above equation. (All India 2010)
14. Plot a graph showing the variation of stopping potential with the
frequency of incident radiation for two different photosensitive
 materials having work functions W1 and W2 (W1 > W2). On what
factors does the
(i) slope and
(ii) intercept of the lines depend? (Delhi 2010)
15. A proton and a deuteron are accelerated through the same
accelerating potential. Which one of the two has
(a) greater value of de-Broglie wavelength associated with it, and
(b) less momentum?
Give reasons to justify your answer. (Delhi 2010)
16. A proton and an alpha particle are accelerated through the same
potential. Which one of the two has
(i) greater value of de-Broglie wavelength associated with it, and
(ii) less kinetic energy.
Give reasons to justify your answer. (Delhi 2010)
17. (i) Monochromatic light of frequency 6.0 × 1014 Hz is produced by a
laser. The power emitted is 2.0 × 10-3 W. Estimate the number of
photons emitted per second on an average by the source.
(ii) Draw a plot showing the variation of photoelectric current versus
the intensity of incident radiation on a given photosensitive surface.
(Delhi 2010)
18. Two monochromatic radiations of frequencies v1 and v2 (V1 > v2) and
having the same intensity are, in turn, incident on a photosensitive
surface to cause photoelectric emission. Explain, giving reason, in
which case
(i) more number of electrons will be emitted and
(ii) maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons will be
more. (Comptt. Delhi 2010)
19. A proton and an a-particle have the same de- Broglie wavelength.
Determine the ratio of(i) their accelerating potentials
(ii) their speeds. (Delhi 2015)
20. An electron and a photon each have a wavelength of 1.50 nm. Find
(i) their momenta,
 (ii) the energy of the photon and
(iii) kinetic energy of the electron. (Delhi 2011)

CASE STUDY QUESTIONS (DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION)

QUESTION NO. 1
The discovery of the phenomenon of photoelectric effect has been one of the most important
discoveries in modern science. The experimental observations associated with this
phenomenon made us realize that our, ‘till then’, widely accepted picture of the nature of
light – The electromagnetic (wave) theory of light – was quite inadequate to understand this
phenomenon. A ‘new picture’ of light was needed and it was provided by Einstein through
his ‘photon theory’ of light. This theory, regarded light as a stream of particles. Attempts to
understand photoelectric effect thus led us to realize that light, which was being regarded as
‘waves’, could also behave like ‘particles’. This led to the idea of ‘wave-particle duality’ vis-
à-vis the nature of light. Attempts to understand this ‘duality’, and related phenomenon, led
to far reaching, and very important developments, in the basic theories of Physics.
1) Which of the following phenomenas explain the wave nature of light?
i) Interference ii) Diffraction iii) polarization iv) all of them
2) Wave –particle duality is shown by
i) Light only ii) matter only iii) both light and matter iv) None of them
3) The experiment to explain the wave nature of light i.e electromagnetic wave
theory is given by
i) Hertz ii) Einstein iii) Lenard iv) Huygen
4) The concept of photoelectric effect given by Einstein explains that the light is a
i) Photon ii)Wave iii) Particle iv) Both
5) The practical application of the phenomenon of photoelectric effect and the
concept of ‘matter waves’ is
i) Photocells ii) Automatic doors at shops and malls iii) automatic light switches
iv) All of them
Answers: 1) option iv 2) option iii 3) option i 4) iii 5) iv
QUESTION NO 2
The concept of ‘wave nature of matter’ was postulated by de Broglie in 1924. It was
confirmed experimentally by Davisson and Germer a few years after its postulation.
Therefore, the realization was that ‘wave nature’ and ‘particle nature’ can be viewed as the
‘two sides of a coin’. Both matter and radiation can exhibit either of these ‘natures’,
depending on the experimental situation. The phenomena of photoelectric effect and the
concept of ‘matter waves’, have been put to very useful and interesting practical applications.
We are aware of photocells, automatic doors at shops and malls, automatic light switches that
turn on the lights as soon as the intensity drops.
1) Who confirmed experimentally the wave nature of electron?
i) De-broglie ii )Davisson& Germer iii) Einstein iv) None of these
2) A proton and an electron have same kinetic energy. Which one has greater de-
Broglie wavelength ?
i) Electron ii) Proton iii) Same iv) Can’t be calculated
3) An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 100 volts. What is the
de-Broglie wavelength associated with it?
i) 1.227 A ̊ ii) 12.27 A ̊ iii) 122.7 A ̊ iv) 1227 A ̊

4 ) The de-broglie wavelength ,associated with a proton and neutron are found to
be equal.Which of the two has a higher value of K.E?
i) Proton ii) Neutron iii)Same for both iv)Can’t be calculated

5 )An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 300 volt.What is its

energy in eV?
i) 30 eV ii) 300 eV iii)10 eV iv) 0.3eV

Answers: 1) option ii 2) option i 3) option i 4) i 5) ii

QUESTION NO 3
Lenard observed that when ultraviolet radiations were allowed to fall on the emitter plate of
an evacuated glass tube, enclosing two electrodes (metal plates), current started flowing in
the circuit connecting the plates. As soon as the ultraviolet radiations were stopped, the
current flow also stopped. These observations proved that it was ultraviolet radiations, falling
on the emitter plate, that ejected some charged particles from the emitter and the positive
plate attracted them.
1) Alkali metals like Li, Na, K and Cs show photo electric effect with visible light
but metals like Zn, Cd and Mg respond to ultraviolet light. Why?
i) Frequency of visible light is more than that for ultraviolet light
ii) Frequency of visible light is less than that for ultraviolet light
iii) Frequency of visible light is same for ultraviolet light
 iv) Stopping potential forvisible light is more than that for ultraviolet light
2) Why do we not observe the phenomenon of photoelectric effect with non-metals?
i) For non metals the work function is high
ii) Work function is low
iii) Work function can’t be calculated
iv) For non metals, threshold frequency is low
3) What is the effect of increase in intensity on photoelectric current?
i)Photoelectric current increases ii) Decreases iii) No change iv) Varies with
the square of intensity
4) Name one factor on which the stopping potential depends
i) Work function ii)Frequency iii) Current iv) Energy of photon
5) How does the maximum K.E of the electrons emitted vary with the work function of
metal?
i) It doesn’t depend on work function ii)It decreases as the work function increases
iii) It increases as the work function increases iv) It’s value is doubled with the work
function
Answers: 1) option ii 2) option i 3) option i 4) ii 5) ii

QUESTION NO 4
We know that metals have free electrons which contribute towards conduction of electricity
and heat. The electrons cannot normally escape from the metal surface. Why? When an
electron escapes from the metal surface, it is quite likely to be quickly absorbed back as the
metal becomes positive. One can thus understand that it is captive within the metal even
though it can freely move within the metal. A certain minimum (external) energy is required
to be given to an electron for it to escape a given metal surface. This is known as the work
function for that metal. It is denoted by and is measured in electron volt eV. One eV is the
energy gained by an electron when it is accelerated by a potential difference of 1 Volt.

1) Does the size of the atom effects the value of work function?
i) Yes ii) No iii)Sometimes iv) remain same

2) From which type of metal, electron emission would be easier?

i) Caesium ii) Potassium iii)Sodium iv) Calcium
3) The work function would depend upon the following
 i)material of the metal ii)temperature iii) the nature of its surface iv)All of them
4) Work function of platinum is the highest ( =5.65eV) and is least for Caesium (
=2.1eV). If energy, equal to the work function is required by electrons to escape, which
of the two will need lesser energy?
i) Caesium ii)Platinum iii) same for both iv)Can’t be calculated

Answers: 1) option i 2) option i 3) option iv 4) i

QUESTION NO 5
Studies, that followed, showed that different metals emit electrons when irradiated by
different electromagnetic radiations. For example, alkali metals (sodium, caesium, potassium)
emit electrons with X–rays ultraviolet light and also with visible light, except red and orange
light. Heavy metals, like zinc, cadmium, magnesium, emit electrons only when ultraviolet
radiations fall on .
1) Why do we not observe the phenomenon of photoelectric effect with non-metals?
i) For non metals the work function is high
ii) Work function is low
iii) Work function can’t be calculated
iv) For non metals, threshold frequency is low
2) The practical application of the phenomenon of photoelectric effect and the
concept of ‘matter waves’ is
i) Photocells ii) Automatic doors at shops and malls iii) automatic light switches
iv) All of them
3) What is the effect of increase in intensity on photoelectric current?
i)Photoelectric current increases ii) Decreases iii) No change iv) Varies with
the square of intensity
4) Name one factor on which the stopping potential depends

i) Work function ii)Frequency iii) Current iv) Energy of photon

5) Alkali metals like Li, Na, K and Cs show photo electric effect with visible light
but metals like Zn, Cd and Mg respond to ultraviolet light. Why?
i) Frequency of visible light is more than that for ultraviolet light
ii) Frequency of visible light is less than that for ultraviolet light
 iii) Frequency of visible light is same for ultraviolet light
iv) Stopping potential forvisible light is more than that for ultraviolet light

Answers: 1) option i 2) option iv 3) option i 4) ii 5) ii

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Photoelectrons are being obtained by irradiating zinc by a radiation of
3100 Å. In order to increase the kinetic energy of ejected
photoelectrons.
(a) the intensity of radiation should be increased.
(b) the wave length of radiation should be increased.
(c) the wavelength of radiation should be decreased.
(d) both wavelength and intesity of radiation should be increased.
2. The de-Broglie wavelength of an electron moving with a speed of 6.6
× 1015 ms-1 is nearly equal to
(a) 10-11m
(b) 10-9 m
(c) 10-7 m
(d) 10-5 m
3. Ultra-violet radiation of 6.2 eV falls on an aluminium surface having
work-function 4.2 eV. The kinetic energy (in J) of the fastest electron
emitted is nearly.
(a) 3 × 10-19
(b) 3 × 10-15
(c) 3 × 10-17
(d) 3 × 10-21
4. Which one of the following graph represent correctly the variation of
maximum kinetic energy Emax with the intensity of incident radiations
 having a constant frequency.

5. The best metal to be used for photoemission is:

(a) Potassium
(b) Lithium
(c) Sodium
(d) Cesium
6. The frequency and the intensity of a beam of light falling on the
surface of photoelectric material are increased by a factor of two.
This will:
(a) increase the maximum K.E. of photo-electron as well as
photoelectric current by a factor of two.
(b) increase maximum K.E. of photoelectrons and would increase the
photo current by a factor of two.
(c) increase the maximum K.E. of photo electrons by a factor of two
and will no affect photoelectric current.
(d) No effect on both maximum K.E. and photoelectric current.
7. Dynamic mass of photon of wavelength k is
(a) Zero
(b) ℎ𝑐/λ
(c) ℎ/𝑐λ
(d) ℎ/2λ
 8. The wavelength associated with n electron is 1Å. The potential
difference required for accelerating it is
(a) 100 V
(b) 150 V
(c) 250 V
(d) 10³ V
9. The magnification produced by electron microscope is of the order of:
(a) 10
(b) 105
(c) 10³
(d) 107
10. The threshold frequency for a certain metal is v0. When light of
frequency v = 2v0 is incident on it, the maximum velocity of photo
electrons is 4 × 106 ms-1. If the frequency of incident radiation is
increased to 5 v0, then the maximum velocity of photo electrons (m/s)
is
(a) 8 × 105
(b) 2 × 106
(c) 2 × 107
(d) 8 × 106

Directions: These questions consist of two statements, each printed as

Assertion and Reason. While answering these questions, you are required
to choose any one of the following four responses.
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and the Reason is a correct
explanation of the Assertion.
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason is not a correct
explanation of the Assertion.
(c) If the Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
(d) If both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
1. Assertion : In process of photoelectric emission, all emitted
electrons do not have same kinetic energy.
Reason : If radiation falling on photosensitive surface of a metal
consists of different wavelength then energy acquired by electrons
absorbing photons of different wavelengths shall be different.
2. Assertion : Though light of a single frequency (monochromatic) is
incident on a metal, the energies of emitted photoelectrons are
different.
Reason : The energy of electrons emitted from inside the metal
surface, is lost in collision with the other atoms in the metal.
3. Assertion : The photoelectrons produced by a monochromatic light
beam incident on a metal surface have a spread in their kinetic
energies.
Reason : The work function of the metal is its characteristics
property.
4. Assertion : Photoelectric saturation current increases with the
increase in frequency of incident light.
Reason : Energy of incident photons increases with increase in
frequency and as a result photoelectric current increases.
5. Q.5. Assertion : Photosensitivity of a metal is high if its work
function is small.
Reason : Work function = hf0 where f0 is the threshold frequency.
6. Assertion : In an experiment on photoelectric effect, a photon is
incident on an electron from one direction and the photoelectron is
emitted almost in the opposite direction. It violate the principle of
conservation of linear momentum.
Reason : It does not violate the principle of conservation of linear
momentum.
7. Assertion : The photon behaves like a particle.
Reason : If E and P are the energy and momentum of the photon,
then p = E / c .
8. Assertion : The kinetic energy of photoelectrons emitted from
metal surface does not depend on the intensity of incident photon.
Reason : The ejection of electrons from metallic surface is not
possible with frequency of incident photons below the threshold
frequency.
9. Assertion : Two sources of equal intensity always emit equal
number of photons in any time interval.
Reason : Two sources of equal intensity may emit equal number of
photons in any time interval.
10. Assertion : Two photons of equal wavelength must have equal

linear momentum.
Reason : Two photons of equal linear momentum will have equal
wavelength.
 ATOM & NUCLEI

DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY:

• Atoms are the smallest constituents of matter and can’t be divided further(indivisible)
• Atoms belonging to same matter have similar characteristics and mass; atoms of
different matter have different properties and mass
• Atoms are reoriented in a chemical reaction (not generated or destructed)
THOMSON MODEL OF ATOM:
• Atom is like a sphere where positive charge has uniform distribution throughout
• Electrons are scattered inside in a way that most stable electrostatic arrangement is
achieved, meaning that minimum possible energy of the system should is achieved
• Also known as watermelon model or plum pudding model or raisin bread model
• It positively illustrated the net neutrality(equal positive and negative charges, so no
net charge) of atom
• It was inconsistent with the experiments conducted later and the discovery of neutron
and proton.
RUTHERFORD’S NUCLEAR MODEL OF ATOM:
• Geiger and Marsden carried out few experiments on the advice of Rutherford
• On a very thin gold foil, highly energetic ray of α-particles(that are positively charged
with energy of 5.5MeV)was incident
• Scattered α-particles when strike zinc sulphide screen(surrounding the thin gold foil)
produced light flashes(scintillations) which were observed via detector(microscope)

Scattered α-particles’ distribution as a function of scattering angle(θ) was analyzed and

plotted as a graph
Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model:
• Accelerated charged particle produces electromagnetic waves (Maxwell Theory), so
orbital radius of electron should go on decreasing and finally electron should fall into
the nucleus. But atoms are stable in nature and this stability of atoms could not be
clarified by Rutherford’s model
• The model didn’t talk about electronic structure of atoms, viz. electrons orientation,
their orbital motion and relative energy of electron in different orbits
Dual character of electromagnetic radiation couldn’t be elaborated by the model
Bohr’s Model where he came up with 3 postulates:
• First Postulate :Atoms have some specific stable energy states(called stationary states)
where electrons could orbit around the nucleus without emitting radiation
• Second Postulate: Orbiting of electrons occur only in the orbits (called stable orbits)
where electrons’ angular momentum(L) is equal to the integral multiples ofh/(2π),
leading to the quantization of moving electron
• Third Postulate: Electron while jumping from higher(initial) energy state to
lower(final) energy state, emit a photon of energy equal to the energy difference
between the 2 energy states, and its frequency is given by:
hv = Ei – Ef
DRAWBACKS OF BOHR’S MODEL:
• It was primarily for hydrogen atom
• It couldn’t elaborate spectra of multi-electron atoms
• Wave nature of electron was not justified by the model (inconsistent with the de
Broglie’s hypothesis of dual nature of matter)
• It didn’t illustrated molecules making process of chemical reactions
• It violated Heisenberg’s Principal(Δx× Δp ≥nh/(2π)) which said that it was impossible
to evaluate theprecise position and momentum of electron (and other microscopic
particles) simultaneously.Only their probability could be estimated.
 • Zeeman effect(spectral lines variation due to external magnetic field) and Stark
Effect(spectral lines variation due to external electric field) couldn’t be described by
the model
DE-BROGLIE’S EXPLANATION OF BOHR’S SECOND POSTULATE OF
QUANTISATION:
• Electron orbiting in circular orbit can be considered as a particle wave
• Only those waves propagate and survive which form nodes at terminal point with
integer multiple of wavelength(resonant standing waves), thus covering the whole
circumferential distance of circular orbit
2πrn = nλ
From de Broglie’s hypothesis: λ = h/(mv)
So, ultimately we get: mvnrn = nh/(2π)
This proved that wave-particle duality is the cause of quantized energy states
Emission spectra:
Radiation spectrum produced due to absorption of energy by a matter
When an electron of an atom, molecules or ions get to a higher energy state than their ground
(stable) state due to radiation absorption, they are said to be excited
Emission spectrum is produced when energy is supplied to a sample (through heating or
irradiation) and the wavelength or frequency of radiation emitted by the sample is observed
as a function of energy
Absorption spectra:
It is just the opposite of emission spectra
Continuous radiation (energy) is directed through a sample which absorbs certain radiation of
particular wavelengths and the remaining spectrum is recorded. Absorbed wavelengths
correspond to the dark spaces in the spectrum
Whatever absent(showed by dark lines) in the emission spectrum of an atom is actually
present (showed by bright lines) in the absorption spectrum of that atom
Composition of Nucleus
• Nucleus consists of protons and neutrons.
• Protons are positively charged particles which are present inside the nucleus and
neutrons are neutral as they don’t have any charge.
• Atomic number: -
• Atomic number constitutes the total number of protons which are present in
the nucleus of that atom.
• It is denoted by ‘Z’.
• Atomic mass:-
• Atomic mass is the total number of neutrons and protons which are present
inside the nucleus.
• Mass of electrons is not considered while calculating the mass of the atom and
only the mass of neutrons and protons are considered;
• Since the electrons are the lightest particles their mass is not considered.
• It is also known as Mass Number.
• It is denoted by ‘A’.
• Nucleons --> Protons + Neutrons
• General representation of the element: -(AZX) where A = atomicmass and Z = atomic
number.
• For example:- Hydrogen 11H where atomic number=1 and mass number =1
• Oxygen168O where atomic number=8 and mass number =16(8 protons and 8
neutrons).
Size of Nucleus
• It was found that the radius of a nucleus(R) of mass number A is given as :-
• R=R0A1/3 where A = mass number and R0=constant.
• Volume of a nucleus is ∝to the mass number.
• V =(4/3)πR3 , Also R ∝(A)1/3
• => (R)3∝A
• Therefore V ∝ (R) 3
• Density of nucleus is independent of mass number.
Nuclear force
• The force with which the nucleons are bound together is known as nuclear force.
• It is the strong attractive force that binds the nucleons together.
 • When the nuclear force is compared to other forces of nature like gravitational or
coulomb’s force etc.it is the strongest of all the forces.
• As protons are positively charged they repel each other.This force of repulsion is
given by Coulomb’s force of repulsion.
• This nuclear force is stronger than the coulomb’s force so it overcomes the force of
repulsion.
• This is the reason neutrons and protons are held together inside the nucleus.
• It is independent of electric charge.Magnitude of nuclear force is same between
proton-proton,proton-neutron or neutron-neutron.
•

Einstein’s Mass-Energy equivalence

• According to Einstein mass is also a form of energy.
• Mass – energy can also be converted into other forms of energy.
Einstein gave mass-energy equivalence relation as: - E=mc2.

Mass defect:-Mass defect is the difference in the mass of nucleus and its
constituents(neutrons and protons).
• It is denoted by ΔM.
• Mathematically :- ΔM = [Z mp+ (A-Z) mn]- M
• Where mp=mass of 1 proton, Z=number of protons,(A-Z)= mass of neutrons,
mN = mass of 1 neutronand M =nuclearmass of the atom.
• Eb= ΔMc2
UNSOLVED QUESTIONS
1. Why is the classical (Rutherford) model for an atom of electron orbiting
around the nucleus not able to explain the atomic Structure? [Delhi 2012]
2. What is the ratio of radii of the orbits corresponding to first excited state and
ground state, in a hydrogen atom? [Delhi 2010]
3. State Bohr’s quantisation condition for defining stationary orbits. [Foreign
2010]
4. The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is – 13.6 eV. What are the kinetic
and potential energies of electron in this state? [All India 2014C; HOTS; All
India 2010]
5. What is the ratio of radii of the orbits corresponding to first excited state
and ground state, in a hydrogen atom? [Delhi 2010]
6. An electron and alpha particle have the same de-Broglie wavelength
associated with them. How are their kinetic energies related to each other?
(Delhi 2008)
7. Two nuclei have mass numbers in the ratio 1: 2. What is the ratio of their
nuclear densities? (Delhi 2009)
8. Two nuclei have mass number in the ratio 1 : 3. What is the ratio of their
nuclear densities? (Delhi 2009)
9. Two nuclei have mass numbers in the ratio 8:125. What is the ratio of their
nuclear radii? (All India 2009)
10. Write any two characteristic properties of nuclear force. (All India 2009)
11. An electron and alpha particle have the same de- Broglie wavelength
associated with them. How are their kinetic energies related to each other?
(Delhi 2008)
12. (a) The mass of a nucleus in its ground state is always less than the total
mass of its constituents – neutrons and protons. Explain.
(b) Plot a graph showing the variation of potential energy of a pair of nucleons
as a function of their separation. (All India 2016)
13. Draw a plot of the binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass number
for a large number of nuclei, 2 ≤ A ≤ 240. How do you explain the constancy of
binding energy per nucleon in the range 30 < A < 170 using the property that
nuclear force is short-ranged? (All India 2016)
14. Distinguish between nuclear fission and fusion. Explain how the energy is
released in both the processes. (Comptt. All India 2017)
15. Answer the following, giving reasons:
(i) Why is the binding energy per nucleon found to be constant for nuclei in the
range of mass number (A) lying between 30 and 170?
(ii) When a heavy nucleus with mass number A = 240 breaks into two nuclei, A
= 120, energy is released in’ the process.
16. Write the relation for binding energy (BE) (in MeV) of a nucleus of 𝐴𝑍𝑁,
atomic number (Z) and mass number (A) in terms of the masses of its
constituents – neutrons and protons.
(b) Draw a plot of BE/A versus mass number A for 2 ≤ A ≤ 170. Use this graph
to explain the release of energy in the process of nuclear fusion of two light
nuclei. (Comptt. Delhi 2014)
17. Find the relation between the three wavelength λ1λ1,λ2λ2 and λ3λ3 from
energy level diagram shown below?

18. (i)The energy levels of an atom are as shown below. Which of them will result
in the transition of a photon of wavelength 275 nm?

(ii)which transition correspond to emission of radiation of maximum

wavelength?
19. Photons, with a continuous range of frequencies, are made to pass through
a simple of rarefied hydrogen. The transitions, shown in Fig. indicate three of
the spectral absorption lines in the continuous spectrum.

(i) Identify the spectral series, of the hydrogen emission spectrum, to which
each of these three lines correspond.
 (ii) Which of these lines corresponds to the absorption of radiation of
maximum wavelength?
20. A particle of charge equal to that of electron and mass 208 times the mass of
electron (μμ meson)moves in a circular orbit around a nucleus of charge +3e
(assume mass of nucleus to be infinite). Assuming that the Bohr atom model
is applicable to this system
(a) derive an expression for the radius of the nth Bohr orbit
(b) find the value of n for which the radius of the orbit is approximately the
same as that of the first Bohr orbit for the hydrogen atom
(c) find the wavelength of the radiation emitted when -meson jumps from the
third orbit to the first orbit (Rydberg constant = 1.097 x 107 m-1)
Case Based Questions
1. The emission spectrum of a chemical element or chemical compound is the spectrum
of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation emitted by an atom’s electrons when they
are returned to a lower energy state. Each element’s emission spectrum is unique, and
therefore spectroscopy can be used to identify elements present in matter of unknown
composition. Similarly, the emission spectra of molecules can be used in chemical
analysis of substances. The emission spectrum of atomic hydrogen is divided into a
number of spectral series, with wavelengths given by the Rydberg formula.

(i) When an electron jumps in n=1 orbit, the series of spectral lines obtained is
called:
(a) Balmer Series
(b) Pfund Series
(c) Brackett Series
(d) Lyman Series
(ii) The wave numbers decreases from
(a) Lyman to Pfund series
(b) Pfund series to Lyman series
(c) Balmer series to Brackett series
(d) None of these
(iii) Which of the series lies in Visible region of electromagnetic spectrum?
(a) Lyman
(b) Balmer
(c) Paschen
(d) Brackett
(iv) Which of the series lies in U.V region of electromagnetic spectrum?
(a) Lyman
(b) Balmer
(c) Paschen
(d) Brackett
(v) The value of maximum wavelength emitted in Lyman series is
(a) 1/R
(b) 4/3R
(c) 4/R
 (d) 3/4R

2. A radioactive source emitting alpha particles was enclosed within a

protective lead shield. The radiation was focused into a narrow beam after passing
through a slit in a lead screen. A thin section of gold foil was placed in front of the slit,
and a screen coated with zinc sulfide to render it fluorescent served as a counter to
detect alpha particles. As each alpha particle struck the fluorescent screen, it produced
a burst of light called a scintillation, which was visible through a viewing microscope
attached to the back of the screen. The screen itself was movable, allowing to determine
whether or not any alpha particles were being deflected by the gold foil.

(i) The particles which were deflected backwards in Rutherford’s experiment were
hit upon by
(a) Nucleus
(b) Empty space
(c) Electrons
(d) Protons
(ii) According to the Rutherford atomic model, the whole atom is
(a) Positively Charged
(b) Negatively Charged
(c) Neutral
(d) None of the above
(iii) Rutherford in his atomic model could not explain the behavior of which of the
following
(a) Proton
(b) Neutron
(c) Electron
(d) Neutrino
(iv) Electron revolves around the nucleus in orbits which have
(a) variable energy
(b) fixed energy
 (c) infinite energy
(d) zero energy
(v) According to Rutherford, most of the space occupied by the atom is
(a) filled
(b) partially filled
(c) empty
(d) none of above

3. Apsara is the oldest of India's research reactors. The reactor was designed by
the Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC) and built with assistance from the United
Kingdom. A nuclear reactor, formerly known as an atomic pile, is a device used to
initiate and control a self-sustained nuclear chain reaction. Nuclear reactors are used
at nuclear power plants for electricity generation and in nuclear marine propulsion.
Heat from nuclear fission is passed to a working fluid (water or gas), which in turn runs
through steam turbines.

(i) The splitting of a nucleus into smaller nuclei is

(a) Fusion
(b) Fission
(c) Half-life
(d) gamma –radiation

(ii) Name the moderator used in the nuclear reactor?

(a) Plutonium
(b) Thorium
(c) Graphite
(d) Berilium

(iii) Which isotope of Uranium has the capacity to sustain the chain reaction?
 (a) U-230
(b) U-235
(c) U-245
(d) U-225
(iv) What is the beneficial aspect of nuclear fission?
(a) The ability to absorb energy
(b) The ability to produce more energy than nuclear fusion
(c) The ability to release tremendous amounts of energy
(d) There are no beneficial aspects of nuclear fission

(v) The energy we get in nuclear reaction comes from

(a)Energy we put into the reactor
(b) The mass of the fuel
(c) Water
(d) The sun

4. The Nucleus of an atom consists of a tightly packed arrangement of protons

and neutrons. These are the two heavy particles in an atom and hence 99.9%
of the mass is concentrated in the nucleus. Of the two, the protons possess a
net positive charge and hence the nucleus of an atom is positively charged on
the whole and the negatively charged electrons revolve around the central
nucleus. Since the mass concentration at the nucleus of an atom is immense
the nuclear forces holding the protons and the neutrons together are also large.

238
(i) The nuclide 92 U has all the following except
(a)92
(b)146
(c)238
(d) 0

(ii) The density of a nucleus is of the order of:

(a) 1015 kg m-3
(b) 1018 kg m-3
(c) 1017 kg m-3
(d) 1016 kg m-3

(iii) Nuclear force is:

(a) strong, short range and charge independent force
(b) charge independent, attractive and long range force
(c) strong, charge dependent and short range attractive force
(d) long range, change dependent and attractive force

(iv) The mass no. of a nucleus is M and its atomic no. is Z. The number of neutrons in the
nucleus is :
(a) M – Z
(b) M
(c) Z
(d) M + Z
(v) The atomic mass number is equivalent to which of the following?
(a) The number of neutrons in the atom.
(b) The number of protons in the atom.
(c) The number of nucleons in the atom
(d) The number of 𝛼–particles in the atom.

5. The Bohr model is a big part of Physics history. Neils Bohr proposed his model in 1913.
It states that electrons orbit the nucleus at set distances. The model was an expansion on
the Rutherford model overcame. Neils Bohr’s model was based on his observations of
the atomic emissions spectrum of the hydrogen atom. His findings said that the electron
can move to a higher-energy orbit by gaining an amount of energy equal to the difference
in energy between the higher-energy orbit and the initial lower-energy orbit. But time and
research has proven and changed the Bohr model; Making this model one of the most
famous models in Physics history.

(i) Rutherford’s model of the atom concentrated on the nucleus while Bohr’s model
focused on the:
(a) Electrons
(b) Protons
(c) Quarks
(d) Neutrons
(ii) When an electron jumps from outer orbit to inner orbit, energy is
(a) Absorbed
(b) Released
(c) No change
(d) Remains constant
(iii) The orbits in which electrons move according to Bohr are
(a) Elliptical
(b) Cylindrical
(c) Circular
(d) Oval
(iv) In Bohr’s model of the atom, the energy level closest to the nucleus would be the:
(a) Valence energy level
(b) Lowest energy level
(c) Average energy level
(d) Highest energy level
(v) The radii of stationary orbits is proportional to
(a) n
(b) n2
(c) n-1
(d) n-2

Case Based Questions

1. (i) (d)
(ii) (a)
(iii) (b)
(iv) (a)
(v)(b)

2. (i) (a)
(ii) (c)
(iii) (c)
(iv)(b)
(v)(c)
3. (i) (b)
(ii) (c)
(iii) (b)
(iv) (c)
(v) (b)

4.(i) (d)
(ii) (c)
(iii) (a)
(iv) (a)
(v) (c)
5. (i) (a)
(ii) (b)
(iii)(c)
(iv)(d)
(vi) (b)

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS:

1. Which series of the hydrogen spectrum has wavelength in the visible range
(a) Lyman.
(b) Balmer.
(c) Paschen.
(d) Bracket.
2. Maximum frequency of the emission is obtained for the transition
(a) n=2 to n=1
(b) n=6 to n=2
(c) n=1 to n=2
(d) n=2 to n=6
3. The energy of a hydrogen atom in the ground state is -13.6 eV. The energy of
a He+ ion in the first excited state will be
(a)-13.6 eV
(b)-6.8 eV
(c)-54.4.6 eV
(d)-27.2 eV
4. The short wavelength limits of the lyman, Paschen and Balmer series in the
hydrogen spectrum are a , b and c respectively . Arrange these wavelength in
the increasing order?
 (a)a < b < c
(b)c < b < a
(c)a < c < b
(d)b < c < a
5. The electron in hydrogen atom is initially in the third excited state.What is the
maximum number of lines of spectrum lines which can be emitted whne it
finally moves to the ground state
(a) 3
(b) 4
(c) 5
(d)6
6. The packing fraction for 147N isotope whose mass is 14.003 amu is:
(a) 0.9
(b) 7.8 × 10-3
(c) 1.0002
(d) 2.1 × 10-4
7. The binding energy per nucleon is almost constant for many nuclei. It shows
that nuclear forces are
(a) Charge independent
(b) saturated in nature
(c) short range in nature
(d) attractive in nature
8. When the number of nucleons in nuclei increases, the binding energy per
nucleon numerically
(a) increases continuously with mass number.
(b) decreases continuously with mass number.
(c) First increases and then decreases with increase of mass number.
(d) Remains constant with mass number.
9. The average binding energy per nucleon is maximum for the nucleus.

16O
(a) 4He (b) (C) 56Fe (d) 238U

10. The nuclei of the isotopes of an element all contain the same number of a
certain particle. What is this particle?

(a) electron (b) neutron (c) nucleon (d) proton

Directions: These questions consist of two statements, each printed as Assertion and
Reason. (a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and the Reason is a correct
explanation of the Assertion.
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason is not a correct explanation of
the Assertion.
(c) If the Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
(d) If both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.

11. Assertion: The whole mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
Reason: The mass of a nucleus can be either less than or more than the sum
of the masses of nucleons present in it.
12. Assertion : The radius of a nucleus determined by electron scattering is found
to be slightly different from that determined by alpha particle scattering .
Reason : Electron scattering senses the charge distribution of the nucleus
whereas alpha and similar particles sense the nuclear matter.
13. Assertion:When a nucleus is in an excited state, it can make a transition to a
lower energy state by the emission of gamma rays .
Reason:These are energy levels for a nucleus just like there are energy levels
in atoms .
14. Assertion : The mass number of a nucleus is always less than its atomic number.
Reason : Mass number of a nucleus may be equal to its atomic number.
15. Assertion : According to classical theory the proposed path of an electron in
Rutherford atom model will be parabolic.
Reason : According to electromagnetic theory an accelerated particle continuously
emits radiation.
16. Assertion : Electrons in the atom are held due to coulomb forces.
Reason : The atom is stable only because the centripetal force due to Coulomb’s law
is balanced by the centrifugal force.
17. Assertion : Between any two given energy levels, the number of absorption
transitions is always less than the number of emission transitions.
Reason : Absorption transitions start from the lowest energy level only and may end
at any higher energy level. But emission transitions may start from any higher energy
level and end at any energy level below it.
18. Assertion : In Lyman series, the ratio of minimum and maximum wavelength is 3/4
Reason : Lyman series constitute spectral lines corresponding to transition from
higher energy to ground
state of hydrogen atom.
19. Assertion : The force of repulsion between atomic nucleus and α-particle varies with
distance according to inverse square law.
Reason : Rutherford did α-particle scattering experiment.
20. Assertion : Bohr had to postulate that the electrons in stationary orbits around the
nucleus do not radiate.
Reason: According to classical physics all moving electrons radiate.