GEOGRAPHY

1. Explain the formation of thousands of islands in indonesian and

philippines archipelagos
Ans: Indonesia and Philippines constitute two of the five main archipelagos
in the world, with Indonesia being the largest archipelagic state in the
world, in terms of area and population. Archipelago refers to a cluster or
group of relatively small islands. Archipelagos tend to be predominantly
volcanic, with their island arcs (chain of volcanoes forming an arc shape)
being created either due to subduction or erosion, deposition and land
elevation.
Both Indonesian and Philippines archipelagos are a result of a combination
of volcanic activity and tectonic plate movement. Both islands have been
hotbeds of volcanic and seismic activity due to the convergence of
continental plates. The islands are initially cause by the volcanoes, and
later the shifting of tectonic plates results in their consolidation as a
grouping of small islands in a relatively small area. Underwater volcanoes
lead to seepage of magma onto the sea, thereby creating rock formation.
Continual release of magma causes these rock formations to emerge onto
the surface of the sea, thus creating an island. The shifting tectonic plates
and existence of subduction zone in the area where the Indonesian and
Philippines Islands are located causes the formation of an island arc or
archipelago.

OR
An archipelago (sometimes known as a island group or a island chain) is a chain
cluster or collection of islands. Archipelago may be found isolated in bodies of water
or neighbouring a large landmass. The five main archipelagos of the world are
Indonesia, the Philippines, Japan, New Zealand, and the British Isles. The largest
archipelago state in the world by area and population, is Indonesia.
The islands are initially caused by the volcanoes and later the shifting of tectonic
plates results in their consolidation as a grouping of small islands in a relatively
small area.
Ocean convergence or the Island arc convergence occurs when the oceanic plate is
plunged into another oceanic plate away from the continents. As a result of collision,
the plate with greater density plunges beneath to form a trench. As the ocean floor
crust loaded with sediments subducts, the rocks on the continental side of the trench
become metamorphosed under high pressure and temperature. After reaching a
depth of 100 km, plates melt causing an upward movements of magma. A continuous
piling of rocks raises them above the océan crust and ultimately exposes them to
form an island arc.
Both Indonesia and Philippines archipelagos are a result of a combination of volcanic
activity and tectonic plate movement: Both these islands have been hötbeds of
volcanoes and seismic activity due to the conversion of continental plates. The
shifting tectonic plates and existence of subduction zone in the area where the
Indonesia and Philippines islands are situated causes the formation of an island arc

2. Why are the world's fold mountain systems located along the
margins of continents? Bring out the association between the
global distribution of Fold Mountains and the earthquakes
and volcanoes.

ANS : World’s fold mountains are located on the margins of the continents
because fold mountains are formed from the folding of crust and uprising
of the sediments accumulated by rivers along the margins of the
continents by the collision of two continental plates or a continental plate
and an oceanic plate. An example of fold mountains formed by converging
of two continental plates are Himalayas mountains and fold mountains
formed by convergence of a continental plate and an oceanic plate are
Andes mountains, Appalachians mountains etc.
As fold mountains form due to folding of crust , with the passage of long
time the folding continues and crust becomes over folded and
strata(layers) of rock develop. It is called Over-thrust fold. Now, further
folding leads to fracture in rock called Nappe. Upper layer of rock slides
over lower layer leading to release of tremendous amount of energy which
causes Earthquakes.
As two plates converge, the denser plate subducts under the lighter plate.
This subducted plate enters onto the Mantle region of earth which causes
melting of rocks to form Magma. Due to high pressure underneath this
magma comes out from the up-lying continental plate in the form of Lava,
causing the formation of volcanoes at some distance from continental
margins.

3. Major hot deserts in northern hemisphere are

located between 20-30 degree north and on the
western side of the continents. Why?
As you follow the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, thirty degrees on
either side of the equator, you will see, distributed with suspicious
regularity an earthy colored band of drylands surrounding the planet, a
sere belt averting greener climes: the deserts of the world. They lie in the
so-called Horse Latitudes, where constant high-pressure systems drive
away the rain clouds.

Why are deserts often located at 30 degrees from the equator ?

There are four major reasons responsible for why the major hot deserts
of the world are located between 20° – 30° N on the west of the
continents:-

Offshore trade winds

Offshore trade winds in the region and location in rain shadow

zone – Trade winds that blow in the region, shed their
moisture on the eastern part and by the time they reach the
western margin, they become dry.
Anticyclonic conditions

 Areas between 20–30 degree latitudes on western margins of

continents are the regions of descending air. It means the air
gets compressed and warm as it descends and thus the
moisture holding capacity keeps decreasing.
Leeward sides of mountains/Parallel mountain ranges

In the case of few deserts, mountains are situated as a barrier

which prevents orographic rainfall. For example:- presence of
Rockies on the western coast of North -America does not let
moisture bearing winds do rainfall in leeward sides. In the
case of Thar desert in India, Aravallis are situated parallel to
the region. Therefore the moisture holding winds pass away
from the region because there is absence of mountain
barriers.
Presence of cold ocean currents

 Presence of cold ocean currents along the western coast of

continents – tend to stabilise the air over the coast. This
prevents cloud formation and rainfall

4. Bring out the causes for more frequent landslides in

the Himalayas than in Western Ghats

ANS . INTRODUCTION
Landslides are physical mass movement of soil, rocks and debris down the mountain
slope because of heavy rainfall, earthquake, gravity etc.

LINKAGE POINT -The causes of landslides in the Himalayan region and Western
Ghats can be discussed as follows:
Reasons for more frequent landslides in Himalayas:
1. Himalayas are young tertiary mountains formed of sedimentary rocks and hence,
are prone to erosion.
2. Diurnal changes of temperature are much more in northern India than south of
Vindhya. This weakens the rocks and aids mass wasting. The Himalayas have great
height and steep slopes. The numerous streams and rivers like the Ganges, the
Indus, the Brahmaputra etc. aid the occurrence of frequent landslides. The running
water causes a large scale erosion of mountainous region.
3. Northward drift of the Indian plate causes frequent earthquakes and resultant
instability in the region.
4. Heavy snow fall occurs in winters which further melts in summers hence causing
large flow of debris and landslides.
5. Man-made activities like deforestation for timber industry, grazing, shifting
cultivation, and development of dams increase the chances of land slides.
Unplanned growth of houses in the hill areas. E.g. heavy load of residential and hotel
structures in Nainital, Uttarakhand are a leading cause.
Reasons for less frequent landslides in Western Ghats
1. Western Ghats are older-block mountains. Their major part is composed of basalt
rocks which shows great resistance to erosion and denudation.
2. Western Ghats are eroded and denuded. While steep slope on western side with
high rainfall creates ideal conditions for landslides but the gentle eastern slope with
low rainfall and rivers in mature stage, counters this condition.
3. Western Ghats have small and swift flowing streams. On the Eastern side, there
are big rivers like, Godavari, Kaveri and Krishna but since they are already in mature
stage, they cannot carry large amount of debris.
4. Western Ghats are located on stable part of Indian plate – Deccan plateau.
Hence, moving of Indian plate does not affect Western Ghats and there are lesser
earthquakes.
5. The human interference is lesser in Western Ghats as compared to the
Himalayas.
CONCLUSION:
A formal conclusion is not needed here since the word limit is very low.
However, you can conclude by giving a way forward for tackling landslides, or by
mentioning about schemes of government for the protection of these biodiversity
hotspots – e.g.. National Mission for
Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem under NAPCC.
 Otherwise, just write 1-2 lines talking about the importance of both of
them.
 ADDITIONAL POINT – SDG target 6.6 aims to, “protect and restore
water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers
and lakes.” Target 15.1 aims to, “ensure the conservation, restoration and
sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in
particular

5. What do you understand by the theory of

continental drift? Discuss the prominent evidences
in its support.
ANS : Continental drift theory explains how continents keep shifting
their position. It states that, the continents have been formed the break
up of Pangaea(asuper continent). The idea was first put forward by Alfred
Wagner. It was rejected as Wagner couldn't give reasons for the drift.
Plate tectonics explains the movement of the continental plates upon the
asthenosphere as caused primarily by endogentic forces.
Prominent evidences of continental drift are,

1. Similar fossils of animals and vegetation found accross continents.

They suggested that these continents were once located insame
climatology and harboured same flaura and fauna.
2. The jig-saw puzzle shape of the continental boundary. Similarities
along the coasts made Wagner comment that, they just fit
together.
3. Paleomagnetism observed in rocks of similar age indicated
latitudinal variance suggesting that drift of continents.
4. Presence of gold deposits along the South American coast despite
no known resources in the continent. It suggested that they were
deposited prior to the breaking of Pangaea from the African
continent.
5. Current satellite observation have beyond doubt confirmed that the
continents are indeed drifting.
6. The relatively young age of the sea bed suggesting they have been
continually been moving and renewed by fresh deposition.

7. "The Himalayas are highly prone to landslides."

Discuss the causes and suggest suitable measures
of mitigation.
Ans : A landslide is a natural phenomenon influenced by gravity which
causes downward movement of materials such as soil, rocks, mud, and so on.
In the past, landslides have triggered numerous mishaps and are a key
danger to human life and assets.
Due to the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates, the Himalayan
mountain range was formed after a huge bang. Continuous moment of plates
makes the landscape/slope brittle, fragile, and vulnerable to landslides. Risk
preparedness and an effective alert system are necessary to avoid the loss of
human life and property.
Debris avalanches and landslides occur more frequently in the Himalayas
because

1. There are many reasons for One, the Himalayas are tectonically active.
2. They are mostly made up of sedimentary rocks and unconsolidated
and semi-consolidated deposits.
 3. The slopes are very steep.
4. Extreme rainfall events like cloudbursts
5. Glacial Lake Outburst Floods
6. Rapid glacial melting in the Himalayan region due to climate change

Suitable measures of mitigation:

1. Hazard and vulnerability analysis and Development activities based on

that
2. Regular monitoring of glacial melting and Glacial lakes, Early warning
system for extreme rainfall events
3. Grazing should be completely After the area is completely protected
from grazing, better grasses can be planted. Stopping Jhum cultivation.
4. More approach toward afforestation, which consolidates the soil around
the roots of the tree and protects it from loosening.
5. Limited construction and mining activities with more geographical
research around sensitive areas.
6. Arrangement of proper drainage for rainwater will ensure no
waterlogging.
7. Setting up an expert team with geologists and other professionals to
conduct frequent routine checkups may work as a preventive measure.

The Himalayas are sensitive ecosystems that need urgent

protection. More so in a climate change-ridden age.

8. Define mantle plume and explain its role in plate

tectonics.
Ans : A mantle plume is a large column of hot rock rising
through the mantle. The heat from the plume causes rocks in
the lower lithosphere to melt. The largest mantle plumes are
presumed to form where a large volume of mantle rock is
heated at the core-mantle boundary.
Most volcanos occur at plate boundaries, where two tectonic
plates meet. But some volcanoes appear in the middle of a
tectonic plate. In 1963, J. Tuzo Wilson proposed the mantle
plume hypothesis to explain this phenomenon. Heat
transferred from the plume raises the temperature in the
lower lithosphere to the above melting point, and magma
chambers are formed that feed volcano at the surface. This
area is also known as a hot spot or flood basalt. Hotspots
exist in Hawaii and Iceland.
The mantle plume hypothesis is useful in understanding the
formation of volcanic chains, growth and breakdown of
supercontinents, active rifting, the formation of passive
volcanic-type continental margins, and the origin of time
progressive volcanic chains on oceanic and continental
plates. Although the evidence for mantle plumes is largely
circumstantial, it still plays a vital role in the processes of
plate tectonics.