Module 6

Sampling Design
Week Covered:
Lesson Objectives:
● Explain the advantages of sampling in the research process

● Explain the advantages and disadvantages of sampling

● Use the Slovin formula to solve for sample size

● Identify the sampling techniques

● Differentiate scientific and non-scientific samplings

Sampling
Sampling refers to the process of selecting a subset of data from a larger population or dataset in
order to analyze or make inferences about the whole population.
In other words, sampling involves taking a representative sample of data from a larger group or
dataset in order to gain insights or draw conclusions about the entire group.
Sampling Methods
Sampling methods refer to the techniques used to select a subset of individuals or units from a
larger population for the purpose of conducting statistical analysis or research.
Sampling is an essential part of the Research because it allows researchers to draw conclusions about a
population without having to collect data from every member of that population, which can be time-
consuming, expensive, or even impossible.
Probability Sampling
This type of sampling is based on the principles of random selection, and it involves selecting samples in
a way that every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample..
Probability sampling is commonly used in scientific research and statistical analysis, as it provides a
representative sample that can be generalized to the larger population.
Type of Probability Sampling:
● Simple Random Sampling: In this method, every member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected for the sample. This can be done using a random number generator or
by drawing names out of a hat, for example.
● Systematic Sampling: In this method, the population is first divided into a list or sequence, and
then every nth member is selected for the sample. For example, if every 10th person is selected
from a list of 100 people, the sample would include 10 people.
● Stratified Sampling: In this method, the population is divided into subgroups or strata based on
certain characteristics, and then a random sample is taken from each stratum. This is often used
to ensure that the sample is representative of the population as a whole.
● Cluster Sampling: In this method, the population is divided into clusters or groups, and then a
random sample of clusters is selected. Then, all members of the selected clusters are included in
the sample.
● Multi-Stage Sampling: This method combines two or more sampling techniques. For example, a
researcher may use stratified sampling to select clusters, and then use simple random sampling
to select members within each cluster.
Non-probability Sampling
 This type of sampling does not rely on random selection, and it involves selecting samples in a
way that does not give every member of the population an equal chance of being included in the sample.
Non-probability sampling is often used in qualitative research, where the aim is not to generalize findings
to a larger population, but to gain an in-depth understanding of a particular phenomenon or group. Non-
probability sampling methods can be quicker and more cost-effective than probability sampling methods,
but they may also be subject to bias and may not be representative of the larger population.
Types of Non-probability Sampling:
● Convenience Sampling: In this method, participants are chosen based on their availability or
willingness to participate. This method is easy and convenient but may not be representative of
the population.
● Purposive Sampling: In this method, participants are selected based on specific criteria, such as
their expertise or knowledge on a particular topic. This method is often used in qualitative
research, but may not be representative of the population.
● Snowball Sampling: In this method, participants are recruited through referrals from other
participants. This method is often used when the population is hard to reach, but may not be
representative of the population.
● Quota Sampling: In this method, a predetermined number of participants are selected based on
specific criteria, such as age or gender. This method is often used in market research, but may
not be representative of the population.
● Volunteer Sampling: In this method, participants volunteer to participate in the study. This method
is often used in research where participants are motivated by personal interest or altruism, but
may not be representative of the population.

Applications of Sampling Methods

Applications of Sampling Methods from different fields:
● Psychology: Sampling methods are used in psychology research to study various aspects of
human behavior and mental processes. For example, researchers may use stratified sampling to
select a sample of participants that is representative of the population based on factors such as
age, gender, and ethnicity. Random sampling may also be used to select participants for
experimental studies.
● Sociology: Sampling methods are commonly used in sociological research to study social
phenomena and relationships between individuals and groups. For example, researchers may
use cluster sampling to select a sample of neighborhoods to study the effects of economic
inequality on health outcomes. Stratified sampling may also be used to select a sample of
participants that is representative of the population based on factors such as income, education,
and occupation.
● Social sciences: Sampling methods are commonly used in social sciences to study human
behavior and attitudes. For example, researchers may use stratified sampling to select a sample
of participants that is representative of the population based on factors such as age, gender, and
income.
● Marketing: Sampling methods are used in marketing research to collect data on consumer
preferences, behavior, and attitudes. For example, researchers may use random sampling to
select a sample of consumers to participate in a survey about a new product.
● Healthcare: Sampling methods are used in healthcare research to study the prevalence of
diseases and risk factors, and to evaluate interventions. For example, researchers may use
 cluster sampling to select a sample of health clinics to participate in a study of the effectiveness
of a new treatment.
● Environmental science: Sampling methods are used in environmental science to collect data
on environmental variables such as water quality, air pollution, and soil composition. For
example, researchers may use systematic sampling to collect soil samples at regular intervals
across a field.
● Education: Sampling methods are used in education research to study student learning and
achievement. For example, researchers may use stratified sampling to select a sample of schools
that is representative of the population based on factors such as demographics and academic
performance.

Examples of Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling Methods Examples:
● Simple random sampling Example: A researcher randomly selects participants from the
population using a random number generator or drawing names from a hat.
● Stratified random sampling Example: A researcher divides the population into subgroups
(strata) based on a characteristic of interest (e.g. age or income) and then randomly selects
participants from each subgroup.
● Systematic sampling Example: A researcher selects participants at regular intervals from a list
of the population.
Non-probability Sampling Methods Examples:
1. Convenience sampling Example: A researcher selects participants who are conveniently
available, such as students in a particular class or visitors to a shopping mall.
2. Purposive sampling Example: A researcher selects participants who meet specific criteria, such
as individuals who have been diagnosed with a particular medical condition.
3. Snowball sampling Example: A researcher selects participants who are referred to them by
other participants, such as friends or acquaintances.
How to Conduct Sampling Methods
some general steps to conduct sampling methods:
● Define the population: Identify the population of interest and clearly define its boundaries.

● Choose the sampling method: Select an appropriate sampling method based on the research
question, characteristics of the population, and available resources.
● Determine the sample size: Determine the desired sample size based on statistical
considerations such as margin of error, confidence level, or power analysis.
● Create a sampling frame: Develop a list of all individuals or elements in the population from
which the sample will be drawn. The sampling frame should be comprehensive, accurate, and up-
to-date.
 ● Select the sample: Use the chosen sampling method to select the sample from the sampling
frame. The sample should be selected randomly, or if using a non-random method, every effort
should be made to minimize bias and ensure that the sample is representative of the population.
● Collect data: Once the sample has been selected, collect data from each member of the sample
using appropriate research methods (e.g., surveys, interviews, observations).
● Analyze the data: Analyze the data collected from the sample to draw conclusions about the
population of interest.
When to use Sampling Methods
Sampling methods are used in research when it is not feasible or practical to study the entire
population of interest. Sampling allows researchers to study a smaller group of individuals, known as a
sample, and use the findings from the sample to make inferences about the larger population.
Sampling methods are particularly useful when:
● The population of interest is too large to study in its entirety.

● The cost and time required to study the entire population are prohibitive.

● The population is geographically dispersed or difficult to access.

● The research question requires specialized or hard-to-find individuals.

● The data collected is quantitative and statistical analyses are used to draw conclusions.
Purpose of Sampling Methods
The main purpose of sampling methods in research is to obtain a representative sample of
individuals or elements from a larger population of interest, in order to make inferences about the
population as a whole. By studying a smaller group of individuals, known as a sample, researchers can
gather information about the population that would be difficult or impossible to obtain from studying the
entire population.
Sampling methods allow researchers to:
● Study a smaller, more manageable group of individuals, which is typically less time-consuming
and less expensive than studying the entire population.
● Reduce the potential for data collection errors and improve the accuracy of the results by
minimizing sampling bias.
● Make inferences about the larger population with a certain degree of confidence, using statistical
analyses of the data collected from the sample.
● Improve the generalizability and external validity of the findings by ensuring that the sample is
representative of the population of interest.
Characteristics of Sampling Methods
Here are some characteristics of sampling methods:
● Randomness: Probability sampling methods are based on random selection, meaning that every
member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. This helps to minimize bias and
ensure that the sample is representative of the population.
 ● Representativeness: The goal of sampling is to obtain a sample that is representative of the
larger population of interest. This means that the sample should reflect the characteristics of the
population in terms of key demographic, behavioral, or other relevant variables.
● Size: The size of the sample should be large enough to provide sufficient statistical power for the
research question at hand. The sample size should also be appropriate for the chosen sampling
method and the level of precision desired.
● Efficiency: Sampling methods should be efficient in terms of time, cost, and resources required.
The method chosen should be feasible given the available resources and time constraints.
● Bias: Sampling methods should aim to minimize bias and ensure that the sample is
representative of the population of interest. Bias can be introduced through non-random selection
or non-response, and can affect the validity and generalizability of the findings.
● Precision: Sampling methods should be precise in terms of providing estimates of the population
parameters of interest. Precision is influenced by sample size, sampling method, and level of
variability in the population.
● Validity: The validity of the sampling method is important for ensuring that the results obtained
from the sample are accurate and can be generalized to the population of interest. Validity can be
affected by sampling method, sample size, and the representativeness of the sample.
Advantages of Sampling Methods
Sampling methods have several advantages, including:
● Cost-Effective: Sampling methods are often much cheaper and less time-consuming than
studying an entire population. By studying only a small subset of the population, researchers can
gather valuable data without incurring the costs associated with studying the entire population.
● Convenience: Sampling methods are often more convenient than studying an entire population.
For example, if a researcher wants to study the eating habits of people in a city, it would be very
difficult and time-consuming to study every single person in the city. By using sampling methods,
the researcher can obtain data from a smaller subset of people, making the study more feasible.
● Accuracy: When done correctly, sampling methods can be very accurate. By using appropriate
sampling techniques, researchers can obtain a sample that is representative of the entire
population. This allows them to make accurate generalizations about the population as a whole
based on the data collected from the sample.
● Time-Saving: Sampling methods can save a lot of time compared to studying the entire
population. By studying a smaller sample, researchers can collect data much more quickly than
they could if they studied every single person in the population.
● Less Bias: Sampling methods can reduce bias in a study. If a researcher were to study the entire
population, it would be very difficult to eliminate all sources of bias. However, by using
appropriate sampling techniques, researchers can reduce bias and obtain a sample that is more
representative of the entire population.
Limitations of Sampling Methods
● Sampling Error: Sampling error is the difference between the sample statistic and the
population parameter. It is the result of selecting a sample rather than the entire population. The
 larger the sample, the lower the sampling error. However, no matter how large the sample size,
there will always be some degree of sampling error.
● Selection Bias: Selection bias occurs when the sample is not representative of the population.
This can happen if the sample is not selected randomly or if some groups are underrepresented
in the sample. Selection bias can lead to inaccurate conclusions about the population.
● Non-response Bias: Non-response bias occurs when some members of the sample do not
respond to the survey or study. This can result in a biased sample if the non-respondents differ
from the respondents in important ways.
● Time and Cost: While sampling can be cost-effective, it can still be expensive and time-
consuming to select a sample that is representative of the population. Depending on the sampling
method used, it may take a long time to obtain a sample that is large enough and representative
enough to be useful.
● Limited Information: Sampling can only provide information about the variables that are
measured. It may not provide information about other variables that are relevant to the research
question but were not measured.
● Generalization: The extent to which the findings from a sample can be generalized to the
population depends on the representativeness of the sample. If the sample is not representative
of the population, it may not be possible to generalize the findings to the population as a whole.

How to Determine Sample Size

“How much sample do we need?” is one of the most commonly-asked questions and stumbling points
in the early stages of research design. Finding the right answer to it requires first understanding and
answering two other questions:
● How important is statistical significance to you and your stakeholders?

● What are your real-world constraints?

How important is statistical significance to you and your stakeholders?
At the heart of this question is the goal to confidently differentiate between groups, by describing
meaningful differences as statistically significant. Statistical significance isn’t a difficult concept, but it
needs to be considered within the unique context of your research and your measures.
First, you should consider when you deem a difference to be meaningful in your area of research.
While the standards for statistical significance are universal, the standards for “meaningful difference” are
highly contextual.
For example, a 10% difference between groups might not be enough to merit a change in a
marketing campaign for a breakfast cereal, but a 10% difference in efficacy of breast cancer treatments
might quite literally be the difference between life and death for hundreds of patients. The exact same
magnitude of difference has very little meaning in one context, but has extraordinary meaning in another.
You ultimately need to determine the level of precision that will help you make your decision.
Within sampling, the lowest amount of magnification – or smallest sample size – could make the most
sense, given the level of precision needed, as well as timeline and budgetary constraints.
If you’re able to detect statistical significance at a difference of 10%, and 10% is a meaningful difference,
there is no need for a larger sample size, or higher magnification. However, if the study will only be useful
if a significant difference is detected for smaller differences – say, a difference of 5% — the sample size
must be larger to accommodate this needed precision. Similarly, if 5% is enough, and 3% is unnecessary,
there is no need for a larger statistically significant sample size.
 You should also consider how much you expect your responses to vary. When there isn’t a lot of
variability in response, it takes a lot more sample to be confident that there are statistically significant
differences between groups.
For instance, it will take a lot more sample to find statistically significant differences between
groups if you are asking, “What month do you think Christmas is in?” than if you are asking, “How many
miles are there between the Earth and the moon?”. In the former, nearly everybody is going to give the
exact same answer, while the latter will give a lot of variation in responses. Simply put, when your
variables do not have a lot of variance, larger sample sizes make sense.
Statistical significance
The likelihood that the results of a study or experiment did not occur randomly or by chance, but
are meaningful and indicate a genuine effect or relationship between variables.
Magnitude of difference
The size or extent of the difference between two or more groups or variables, providing a
measure of the effect size or practical significance of the results.
Actionable insights
Valuable findings or conclusions drawn from data analysis that can be directly applied or
implemented in decision-making processes or strategies to achieve a particular goal or outcome.
It’s crucial to understand the differences between the concepts of “statistical significance”, “magnitude of
difference” and “actionable insights” – and how they can influence each other:
● Even if there is a statistically significant difference, it doesn’t mean the magnitude of the
difference is large: with a large enough sample, a 3% difference could be statistically significant
● Even if the magnitude of the difference is large, it doesn’t guarantee that this difference is
statistically significant: with a small enough sample, an 18% difference might not be statistically
significant
● Even if there is a large, statistically significant difference, it doesn’t mean there is a story, or that
there are actionable insights
There is no way to guarantee statistically significant differences at the outset of a study – and that is a
good thing.
Even with a sample size of a million, there simply may not be any differences – at least, any that
could be described as statistically significant. And there are times when a lack of significance is positive.
Imagine if your main competitor ran a multi-million dollar ad campaign in a major city and a huge pre-post
study to detect campaign effects, only to discover that there were no statistically significant differences
in brand awareness. This may be terrible news for your competitor, but it would be great news for you.
What are your real-world constraints?
As you determine your sample size, you should consider the real-world constraints to your
research.
Factors revolving around timings, budget and target population are among the most common
constraints, impacting virtually every study. But by understanding and acknowledging them, you can
definitely navigate the practical constraints of your research when pulling together your sample.
1.Timeline constraints
Gathering a larger sample size naturally requires more time. This is particularly true for
elusive audiences, those hard-to-reach groups that require special effort to engage. Your timeline
could become an obstacle if it is particularly tight, causing you to rethink your sample size to meet
your deadline.
2. Budgetary constraints
Every sample, whether large or small, inexpensive or costly, signifies a portion of your
budget. Samples could be like an open market; some are inexpensive, others are pricey, but all
have a price tag attached to them.
3. Population constraints
Sometimes the individuals or groups you’re interested in are difficult to reach; other
times, they’re a part of an extremely small population. These factors can limit your sample size
even further.
What’s a good sample size?
A good sample size really depends on the context and goals of the research. In general, a good
sample size is one that accurately represents the population and allows for reliable statistical analysis.
Larger sample sizes are typically better because they reduce the likelihood of sampling errors and provide
a more accurate representation of the population. However, larger sample sizes often increase the impact
of practical considerations, like time, budget and the availability of your audience. Ultimately, you should
be aiming for a sample size that provides a balance between statistical validity and practical feasibility.
4 tips for choosing the right sample size
Choosing the right sample size is an intricate balancing act, but following these four tips can take away a
lot of the complexity.
1) Start with your goal
The foundation of your research is a clearly defined goal. You need to determine what
you’re trying to understand or discover, and use your goal to guide your research
methods – including your sample size.
If your aim is to get a broad overview of a topic, a larger, more diverse sample may be
appropriate. However, if your goal is to explore a niche aspect of your subject, a smaller,
more targeted sample might serve you better. You should always align your sample size
with the objectives of your research.
2) Know that you can’t predict everything
Research is a journey into the unknown. While you may have hypotheses and
predictions, it’s important to remember that you can’t foresee every outcome – and this
uncertainty should be considered when choosing your sample size.
A larger sample size can help to mitigate some of the risks of unpredictability, providing a
more diverse range of data and potentially more accurate results. However, you shouldn’t
let the fear of the unknown push you into choosing an impractically large sample size.
3) Plan for a sample that meets your needs and considers your real-life constraints
Every research project operates within certain boundaries – commonly budget, timeline
and the nature of the sample itself. When deciding on your sample size, these factors
need to be taken into consideration.
 Be realistic about what you can achieve with your available resources and time, and
always tailor your sample size to fit your constraints – not the other way around.

4) Use best practice guidelines to calculate sample size

There are many established guidelines and formulas that can help you in determining the
right sample size.
The easiest way to define your sample size is using a sample size calculator, or you can
use a manual sample size calculation if you want to test your math skills. Cochran’s
formula is perhaps the most well known equation for calculating sample size, and widely
used when the population is large or unknown.

Beyond the formula, it’s vital to consider the confidence interval, which plays a significant role in
determining the appropriate sample size – especially when working with a random sample – and the
sample proportion. This represents the expected ratio of the target population that has the characteristic
or response you’re interested in, and therefore has a big impact on your correct sample size.
If your population is small, or its variance is unknown, there are steps you can still take to
determine the right sample size. Common approaches here include conducting a small pilot study to gain
initial estimates of the population variance, and taking a conservative approach by assuming a larger
variance to ensure a more representative sample size.

Exercises:
1. A researcher wants to estimate the proportion of people in a large city who prefer
electric cars. They want a 95% confidence level and a margin of error of ±5%. They
do not have any prior information about the proportion. What sample size should
they use?
2. A healthcare organization wants to survey the proportion of patients who are
satisfied with their services. They aim for a 90% confidence level with a margin of
error of 3%, and previous studies show that approximately 70% of patients are
satisfied. What is the sample size needed?
3. A political pollster wants to estimate the proportion of voters who support a new
policy. They need a 99% confidence level and want the margin of error to be within
±4%. Assume no prior knowledge about the proportion of supporters. What sample
size should be used?
4. Suppose the total population of a small town is 10,000 people, and you want to
estimate the proportion of citizens who use public transport. You want a 95%
confidence level and a margin of error of ±4%, with an estimated proportion ppp of
0.4. What sample size should you use, accounting for the finite population?
Slovin’s Formula
Slovin’s formula is a statistical method used to determine the minimum sample size
needed to estimate a population parameter with a given margin of error. The formula is:
N
n= 2
1+ N e

where:
● ( n ) is the sample size,

● ( N ) is the population size,

● ( e ) is the margin of error (expressed as a decimal).

Key Takeaways:
● Slovin's formula is simple and easy to apply when estimating a sample size from a population
without prior knowledge of population variance.
● The margin of error (eee) is a key factor influencing the sample size. The smaller the margin of
error, the larger the required sample size.
● Slovin's formula is useful for large populations where there’s no prior information about population
behavior.

Exercises:
1. A company has 5,000 employees, and the management wants to conduct a survey to
gauge employee satisfaction. They want to keep the margin of error at 5%. What is the
required sample size using Slovin’s formula?
2. A researcher wants to survey a small village of 1,200 residents to understand their water
usage habits. They want a margin of error of 10%. How many residents should be included
in the sample?
3. A university has 30,000 students. The administration wants to conduct a survey to find out
how many students use the campus library regularly. They want to keep the margin of
error at 3%. What sample size should they use?
4. A city with a population of 100,000 residents plans to conduct a survey on their public
transportation satisfaction levels. They are willing to accept a margin of error of 2%. How
many residents should they survey?
5. A retail store has 2,000 regular customers and wants to conduct a survey about their
satisfaction with recent promotions. The store is willing to accept a margin of error of 8%.
What is the minimum sample size they should use?
Quiz.
A. Use the Cochran Formula to find the sample size (Finite Population)
1. Suppose we are doing a study on the inhabitants of a large town, and want to find out how many
households serve breakfast in the mornings. We don’t have much information on the subject to
begin with, so we’re going to assume that half of the families serve breakfast: this gives us
maximum variability. So p = 0.5. Now let’s say we want 95% confidence, and at least 5 percent—
plus or minus—precision. A 95 % confidence level gives us Z values of 1.96, per the normal
tables, so we get
2. A researcher wants to estimate the proportion of voters in a city who support a particular
candidate in an upcoming election. The researcher wants a 95% confidence level, a margin of
error of 5%, and assumes that the true proportion of supporters is unknown. The city has 50,000
registered voters.
3. A company wants to measure the satisfaction rate of its customers. They wish to have a margin
of error of 3%, a confidence level of 90%, and they believe that about 70% of their customers are
satisfied. The company has 10,000 customers.
4. A health organization wants to conduct a health survey in a small town with 800 residents. They
need a 95% confidence level, a 4% margin of error, and assume the proportion of people with a
specific health condition is around 20%.
5. A university is conducting a survey to understand students’ preferred learning methods. They
expect around 50% of students to prefer online learning. The population of the university is
15,000 students. The confidence level is 99% with a margin of error of 2%.

B. Use the Slovin’s Formula to compute the sample size.

1. 340
2. 490
3. 785
4. 2700
5. 4900
B. Essay
1. Why is sampling not applicable to small population?
2. In your opinion, which is better, scientific or non scientific sampling? Why?
3. When and when not to apply sampling? What are the advantages and disadvantages of
sampling?