Elasticity

ELASTICITY
l
Elasticity is the property of material by virtue of Longitudinal strain =
which they regain their original shape and size L
after the removal of deforming forces. It is dimension less quantity.

The body which obeys the property of Volumetric strain:- it is defined as ratio of
elasticity is called elastic body. change in volume v to original volume V when
the force applied normally over a surface.
Plasticity: It is the property of material by
virtue of which they do not regain their original v
Volumetric strain =
shape and size after the removal of deforming V
forces. Shear strain: it is the ratio of displacement of
the layer to the perpendicular distance from
The body which obeys the property of the fixed layer
plasticity is called Plastic body. dd l

Ex:-wet clay, putty etc. ad
When an external deforming force acts Elastic limit: The maximum value of stress
on the system of two atoms producing a above which the linear relationship between
change in inter atomic distance, an internal stress and strain causes to be valid is termed as
force comes into play to counteract the elastic limit.
deforming force which is called Stress. The
Hooke’s law
change in the interatomic distance represents
“Within the elastic limit, the stress is directly
strain.
proportional to strain.
Stress: i.e., stress  strain
stress
When a force acts on a body, producing  constant  e 
deformation, the internal reaction which tends strain
to restore the original condition is called Where, e-modulus of elasticity, which depends
Stress. upon the material of the body
-2
It is measured in terms of force applied per Its unit is Nm
unit area Modulli of elasticity
F 1. Young’s modulus: it is defined as the ratio
stress  nm-2
A of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain
There are three types of stress: within the elastic limit.
i. Longitudinal Stress longitudinal stress
q
ii. Volumetric Stress longitudinal strain
iii. Shear Stress F FL
q Aq
Longitudinal stress: it is the force per unit area l
L lA
2
to change the length of the body. If l = 1 m, a = 1 m and L = 1 m then q = F
Volumetric stress: it is the normal force per Then “the young’s modulus of the material of
unit area to change the volume of the body. a wire of unit area of cross section is
numerically equal to the force required to
Shear stress: it is the tangential force per unit
double the length of the wire.”
area to change the shape of the body.
2. Bulk modulus: it is defined as the ratio of
Strain:
volume of stress to volume strain within
The ratio of change in length ‘l’ to original elastic limit.
length ‘l’ when the force applied along its
length

1
 Elasticity

volume stress Imagine a wire being loaded gradually and the

k extension produced is plotted against the load
volume strain
as shown in figure.
F FV
k  Aq
v
V vA Along the path OA, which is straight,
If v = 1 m , A = 1 m2 and V = 1 m3 Then, k = F
3 obeys Hooke’s law. OA is in perfectly elastic
range and A is the elastic limit. Beyond OA the
i.e., “the bulk modulus of the material of unit extension is no longer proportional to load. at
area of cross section is numerically equal to point B even the small addition of load causes
the force required to double the length of the enormous elongation. This point is called yield
wire” point. After this point the extension increases
Compressibility: very rapidly and depends on the time for which
the reciprocal of bulk modulus is called the load acts. The specimen exhibits a
compressibility which is defined as the change phenomenon known as necking. i.e., as the
in volume strain per unit change of pressure. extension increases, the area of cross section
Its unit is N-1m2 decreases until the breaking point is reached
3. Rigidity modulus: it is the ratio of shear and finally the wire breaks. The load at which
stress to the shear strain under elastic the wire breaks is called breaking load. The
limit. breaking load per original cross-sectional area
shear stress is called breaking stress or ultimate strength

shear strain or tensile strength.
F F
  A   When a body is continuously subject to
 A stress and strain, it gets elastic fatigue.
Poison’s ratio: The ratio of ultimate strength to working stress
“Within the elastic limit the ratio of lateral is called factor of safety
strain to the longitudinal strain is called ultimate strength
Factor of safety 
Poisson’s ratio of material of the body” working stress
lateral strain ( )
Poisson's ratio ( ) = Usually, allowed factor safety values lies
longitudinal strain ( ) between 10 to 5.
 rR
Differential form:  =  Relation between elastic constants:
 lL
rL i) Relation between Bulk modulus (k),
 = Youngs modulus (q) in terms of  and 
Rl
It is dimension less quantity. Consider a solid cube of unit side. let the force
Stress strain graph F, act outwards perpendicular to each faces
The curve plotted between stresses applied to parallel to x, y and z axes as shown in fig.
the material along y- axis verses strain
produced in the material along x – axis is z F
known as stress - strain graph
Yield point
B D F
A x
y F
Stress

The elongation along x-axis is, = F  

lateral contraction along y, or z axis = F  
O Stress

2
 Elasticity

longitudinal strain increases the dimension compressive stress along AC at right angles to
where as lateral contractions decreases the each other
dimensions Let  and β be the longitudinal and lateral
strains per unit stress respectively
 The net elongation along x-axis is
Extension along diagonal DB due to tensile
 F  F   F   F   2 
stress = DB  T  
Then the new volume of the cube = 1  F (  2 )  Extension along diagonal DB due to
3

simplifying and neglecting higher order terms compression stress along AC = DB  T  

we get the new volume as 1  3F   2   Total Extension along DB = DB  T     
 The increase in the volume of the cube to = L 2  T      …… 3 DB  L 2
the initial volume is volumetric strain equal to Draw perpendicular BN on DB
3F   2  (since initial volume is unity) Increase in the length of diagonal DB is
Bulk modulus practically equal to NB
volumetric stress F  is very small, angle ABC ¡s nearly 90° and
k  BBN = 45o
volumetric strain 3F   2 
BB l
1 1 NB  BB cos 45   ………… 4
k= k= 2 2
3  - 2      
3  1 - 2    Net elongation alond DB is
    l
L 2  T      
q 1 2
k= ….. (A) q
3  1 - 2   L 1
T  (From equation 1 and 2)
l 2    
ii) Relation between Rigidity modulus ( ), 
1

1

q
Youngs modulus (q) in terms of  and  2       2 1   
2 1  
 
q
 ………. (B)
2 1   
iii) Relation between all the thre easic
modulus
From equation (A)
 q 
q  3k 1  2   2  1   ……. 5
 3k 
From equation (B)
ABCD represent the front face of a cube of side q  2 1   
L. A tangential force F is applied on its upper
q q
face AB and the bottom face is fixed. Cube is  2  2  2   2 ……. 6
sheared to ABCD through an angle θ  
AA l comparing (5) and (6)
Shearing strain =    …….. 1 q q 3k  q q  2
AD L 1  2  
F F 3k  3k 
Shearing stress T   2
Area of upper face L   3k  q   3k  q  2 
T 3kq  q  3k  6k
Rigidity modulus   ………2
 q  3k     9k
Shearing stress along AB is equivalent to a 9kη
tensile stress along DB and an equal q=
3k + η

3
 Elasticity

Bending of beams:
Q
A beam is defined as a rod or bar of uniform a
cross-section whose length is very larger than b
its thickness so that the shearing stresses over P
any cross section are small and may be
neglected. it may be considered to be made up W
of a large number of thin plane horizontal
P x
layers kept one over the other. P
Q

P QP
When a straight bar is bent as shown in figure, a b
the outer layer get elongated while the inner
R
layers get contracted. However in between 
there will be a layer which is neither elongated O
nor contracted. This layer is known as neutral O
surface. The line intersection of the neutral Consider a filament PQ at a distance x from the
surface and the plane of bending is known as neutral axis. The length of the filament in the
the neutral axis. unstrained condition is the same as PQ. Increase
in length in stained condition it is given by
Bending moment:
Original length PQ  R
Let a beam is fixed at one end and loaded at Extended length PQ  R  x 
the other so that it bends as shown in figure.
Increase in the length  PQ  PQ   R  x   R
Consider a section of beam cut by plane PQ at
right angles to its length. the load W acting  x
vertically downwards at the free end and its x x
 Linear strain, 
reaction R at O acting vertically upwards R R
constitute a couple which is the bending If q is the Young’s modulus of the material of
couple. This couple tends to bend the beam in the bar,
x
clock wise direction. Stress on PQ  q  linear strain  q 
R
If f is the force which produces the stress
f qx
 Where a is the cross section
a b a R
ax
Since there is no rotation of the beam, this f q
external bending couple must be balanced by R
another equal and opposite couple. The Moment of f about neutral axis  f  x
moment of this elastic couple is called the ax 2
internal bending moment. q
R
The sum of the moments of all such internal
Expression for the bending moment: elastic forces acting over the whole cross-
Let a portion of beam bent in the form of arc section of the beam is known as the bending
as shown in the figure. R is the radius of moment
curvature the neutral axis ab which subtends ax 2 q
Bending moment   q   ax 2
an angle  at the centre of the curvature O. R R
qI
Bending moment 
R

Where I  ax is the geometric moment if
2

inertia of the cross section of the beam about

an axis through its center and perpendicular to
the plane of bending

4
 Elasticity

At the end A, x = 0, y = 0 c2  0

Expression for depression at free end of w  lx 2 x 3 
Cantilever: y    
qI  2 6 
Let AB be a beam of length l fixed at end A and
loaded weight W at B. Consider a cross section If y0 is maximum depression of the end B
of the beam at P, distance x from A. Since i.e.,
beam is in equilibrium in bent position, the at x = 1 then
external bending couple at P is balanced by w  ll 2 l 3 
internal bending moment. y 0    
qI  2 6
wl  x  
qI
w  l3  wl 3
R y0     y0 
R is radius of curvature of neutral axis P and I is qI  3  3qI
moment of inertia of beam at P. From Note:
differential calculus we know, i. for a beam of rectangular cross-section

 
3

1  dy 2 2 bd 3 Where b is the breadth and d, the

dx I
12
R 2
d y thickness of the beam
dx 2
4mgl 3
The slope of beam
dy 1 d2y
is small then,  2  y0  Where w = mg
dx R dx bd 3 q
2 4mgl 3
Hence wl  x   qI 2
d y q
dx bd 3 y 0
ii. for a beam of circular cross section
l  r4
x
W
l-x I Where r is the radius of the beam
P 4
A B
4mgl 3 4mgl 3
y0  y0   q 
3 r 4 q 3 r 4 y 0

W
Torsion of a cylinder:
2
Expression for couple per unit twist:
d y w
 l  x 
dx 2 qI Consider a cylindrical rod of length l and radius
Integrating r, rigidly clamped at the upper end and twisted
dy w  x2  by applying a couple at the other end. Imagine
  lx    c1 the cylinder to consist of an infinite number of
dx qI  2 
hollow coaxial cylinders. Consider one such
Where is c1 constant of integration hollow cylinder of radius x and thickness dx. let
At the end A, x = 0 the twist at the lower end be  .
dy o
0
dx o A
c1  0 dx
dy w  x2  o
 
Hence   lx   x
l o
dx qI  2 
r
Integrating
w  lx 2 x 3  o
y      c2 x 
B
qI  2 6  B B
c2 is constant of integration. Shear angle = BAB  

5
 Elasticity

r Torsional oscillations:
BB  r  l  Shear strain,  
l Consider a wire which is clamped vertically
shear stress with the help of a chunk nut at the top and
Rigidity modulus,  
shear strain carrying a uniform body like disc, bar or
Shear stress =  x shear strain cylinder at the other end. When the body is
= given slight twist and let go, the body execute
 r oscillation about the wire as axis. These
 oscillations are called torsional oscillations.
l
Area over which shearing force acts = 2 x dx If I is the moment of inertia of the body about
Shearing force  shear stress  area on which force acts the wire as axis and  , the angular
 r acceleration of the system,
Shearing force   2 x dx
l Then the external deflection couple = I
2 x 2 dx
 The internal deflecting couple  c , where c
l couples per unit twist of the suspension wire
2 x 2 dx and  is the angular displacement
Moment about OO  x
l
2 x3 dx d 2
 For equilibrium I  c but  
l dt
Therefore Torque due to twisting couple, d 2 d 2 c
I  c  0    0
2 x3 dx
r
C dt dt I
l
0 This equation represents a simple harmonic
2 x3dx
r
C motion and the period of oscillation is given by
Couple per unit twist, c   
 0 l
I
2 3
r T  2
l 0
c x dx c
*****
r
2  x 4   r 4
c  
l  4  0
c
2l