CHAPTER-8

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Q-1: Define and explain the following terms:

i. Temperature
ii. Thermal contact
iii. Thermal equilibrium
iv. Heat
v. Internal energy

TEMPERATURE:
“Temperature of a body is the degree of hotness or coldness of the body”

Explanation:
When we touch a body, we feel it hot or cold. The temperature of a body tells us how hot or
cold a body is.

For Example:
A candle flame is hot and is said to be at high temperature. On the other hand ice is cold and
is said to be at low temperature.

Remember That:
Our sense of touch is a simple way to know how much hot or cold a body is. However, this
temperature sense is somewhat approximation and unreliable. Moreover, it is not always safe to
touch a hot body.

Thermal Contact:
“When two bodies are at different temperatures can exchange their heat then they are
said to be in thermal contact”.

Explanation:
i. To store ice in summer, people wrap it with cloth or keep it in wooden box or in thermos flask.
In this way, they avoid the thermal contact of ice with its hot surroundings otherwise ice will
soon melt away.
ii. When you place a cup of hot tea or water in a room, it cools down gradually. It stops cooling as
it reaches the room temperature.

Note:Temperature determines the direction of flow of heat.

Thermal Equilibrium:
“Heat flows from a hot body to a cold body until thermal equilibrium is reached”.

HEAT:
 “Heat is the energy that is transferred from one body to the other in thermal contact
with each other as a result of the difference of temperature between them”.

Explanation:
Take two bodies having different temperatures. Bring them in contact with each other. The
temperature of the hot body falls. It loses energy. This energy enters the cold body at lower
temperature. Cold body gains energy and its temperature rises. The transfer of energy continues till

both the bodies have the same temperature. The form of energy that is transferred from a hot body to
a cold body is called heat. Heat is therefore, called as the energy in transit. Once heat enters a body,
it becomes its internal energy and no longer exists as heat energy.

Internal Energy:
“The sum of kinetic energy and potential energy associated with the atoms, molecules
and particles of a body is called its internal energy”.

Explanation:
Internal energy of a body depends on many factors such as the mass of the body, kinetic and
potential energies of molecules etc. Kinetic energy of an atom or molecule is due to its motion which
depends upon the temperature. Potential energy of atoms or molecules is the stored energy due to
intermolecular forces.

Q-2: What is thermometer? What are the properties of thermometric material? Discuss the
construction and working of liquid in glass thermometer?

THERMOMETER:
“A device that is used to measure the temperature of a body is called thermometer”.

Thermometric Material:
Some substances have property that changes with temperature. Substances that show a
change with temperature can be used as a thermometric material.

For Example:
Some substances expand on heating, some change their colours, some change their electric
resistance, etc. Nearly all the substances expand on heating. Liquids also expands on heating and
are suitable as thermometric materials. Common thermometers are generally made using some
suitable liquid as thermometric material.

Properties of Thermometric Material:

A thermometric liquid should have the following properties.
 It should be visible.
 It should have uniform thermal expansion.
 It should have a low freezing point.
 It should have a high boiling point.
 It should not wet glass.
 It should be a good conductor of heat.
 It should have a small specific heat capacity.

Liquid in Glass Thermometer:

 A liquid in glass thermometer has a bulb with a long capillary tube of uniform and fine bore. A
suitable liquid is filled in the bulb. When the bulb contact a hot object, the liquid in it expands and
rises in the tube. The glass stem of the thermometer is thick and acts as cylindrical lens. This makes
it easy to see the liquid level in the glass tube.

Mercury as Thermometric Material:

Mercury freezes at –39oC and boils at 357oC. It has all the thermometric properties. Thus
mercury is one of the most suitable thermometric material. Mercury in glass thermometers are widely
used in laboratories, clinics and houses to measure temperatures in the range from –10 oC to 150 oC.

Lower and Upper Fixed Points:

A thermometer has a scale on its stem. This scale has two fixed points.

Lower Fixed Point:

“The lower fixed point is marked to show the position of liquid in the thermometer when
it is placed in ice”.

Upper Fixed Point:

“Upper fixed point is marked to show the position of liquid in the thermometer when it
is placed in steam at standard pressure above boiling water”.

Q-3: What are the scales of temperature? Write formulae to convert temperature from one
scale to other temperature scale.

Scales of Temperature:
A scale is marked on the thermometer. Three scales of temperature are in common use.
These are:
i. Celsius scale or centigrade scale
ii. Fahrenheit scale
iii. Kelvin scale

i. Celsius Scale or Centigrade Scale:

 On Celsius scale, the interval between lower and upper fixed
points is divided into 100 equal parts.
 The lower fixed point is marked as 0 oC.
 The upper fixed point is marked as 100 oC.

ii. Fahrenheit Scale:

 On Fahrenheit scale, the interval between lower and upper
fixed points is divided into 180 equal parts.
 Its lower fixed point is marked as 32 oF
 The upper fixed point is marked as 212 oF.

iii. Kelvin Scale:

  In SI units, the unit of temperature is kelvin (K) and its scale is called Kelvin scale of
temperature.
 The interval between the lower and upper fixed points is divided into 100 equal parts.
 Thus change in 1 oC is equal to a change of 1 K.
 The lowers fixed point on this scale is 273 K
 The upper fixed point is 373 K.
 The zero on this scale is called the absolute zero and is equal to –273 oC.

Conversion of the Temperature from One Scale to other Temperature Scale:

From Celsius to Kelvin Scale:

The temperature Tk on Kelvin scale can be obtained by adding 273 in the temperature Tc on
Celsius scale. Thus

Tk =Tc + 273

From Kelvin to Celsius Scale:

The temperature on Celsius scale can be found by subtracting 273 from the temperature in
Kelvin scale. Thus
Tc=Tk – 273

From Celsius to Fahrenheit Scale:

Since 100 divisions on Celsius scale are equal to 180 divisions on Fahrenheit scale. Therefore,
each division on Celsius scale is equal to 1.8 divisions on Fahrenheit scale. Moreover, 0 oC
corresponds to 32 oF.
TF = 1.8Tc + 32
Here TF is the temperature in Fahrenheit scale and Tc is the temperature on Celsius scale.

From Fahrenheit to Celsius scale:

We can find the temperature on Celsius scale from Fahrenheit scale.
1
Tc = (TF – 32)
1.8

Q-4: What is specific heat capacity? Write its formula and unit.

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY:

The specific heat of substance is defined as:
“Specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
1 kg mass of that substance through 1 K”.

Explanation:
Generally, when a body is heated, its temperature increases. Increase in the temperature of a
body is found to be proportional to amount of heat absorbed by it. It has also been observed that the
quantity of heat ∆Q required to raise the temperature ∆T of a body is proportional to the mass m of
the body.

Mathematically:
∆Q  m ∆ T
Or ∆Q = c m ∆T
Here ∆Q is the amount of heat absorbed by the body and c is the constant of proportionality
called the specific heat capacity or simply specific heat.
∆Q
c=
m∆T
SI Unit:
 In SI units, mass m is measured in kilogramme (kg), heat ∆Q is measured in joule (J) and
temperature increase ∆T is taken in Kelvin (K). Hence, SI unit of specific heat capacity is Jkg–1K–1.

Q-5: What is heat capacity? Write its formula.

HEAT CAPACITY:
We can define heat capacity of a body as:
“Heat capacity of a body is the quantity of thermal energy absorbed by it for one kelvin
increase in its temperature”.

Mathematically:
If the temperature of a body increases through ∆T on adding ∆Q amount of heat, then its heat
capacity will be
∆Q
Heat capacity =
∆T

Putting the value of ∆Q = c m ∆T we get

m c ∆T
=
∆T
Heat capacity = mc
Equation shows that heat capacity of a body is equal to the product of its mass of the body and
its specific heat capacity.

For Example:
Heat capacity of 5 kg of water is 5 kg × 4200 Jkg–1K–1= 21000 JK–1. That is 5 kg of water
needs 21000 joules of heat for every 1 K rise in its temperature. Thus, larger is the quantity of a
substance, larger will be its heat capacity.

Q-6: Briefly explain the importance of large specific heat capacity of water?

IMPORTANCE OF LARGE SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF WATER:

Moderate Temperature Near Sea Shore:

Specific heat of water is 4200 Jkg–1K–1 and that of dry soil is about 810 Jkg–1K–1. As a result
the temperature of soil would increase five times more than the same mass of water by the same
amount of heat. Thus, the temperature of land rises and falls more rapidly than that of the sea.
Hence, the temperature variations from summer to winter are much smaller at places near the sea
than land far away from the sea.

Storing Thermal Energy:

Water has a large specific heat capacity. For this reason, it is
very useful in storing and carrying thermal energy due to its high
specific heat capacity.

Use of Water in Cooling System of Automobiles:

The cooling system of automobiles uses water to carry away
unwanted thermal energy, in an automobile, large amount of heat is
produced by its engine due to which its temperature goes on
increasing. The engine would cease unless it is not cooled down.
Water circulating around the engine maintains its temperature. Water
absorbs unwanted thermal energy of the engine and dissipates heat
through its radiator.

Use of Water in Central Heating Systems:

 In central heating systems, hot water is used to carry thermal energy through pipes from boiler
to radiator. These radiators are fixed inside the house at suitable places.

Q-7: How matter can be changed from one state to another. Explain with graph.

CHANGE OF STATE:
Matter can be changed from one state to
another. For such a change to occur, thermal
energy is added to or removed from a substance.

Latent Heat:
“The amount of heat required to change the state of matter at constant temperature is
called latent heat”.

Activity:
Take a beaker and place it over a stand. Put small pieces of ice
in the beaker and suspend a thermometer in the beaker to measure the
temperature of ice. Now place a burner under the beaker. The ice will
start melting. The temperature of the mixture containing ice and water
will not increase above 0 oC until all ice melts and we get water at 0oC. If
this water at 0 oC is further heated, its temperature begins to increase
above 0oC.

Explanation of Graph:

Part AB:
On this portion of the curve, the temperature of ice increases from –30oC to 0oC.

Part BC:
When the temperature of ice reaches 0 oC, the ice water
mixture remains at this temperature until all the ice melts.

Part CD:
The temperature of the substance gradually increases
from 0 C to 100 oC. The amount of energy so added is used up
o

in increasing the temperature of water.

Part DE:
At 100 oC water begins to boil and changes into steam. The temperature remains 100 oC until
all the water changes into steam.

Q-8: Define and explain latent heat of fusion? Write its formula.

LATENT HEAT OF FUSION:

“Heat energy required to change unit mass of a substance from solid to liquid state at
its melting point without change in its temperature is called its latent heat of fusion”.

Note: It is denoted by Hf.

Mathematically:
∆Qf
Hf=
m
Or ∆Qf= m Hf
Latent Heat of Ice:
Ice changes at 0oC into water. Latent heat of fusion of ice is 3.36 × 10 5Jkg–1, i.e. 3.36 × 105
joule heat is required to melt 1 kg of ice into water at 0oC.

Melting or Fusion:
“When a substance is changed from solid to liquid state by adding heat, the process is
called melting or fusion”.

Melting Point or Fusion Point:

“The temperature at which a solid starts melting is called its fusion point or melting
point”.

Freezing Point:
“When a liquid is cooled, it changes into solid state. The temperature at which a
substance changes from liquid to solid state is called its freezing point”.

Note:
Different substances have different melting points. However, the freezing point of a substance
is the same as its melting point.

Q-9: Define and explain latent heat of vaporization? Write its formula.

LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION:

“The quantity of heat that changes unit mass of a liquid completely into gas at its
boiling point without any change in its temperature is called its latent heat of vaporization”.

Note: It is denoted by Hv

Mathematically:
∆Qv
Hv =
m
Or ∆Qv = m Hv

Latent Heat of Water:

When water is heated, it boils at 100oC under standard pressure. Its temperature remains
100oC until it is changed completely into steam. Its latent heat of vaporization is 2.26 × 10 6Jkg–1. That
is,one kilogramme water requires 2.26×106 joule heat to change it completely into gas (steam) at its
boiling point.

Explanation:
When heat is given to a liquid at its boiling point, its temperature remains constant. The heat
energy given to a liquid at its boiling point is used up in changing its state from liquid to gas without
any increase in its temperature.

Table:
The value of melting point, boiling point, latent heat of fusion and vaporization of some of the
substances is given in Table.

Heat of
Melting Point Boiling Point Heat of Fusion
Substance vaporization
(oC) (oC) (kJkg–1)
(kJkg–1)
Aluminum 660 2450 39.7 10500
Copper 1083 2595 205.0 4810
 Gold 1063 2660 64.0 1580
Helium -270 -269 5.2 21
Lead 327 1750 23.0 858
Mercury -39 357 11.7 270
Nitrogen -210 -196 25.5 200
Oxygen -219 -183 13.8 210
Water 0 100 336.0 2260

Q-10: Calculate the latent heat of fusion of ice by a simple experiment?

Experiment:
 Take a beaker and place it over a stand. Put small pieces of ice in the beaker and suspend a
thermometer in the beaker to measure the temperature.
 Place a burner under the beaker. The ice will start melting. The temperature of the mixture
containing ice and water will not increase above 0oC until all the ice melts.
 Note the time which the ice takes to melt completely into water at 0 oC.

 Continue heating the water at 0oC in the beaker. Its temperature

will begin to increase. Not the time which the water in the beaker
takes to reach its boiling point at 100 oC from 0 oC.
 Draw a temperature–time graph such as shown in figure.

Calculation of Latent of Fusion:

Calculate the latent heat of fusion of ice from the data as follows:
Let
Mass of ice = m
Finding the time form the graph
Time take by ice to melt completely at 0oC = tf = t2–t1 = 3.6 min.
Time taken by water to heat from 0 C to 100 C = to =t3 –t2 = 4.6 min.
o o

Specific heat of water = c = 4200 Jkg–1K–1

Increase in the temperature of water = ∆T = 100oC = 100 K
Heat required by water from 0oC to 100 oC = ∆Q = m c ∆ T
= m × 4200 Jkg–1K–1× 100 K
= m × 420 000 Jkg–1
= ∆Q = m × 4.2 × 105Jkg–1 ……… (1)
Heat ∆Q is supplied to water in the time toto raise its temperature from 0oC to 100oC. Hence,
the rate of absorbing heat by water in the beaker is given by
∆Q
Rate of absorbing heat =
to
∆Q
Heat absorbed in time tf = ∆Qf = to
× tf
tf
= ∆Q × ……… (2)
to
Since = ∆Qf = m × Hf……… (3)
Comparing (2) and (3), we get
tf
m × Hf = ∆Q ×
to
By using (1) in above
tf
m × Hf = m × 4.2 × 105Jkg–1 ×
to
 tf
Hf = 4.2 × 105Jkg–1 ×
to
The value of tf and to can be found from the graph.
Put the values in the above equation to get.
3.6 min.
Hf = 4.2 × 105Jkg–1 ×
4.6 min.
5 –1
= 3.29 × 10 Jkg
Conclusion:
The latent heat of fusion of ice found by the above experiment is 3.29 × 10 5Jkg–1 while its
actual value is 3.36 × 105Jkg–1.

Q-11: Calculate the latent heat of vaporization of water by a simple experiment?

Experiment:
 Take a beaker and place it over a stand. Put small pieces of ice in the beaker and suspend a
thermometer in the beaker to measure the temperature.
 Place a burner under the beaker. The ice will start melting. The temperature of the mixture
containing ice and water will not increase above 0 oC until all the ice melts.
 Note the time which the ice takes to melt completely into water at 0 oC.
 Continue heating the water at 0oC in the beaker. Its temperature will begin to increase. Not the

time which the water in the beaker takes to reach its boiling point at 100 oC from 0 oC.
 Continue heating water till all the water changes into steam. Not the time which the water in
the beaker takes to change completely into steam at its boiling point 100 oC.
 Draw a temperature–time graph such as shown in figure.

Calculation of Latent of Vaporization:

Calculate the latent heat of vaporization of water from the data as follows:
Let
Mass of ice = m
Finding the time form the graph
Time taken by water to heat from 0oC to 100oC = to =t3 –t2 = 4.6 min.
Time take by water to change into steam 100oC = tv = t4– t3 = 24.4 min.
–1 –1
Specific heat of water = c = 4200 Jkg K
Increase in the temperature of water = ∆T = 100oC = 100 K
Heat required by water from 0oC to 100 oC = ∆Q = m c ∆ T
= m × 4200 Jkg–1K–1× 100 K
= m × 420 000 Jkg–1
= ∆Q = m × 4.2 × 105Jkg–1 ……… (1)
Heat ∆Q is supplied to water in the time toto raise its temperature from 0oC to 100oC. Hence,
the rate of absorbing heat by water in the beaker is given by
 ∆Q
Rate of absorbing heat =
to
∆Q
Heat absorbed in time tv = ∆Qv = × tv
to
tv
= ∆Q × ……… (2)
to
Since = ∆Qv = m × Hv……… (3)
Comparing (2) and (3), we get
tv
m × Hv = ∆Q ×
to
By using (1) in above
tv
m × Hv = m × 4.2 × 105Jkg–1 ×
to
tv
Hv = 4.2 × 105Jkg–1 ×
to
The value of tv and to can be found from the graph.
Put the values in the above equation to get.
24.4 min.
Hv = 4.2 × 105Jkg–1 ×
4.6 min.
6 –1
= 2.23 × 10 Jkg
Conclusion:
The latent heat of vaporization of water found by the above experiment is 2.23 × 106Jkg–1while
its actual value is 2.26 × 106Jkg–1.

Q-12: Define and explain evaporation? What is the importance of evaporation? What are the
factors upon which evaporation depends?

THE EVAPORATION:
“Evaporation is the changing of liquid into vapours (gaseous state) from the surface of
the liquid without heating it.”

Explanation:
Take some water in a dish. The water in the dish will disappear
after sometime. It is because the molecules of water are in constant
motion and possess kinetic energy. Fast moving molecules escape out
from the surface of water and goes into the atmosphere. This is called
evaporation.

Difference between Evaporation and Vaporization:

Unlike boiling, evaporation takes place at all temperatures but
only from the surface of liquid. The process of vaporization takes place
at a certain fixed temperature which is the boiling point of that liquid. At
boiling point, a liquid is changing into vapours not only from the surface
also within the liquid. These vapours come out of the boiling liquid as
bubbles which breakdown on reaching the surface.

Importance of Evaporation:
Evaporation plays an important role in our daily life. Wet clothes dry up rapidly when spread.
During evaporation fast moving molecules escape out from the surface of liquid. Molecules that have
lower kinetic energies are left behind. This lowers the average kinetic energy of the liquid molecules
and the temperature of the liquid. Since temperature of a substance depends on the average kinetic
energy of its molecules. Evaporation of perspiration helps to cool our bodies.
Factors Affecting Evaporation:
Evaporation takes place at all temperature from the surface of liquid. The rate of evaporation is
affected by various factors.

i. Temperature:
Wet clothes dry up more quickly in summer than in winter. At higher temperature, more
molecules of a liquid are moving with high velocities. Thus, more molecules escape from its surface.
Thus, evaporation is faster at high temperature than at low temperature.

ii. Surface Area:

Water evaporates faster when spread over large area. Larger is the surface area of a liquid,
greater number of molecules has the chance to escape from its surface.

iii. Wind:
Wind blowing over the surface of a liquid sweeps away the liquid molecules that have just
escaped out. This increases the chance for more liquid molecules to escape out.

iv. Nature of the Liquid:

Liquids differ in the rate at which they evaporate. Spread a few drops of ether or spirit on your
palm. You feel cold.

Q-13: Define and explain thermal expansion.

THERMAL EXPANSION:
“Expansion due to healing is called thermal expansion”.

Explanation:
Most of the substances solids, liquids and gases expand on
heating and contract on cooling. Their thermal expansion and
contractions are usually small and are not noticeable. However, these
expansions and contractions are important in our daily life.
The kinetic energy of the molecules of an object depends on its
temperature. The molecules of solid vibrate with larger amplitude at high
temperature than at low temperature. Thus, on heating, the amplitude of
vibration of the atoms or molecules of an object increases. They push one
another farther away as the amplitude of vibration increases. Thermal
expansion results an increase in length, breadth and thickness of a
substance.

Q-14: What is linear thermal expansion? On what factors it depends? Explain.

LINEAR THERMAL EXPANSION IN SOLIDS:

“The length of solid changes with the change in temperature, it is called linear thermal
expansion”.

Explanation
Consider a metal rod of length Lo at certain temperature To. Let its length on heating to a
temperature T becomes L. Thus
Increase in length of the rod = ∆L = L – Lo
Increase in temperature = ∆T = T – To

Dependence of Linear Thermal Expansion:

 It is found that change in length ∆L of a solid is directly proportional to its original length L o and
the change in temperature ∆T. i.e.
∆L ∝ Lo ∆T
Or ∆L = α Lo ∆T ………………. (1)
Or L – Lo = α Lo ∆T
Or L = Lo + α Lo ∆T
L = Lo (1 + α ∆T) ………………. (2)
Where α is called the coefficient of linear thermal expansion of the substance.
From equation (1), we get
∆L
α =
Lo ∆T
Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion:
We can define
“The coefficient of linear thermal expansion α of a substance as the fractional increase
in its length per Kelvin rise in temperature”.

Q-15: What is volume thermal expansion? On what factors it depends? Explain.

VOLUME THERMAL EXPANSION:

“The volume of a solid changes with the change in temperature, it is called volume
thermal expansion or cubical thermal expansion”.

Explanation:
Consider a solid of initial volume Vo at certain temperature To. On heating the solid to a
temperature T, let its volume becomes V then,
Change in the volume of a solid = ∆V = V – Vo
Change in temperature = ∆T = T – To

Dependent of Volume Thermal Expansion:

It is found that like linear expansion, the change in volume ∆V is found to be proportional to its
original volume Vo and change in temperature ∆T. Thus
∆V ∝ Vo ∆T
Or ∆V = β Vo ∆T ………………. (1)
Or V – Vo = β Vo ∆T
Or V = Vo +β Vo ∆T
V = Vo (1 + β ∆T) ………………. (2)
Where β is coefficient of volume thermal expansionof the substance.
From equation (1), we get
∆V
β =
Vo ∆T
Coefficient of Volume Thermal Expansion:
We can define
 “The coefficient of volume thermal expansion β of a substance as the fractional
increase in its volume per Kelvin rise in temperature”.

Relation between α and β:

The coefficients of linear expansion and volume expansion are
related by the equation:
β = 3α

Q-16: What are the consequences and application of thermal

expansion?

CONSEQUENCES OF THERMAL EXPANSION:

The expansion of solids may damage the bridges, railway tracks
and road as they are constantly subjected to temperature changes. So
provision is made during construction for expansion and contraction
with temperature.

For Example:
i. Railway tracks buckled on a hot summer day due to expansion
if gaps are not left between sections.
ii. Bridges made of steel girders also expand during the day and
contract during night. They will bend if their ends are fixed. To
allow thermal expansion, one end is fixed while the other end of
the girder rests on rollers in the gap left for expansion.
iii. Overhead transmission lines are also given a certain amount of
sag so they can contract in winter without snapping.

Applications of Thermal Expansion:

Thermal expansion is used in our daily life.

For Example:
i. In thermometers, thermal expansion is used in temperature
measurements.
ii. To pen the cap of a bottle that is tight enough, immerse it in hot
water for a minute or so. Metal cap expands and becomes
loose. It would now be easy to turn it to open.
iii. To join steel plates tightly together, red hot rivets are forced
through holes in the plates as on cooling, the rivets contract and
bring the plates tightly griped.

iv. Iron rims are fixed on wooden wheel of carts. Iron rims are heated. Thermal expansion allows
them to slip over the wooden wheel. Water is poured on it to cool. The rim contacts and
becomes tight over the wheel.

Q-17: Write the construction and working of bimetal strip?

BIMETAL STRIP:
A bimetal strip consists of two thin strips of different
metals such as brass and iron joined together. On heating the
strip, brass expands more than iron. This unequal expansion
causes bending of the strip.

Uses of Bimetal Strip:

 Bimetal strips are used for various purposes.
i. Bimetal thermometers are used to measure temperature especially in furnaces and ovens.
ii. Bimetal strips are also used in thermostats. Bimetal thermostat switch is used to control the
temperature of heater coil in an electric iron.

Q-18: Define and explain thermal expansion of liquid? How thermal expansion of liquid can be
determined? Explain with experiment.

THERMAL EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS:

“Expansion of a liquid upon heating is called the thermal expansion of the liquids”.

Explanation:
The molecules of liquids are free to move in all directions within the liquid. On heating a liquid,
the average amplitude of vibration of its molecules increases. The molecules push each other and
need more space to occupy. This accounts for the expansion of liquid when heated.

Liquid Expands More Than Solid:

The thermal expansion in liquids is greater than solids due to the weak forces between their
molecules. Therefore, the coefficient of volume expansion of liquids is greater than solids.

Shape of Liquids:
Liquids have no definite shape of their own. A liquid always attains shape of the container in
which it is poured. Therefore, when a liquid is heated, both liquid and the container undergo a change
in their volume.

Types of Thermal Volume Expansion for Liquid:

There are two types of thermal volume expansion for liquid.
 Apparent volume expansion
 Real volume expansion

Method to Determine the Thermal Expansion in Liquids:

i. Take a long necked flask.
ii. Fill it with some coloured liquid up to the mark A on its neck.
iii. Now start heating the flask from bottom. The liquid level first falls to B
and then rises to C.
iv. The heat first reaches the flask which expands and its volume
increases. As a result liquid descends in the flask and its level falls to B.
v. After sometime, the liquid begins to rise above B on getting hot.
vi. At certain temperature it reaches at C.
vii. The rise in level from A to C is due to the apparent expansion of the liquid.

viii. Actual expansion of the liquid is greater than that due to the expansion because of the
expansion of the glass flask.
ix. Thus real expansion of the liquid is equal to the volume difference between A and C in addition
to the volume expansion of the flask. Hence
Real expansion = Apparent expansion of the liquid + Expansion of the flask
Or BC = AC + AB
The expansion of the volume of a liquid taking into consideration the expansion of the
container also, is called the real volume expansion of the liquid.

The Real Rate of Volume Expansion:

“The real rate of volume expansionβr of a liquid is the actual change in the unit volume
of a liquid for 1 K or oC rise in its temperature”.
Remember that:
The real rate of volume expansion βr is always greater than the apparent rate of volume
expansion βa by an amount equal to the rate of volume expansion the container β g. Thus,
βr = βa + βg
It should be noted that different liquids have different coefficients of volume expansion.

DO YOU KNOW

1. How the crocus flower is a natural thermometer?

Ans: The crocus flower is a natural thermometer. It opens when the temperature is precisely 23 oC
and closes when the temperature drops.

2. Write temperature of some substances?

Ans:
Sun’s core 15 000 000 oC
Sun’s surface 6000 oC
Electric lamp 2500 oC
Gas lamp 1580 oC
Boiling water 100 oC
Human body 37 oC
Freezing water 0 oC
Ice in freezer –18 oC
Liquid oxygen –180oC

3. What do you know about clinical thermometers?

Ans: A clinical thermometer is used to measure the temperature of human body. It has a narrow
range from 35 oC to 42 oC. It has a construction that prevents the mercury to return. Thus, its reading
does not change until reset.

4. Why climate of land near large water reservoirs remains moderate?

Ans: The presence of large water reservoirs such as lakes and seas keep the climates of nearby
land moderate due to the large heat capacity of these reservoirs.

5. Which gas is used in refrigerators and what are its effects on ozone layer?
Ans: Cooling is produced in refrigerators by evaporation of a liquefied gas. This produce cooling
effect. Freon, a CFC, was used as refrigerant gas.
But its use has been forbidden when it was known that CFC is the cause of ozone depletion in
the upper atmosphere which results increase in amount of UV rays from the Sun. The rays are
harmful to all living matter. Freon gas is now replaced by ammonia and other substances which are
not harmful to environment.

6. What is anomalous expansion of water?

Ans: Water on cooling below 4 oC begins to expand until it reaches 0 oC. On further cooling its
volume increases suddenly as it changes into ice at 0 oC. It contracts i.e. its volume decreases like
solids. This unusual expansion of water is called the anomalous expansion of water.

7. Write specific heat capacity of some common substances.

Ans:
Specific Heat of Some Common Substances
Substance Specific heat Jkg–1K–1
Alcohol 2500.0
 Aluminum 903.0
Bricks 900.0
Carbon 121.0
Clay 920.0
Copper 387.0
Ether 2010.0
Glass 840.0
Gold 128.0
Granite 790.0
Ice 2100.0
Iron 470.0
Lead 128.0
Mercury 138.6
Sand 835.0
Silver 235.0
Soil (dry) 810.0
Steam 2016.0
Tungsten 134.8
Turpentine 1760.3
Water 4200.0
Zinc 385.0

8. Write coefficient of linear thermal expansion αof some common solids?

Ans:
Substance α (K–1)
Aluminum 2.4 × 10–5
Brass 1.9 × 10–5
Copper 1.7 × 10–5
Steel 1.2 × 10–5
Silver 1.93 × 10–5
Gold 1.3 × 10–5
Platinum 8.6 × 10–5
Tungsten 0.4 × 10–5
Glass (Pyrex) 0.4 × 10–5
Glass (Ordinary) 0.9 × 10–5
Concrete 1.2 × 10–5

9. Write coefficient of volume thermal expansion β of some common solids?

Ans:
Substance β(K–1)
Aluminum 7.2 × 10–5
Brass 6.0 × 10–5
Copper 5.1 × 10–5
Steel 3.6 × 10–5
Platinum 27.0 × 10–5
 Glass (Ordinary) 2.7 × 10–5
Glass (Pyrex) 1.2 × 10–5
Glycerin 53 × 10–5
Mercury 18 × 10–5
Water 21 × 10–5
Air 3.67 × 10–3
Carbon dioxide 3.72 × 10–3
Hydrogen 3.66 × 10–3

MINI EXERCISE
MINI EXERCISE 8.1:

1. Which of the following substances have greater average kinetic energy of its molecules
at 10 oC?
a) steel b) copper
c) water d) mercury
Ans: Water

2. Every thermometer makes use of some property of material that varies with
temperature. Name the property used in
a. Strip thermometer
b. Mercury thermometer
Ans: a. In strip thermometer colour of the strip is changed on heating.
b.Mercury thermometers work on the principle of expansion on heating.

MINI EXERCISE 8.2:

1. How specific heat differs from heat capacity?

Ans:
Specific Heat Capacity Heat Capacity
“Specific heat of a substance is the amount “Heat capacity of a body is the quantity of
of heat required to raise the temperature of thermal energy absorbed by it for one kelvin
1 kg mass of that substance through 1 K”. increase in its temperature”.
Specific heat capacity can be found by Heat capacity can be found by given
given relation: relation:
∆Q Heat capacity = mc
c =
m∆T
SI unit of specific heat capacity is Jkg–1K–1. SI unit of heat capacity is JK–1

2. Give two uses of cooling effects by evaporation?

Ans: a.Evaporation of perspiration helps to cool our bodies.
b. Cooling is produced in refrigerators by evaporation of liquefied gas.

3. How evaporation differs from vaporization?

Ans: Unlike boiling, evaporation takes place at all temperatures but only from the surface of liquid.
The process of vaporization takes place at a certain fixed temperature which is the boiling point of
that liquid. At boiling point, a liquid is changing into vapours not only from the surface also within the
liquid. These vapours come out of the boiling liquid as bubbles which breakdown on reaching the
surface.
 MULTIPLE CHOICE EXERCISE

Q-8.1: Multiple Choice Questions:

i. Water freezes at ………………………..

a) 0 oF b) 32 oF
c) –273 K d) 0K

ii. Normal human body temperature is ……………………….

a) 15 oC b) 37 oC
c) 37 oF d) 98.6 oC

iii. Mercury is used as thermometric material because it has ……………………

a) uniform thermal expansion b) low freezing point
c) small heat capacity d) all of the above

iv. Which of the following material has large specific heat?

a) copper b) ice
c) water d) mercury

v. Which of the following material has large value of temperature coefficient of linear
expansion?
a) aluminum b) gold
c) brass d) steel

vi. What will be the value of for a solid for which has a value of 2 x 10–5 K–1?
a) 2 x 10–5 K–1 b) 6 x 10–5 K–1
c) 8 x 10–15 K–1 d) 8 x 10–5 K–1

vii. A large water reservoir keeps the temperature of nearby land moderate due to …………
a) low temperature of water b) low specific heat of water
c) less absorption of water d) large specific heat of water

viii. Which of the following affects evaporation?

a) temperature b) surface area of the liquid
c) wind d) all of the above

CHAPTER-8 9th PHYSICS MCQS ANSWERS

i ii iii iv v vi vii viii
b b d c a b d d

REMAINING EXERCISE

Q-8.2: Why does heat flow from hot body to cold body?
Ans: Heat flows due to difference of temperature from higher temperature to lower temperature. As
the temperature of the hot body is more than the cold body, therefore heat flows from hot body to cold
body.

Q-8.3: Define the terms heat and temperature.

Ans: See Notes Q-1

Q-8.4: What is meant by internal energy of a body?

Ans: See Notes Q-1
Q-8.5: How does heatingeffect the motion of the molecules of a gas?
Ans: The molecules of a gas have random motion move with high velocities. If a gas is heated, its
temperature rises and its molecules will move vigorously with very high velocities. The molecules
exert more pressure on the walls of the container.

Q-8.6: What is a thermometer? Why mercury is preferred as a thermometric substance?

Ans: See Notes Q-2

Q-8.7: Explain the volumetric thermal expansion?

Ans: See Notes Q-15

Q-8.8: Define specific heat. How would you find the specific heat of a solid?
Ans: See Notes Q-4

Q-8.9: Define and explain latent heat of fusion?

Ans: See Notes Q-8

Q-8.10: Define latent heat of vaporization.

Ans: See Notes Q-9

Q-8.11: What is meant by evaporation? On what factors the evaporation of a liquid depends?
Explain how cooling is produced by evaporation.
Ans: See Notes Q-12

FORMULAEUSE IN CHAPTER-8

Conversion of Temperature Scales:

1. From Celsius to Kelvin Scale:
TK = TC + 273
2. From Kelvin to Celsius Scale:
TC = TK – 273
3. From Celsius to Fahrenheit Scale:
TF = 1.8TC + 32
4. From Fahrenheit to Celsius Scale:
1
TC = (TF – 32)
1.8
5. Specific Heat Capacity
∆Q=mc∆T
6. Heat Capacity
Heat capacity =mc
7. Latent Heat of Fusion
∆Qf=mHf
8. Latent Heat of Vaporization
∆Qv=mHv
9. L = Lo(1 + ∆T) (Linear Expension)
10. V = Vo(1 + ∆T) (Volume Expension)
11. = 3
12. r = a+ g

EXAMPLES
Example 8.1: What will be the temperature on Kelvin scale of temperature when it is 20 oC on
Celsius scale?
Sol: Temperature on Celsius scale = TC = 20 oC
Temperature on Kelvin scale = TK = ?
Now
TK = TC + 273
= 20 + 273
TK = 293 K
Example 8.2: Change 300 K on Kelvin scale into Celsius scale of temperature.
Sol: Temperature on Kelvin scale = TK = 300 K
Temperature on Celsius scale = TC = ?
Now
TC = TK –273
= 300– 273
TC = 27 oC
Example 8.3: Convert 50 oC on Celsius scale into Fahrenheit temperature scale.
Sol: Temperature on Celsius scale = TC = 50 oC
Temperature on Fahrenheit scale =TF = ?
Now
TF = 1.8TC + 32
= 1.8(50) + 32
= 90 + 32
TF = 122oF
Example 8.4: Convert 100 oF into the temperature on Celsius scale.
Sol: Temperature on Fahrenheit scale = TF = 100 oF
Temperature on Celsius scale = TC = ?
Now
1
TC = (TF – 32)
1.8
1
= (100 – 32)
1.8
1
= (68)
1.8
TC = 37.8oC
Example 8.5: A container has 2.5 liters of water at 20 oC. How much heat is required to boil the
water?
Sol: Volume of water = V = 2.5liter
Mass of water = m = 2.5 kg As (1 lit = 1 kg)
–1 –1
Specific heat of water = c = 4200Jkg K
Initial temperature = T1 = 20 oC= 20 + 273 = 293 K
Final temperature = T2 = 100 oC= 100 + 273 = 373 K
Change in temperature = ∆T = 373 – 293 = 80 K
Amount of heat = ∆Q = ?
Now
∆Q = mc∆T
= 2.5 x 4200 x 80
= 840 000 J
= 840 kJ
Example 8.6: A brass rod is 1m long at 0oC. Find its length at 30oC. (Coefficient of linear
expansion of brass is 1.9× 10–5 K–1)
Sol: Initiallength = Lo = 1 m
Initial temperature = To = 0 oC = 0 + 273 = 273 K
Final temperature = T = 30 oC= 30 + 273 = 303 K
Change in temperature = ∆T = 303 – 273 = 30 K
Coefficient of linear expansion = = 1.9 x 10–5 K–1
Final length = L =?
Now
L = Lo(1 + ∆T)
= 1 (1 + 1.9 x 10–5 x 30)
= 1 + 57 x 10–5
= 1 + 0.00057
= 1.00057 m

Example 8.7: Find the volume of a brass cube at 100oC whose side is 10cm at 0oC. (Coefficient
of linear thermal expansion of brass is 1.9 × 10–5 K–1)
10
Sol: Initial length = Lo = 10cm = m = 0.1 m
100
Initial temperature = To = 0 oC = 0 + 273 = 273 K
Final temperature = T = 100 oC= 100 + 273 = 373 K
Change in temperature = ∆T = 373 – 273 = 100 K
Coefficient of linear expansion = = 1.9 x 10–5 K–1
Final volume = V = ?
Firstly:
= 3
=3 x 1.9 x 10–5
=5.7 x 10–5K–1
Secondly:
Vo =(Lo)3
=(0.1)3
=0.001 m3
=10–3 m3
Now
V =Vo(1 + ∆T)
= 10–3 (1 + 5.7 x 10–5 x 100)
= 10–3 (1 + 5.7 x 10–3)
= 10–3 (1 + 0.0057)
= 10–3 (1.0057)
= 1.0057 x 10–3m3

PROBLEMS

Problem 8.1: Temperature of water in a beaker is 50 oC. What is its value in Fahrenheit scale?
Sol: Temperature on Celsius scale = TC = 50 oC
Temperature on Fahrenheit scale =TF = ?
Now
TF = 1.8TC + 32
= 1.8(50) + 32
= 90 + 32
TF = 122 oF
 ؒ
Problem 8.2: Normal human body temperature is 98.6 oF. Convert it into Celsius scale and
Kelvin scale.
Sol: Temperature on Fahrenheit scale = TF = 98.6 oF
Temperature on Celsius scale = TC = ?
Temperature on Kelvin scale = TK = ?
Firstly:
1
TC = (TF – 32)
1.8
1
= (98.6 – 32)
1.8
1
= (66.6)
1.8
TC = 37oC
Secondly:
TK = TC + 273
= 37 + 273
TK = 310 K

Problem 8.3: Calculate the increase in the length of an aluminum bar 2 m long when heated
from 0 oC to 20 oC.If the thermal coefficient of linear expansion of aluminum is 2.5 x 10–5 K–1.
Sol: Initial length = Lo = 2 m
Initial temperature = To = 0 oC = 0 + 273 = 273 K
Final temperature = T = 20 oC= 20 + 273 = 293 K
Change in temperature = ∆T = 293 – 273 = 20 K
Coefficient of linear expansion = = 2.5 x 10–5 K–1
Increase in length = ∆L = ?
Firstly:
L = Lo(1 + ∆T)
= 2 (1 + 2.5 x 10–5 x 20)
= 2 (1 + 50 x 10–5)
= 2 (1 + 0.0005)
= 2 (1.0005)
L = 2.001 m

Increase in length = ∆L = L – Lo
= 2.001 – 2
= 0.001 m
= 0.001 x 100 cm
= 0.1 cm

Problem 8.4: A balloon contains 1.2 m3air at 15 oC. Find the volume at 40 o
C. Thermal
coefficient of volume expansion of air is 3.67 x 10–3 K–1
Sol: Initial volume = Vo = 1.2 m3
Initial temperature = To = 15oC = 15 + 273 = 288 K
Final temperature = T = 40 oC= 40 + 273 = 313 K
Change in temperature = ∆T = 313 – 288 = 25 K
Coefficient of volume expansion = = 3.67 x 10–3 K–1
Final volume = V = ?
Now V = Vo(1 + ∆T)
= 1.2 (1 + 3.67 x 10–3 x 25)
= 1.2 (1 + 91.75 x 10–3)
= 1.2 (1 + 0.09175)
 ؒ
= 1.2 (1.09175)
= 1.3 m3

Problem 8.5: How much heat is required to increase the temperature of 0.5 kg of water from 10
o
C to 65 oC?
Sol: Mass of water = m = 0.5 kg
Specific heat of water = c = 4200Jkg–1K–1
Initial temperature = T1 = 10 oC= 10 + 273 = 283 K
Final temperature = T2 = 65oC= 65 + 273 = 338 K
Change in temperature = ∆T = 338 – 283 = 55 K
Amount of heat = ∆Q = ?
Now
∆Q = mc∆T
= 0.5 x 4200 x 55
= 115500 J

Problem 8.6: An electric heater supplies heat at the rate of 1000 joule per second. How much
time is required to raise the temperature of 200 g of water from 20 oC to 90 oC?
∆Q
Sol: Rate of heat = = 1000 Js–1
t
200
Mass = m = 200 g = = 0.2 kg
1000
Specific heat of water = c = 4200Jkg–1K–1
Initial temperature = T1 = 20 oC= 20 + 273 = 293 K
Final temperature = T2 = 90oC = 90 + 273 = 363 K
Change in temperature = ∆T = 363 – 293 = 70 K
Time =t = ?
As
∆Q = mc∆T
Dividing both sides by t
∆Q mc∆T
=
t t
(0.2)(4200)(70)
1000 =
t
(0.2)(4200)(70)
t =
1000
= 58.8 sec

Problem 8.7: How much ice will melt by 50000 Jof heat? Latent heat of fusion of ice is 336000
Jkg–1.
Sol: Amount of heat = ∆Qf= 50000 J
Latent heat of fusion = Hf = 336000 Jkg–1
Mass of ice = m = ?
Now
∆Qf = mHf
∆Qf
m =
Hf
50000
=
336000
= 0.149 kg
= 0.149 x 1000 g
= 149 g
Problem 8.8: Find the quantity of heat needed to melt 100 g of ice at –10 oC into water at 10 oC.
(Note: specific heat of ice is 2100 Jkg–1K–1, specific heat of water is 4200Jkg–1K–1, latent heat of
fusion of ice is 336000 Jkg–1).
100
Sol: Mass of ice = m = 100 g = = 0.1 kg
1000
Initial temperature = T1 = –10 oC = –10 + 273 = 263 K
Final temperature = T2 = 10oC = 10 + 273 = 283 K
Specific heat of ice = c1 = 2100Jkg–1K–1
Specific heat of water = c2 = 4200Jkg–1K–1
Latent heat of fusion of ice = Hf = 336000 Jkg–1
Quantity of heat = ∆Q = ?
Firstly:
Amount of heat supplied to ice to increase temperature from –10 oC to 0 oC is given by
Initial temperature = T1 = –10 oC = –10 + 273 = 263 K
Final temperature = T2 = 0oC= 0 + 273 = 273 K
Change in temperature = ∆T = 273 – 263 = 10 K
∆Q1 = mc1∆T
= 0.1 x 2100 x 10
= 2100 J
Secondly:
Amount of heat supplied to ice at 0 oCto convert it into water is given by
∆Q2 = mHf
= 0.1 x 336000
= 33600 J
Thirdly:
Amount of heat supplied to water to increase temperature from 0 oC to 10 oC is given by
Initial temperature = T2 = 0 oC = 0 + 273 = 273 K
Final temperature = T3 = 10oC= 10 + 273 = 283 K
Change in temperature = ∆T = 283 – 273 = 10 K
∆Q3 = mc2∆T
= 0.1 x 4200 x 10
= 4200 J
Lastly:
So total heat supplied to ice at –10 oC to raise its temperature to 10 oC is
∆Q = ∆Q1 + ∆Q2 + ∆Q3
= 2100 + 33600 + 4200
= 39900 J
Problem 8.9: How much heat is required to change 100 g of water at 100 oC into steam? (latent
heat of vaporization is 2.26 x 106Jkg–1.
100
Sol: Mass of water = m = 100 g = = 0.1 kg
1000
Latent heat of vaporization= Hv = 2.26 x 106Jkg–1
Amount of heat = ∆Qv= ?
Now
∆Qv = mHv
= 0.1 x 2.26 x 106
= 0.226x 106
∆Qv = 2.26 x 105 J
Problem 8.10: Find the temperature of water after passing 5 g of steam at 100 oC through 500 g
of water at 10 oC.

ؒ
(Note: specific heat of water is 4200Jkg–1K–1, latent heat of vaporization is 2.26 x 106Jkg–1).
5
Sol: Mass of steam = m1 = 5 g = = 0.005 kg
1000
Temperature of steam = T1 = 100 oC = 100 + 273 = 373 K
500
Mass of water = m2 = 500 g = = 0.5 kg
1000
Temperature of water = T2 = 10 oC = 10 + 273 = 283 K
Specific heat of water = c = 4200Jkg–1K–1
Latent heat of vaporization= Hv = 2.26 x106Jkg–1
of water
Temperature of water after = T3 = ?
passing the steam through it
Firstly:
Latent heat lost by steam is
∆Q1 = m1Hv
= 0.005 x 2.26 x 106
= 0.0113 x 106
∆Q1 = 11300 J
Secondly:
Heat lost by steam to attain final temperature is
∆Q2 = m1c∆T
= 0.005 x 4200 x (373 – T3)
= 21 x (373 – T3)
Thirdly:
Heat gained by water is
∆Q3 = m2c∆T
= 0.5 x 4200 x (T3 – 283)
= 2100 x (T3 – 283)
Lastly:
Heat lost by steam = heat gained by water
∆Q1 +∆Q2 = ∆Q3
11300 + 21 x (373 – T3) = 2100 x (T3 – 283)
11300 + 7833 – 21T3 = 2100 T3 – 594300
11300 + 7833 + 594300 = 2100 T3 + 21T3
613433 = 2121 T3
613433
T3 =
2121
= 289.2 K
= 289.2 –273
= 16.2 oC