Operating System - Quick Guide

Operating System - Overview

An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer
user and computer hardware. An operating system is a software
which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory
management, process management, handling input and output,
and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and
printers.

Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating

System, Windows Operating System, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS,
etc.

Definition

An operating system is a program that acts as an interface

between the user and the computer hardware and controls the
execution of all kinds of programs.

Following are some of important functions of an operating

System.

 Memory Management
  Processor Management
 Device Management
 File Management
 Security
 Control over system performance
 Job accounting
 Error detecting aids
 Coordination between other software and users
Memory Management

Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory

or Main Memory. Main memory is a large array of words or bytes
where each word or byte has its own address.

Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed

directly by the CPU. For a program to be executed, it must in the
main memory. An Operating System does the following activities
for memory management −

 Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in

use by whom, what part are not in use.
 In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get
memory when and how much.
 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it
or has been terminated.
Processor Management

In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process

gets the processor when and for how much time. This function is
called process scheduling. An Operating System does the following
activities for processor management −

 Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The

program responsible for this task is known as traffic
controller.
 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.
Device Management

An Operating System manages device communication via their

respective drivers. It does the following activities for device
management −
  Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task
is known as the I/O controller.
 Decides which process gets the device when and for how
much time.
 Allocates the device in the efficient way.
 De-allocates devices.
File Management

A file system is normally organized into directories for easy

navigation and usage. These directories may contain files and
other directions.

An Operating System does the following activities for file

management −

 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The

collective facilities are often known as file system.
 Decides who gets the resources.
 Allocates the resources.
 De-allocates the resources.
Other Important Activities

Following are some of the important activities that an Operating

System performs −

 Security − By means of password and similar other

techniques, it prevents unauthorized access to programs
and data.
 Control over system performance − Recording delays between
request for a service and response from the system.
 Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by
various jobs and users.
 Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error
messages, and other debugging and error detecting aids.
 Coordination between other softwares and users − Coordination and
assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other
software to the various users of the computer systems.

Types of Operating System

Operating systems are there from the very first computer
generation and they keep evolving with time. In this chapter, we
will discuss some of the important types of operating systems
which are most commonly used.

Batch operating system

The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the

computer directly. Each user prepares his job on an off-line
device like punch cards and submits it to the computer operator.
To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched
together and run as a group. The programmers leave their
programs with the operator and the operator then sorts the
programs with similar requirements into batches.

The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −

 Lack of interaction between the user and the job.

 CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O
devices is slower than the CPU.
 Difficult to provide the desired priority.
Time-sharing operating systems

Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located

at various terminals, to use a particular computer system at the
same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension of
multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among
multiple users simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.

The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems

and Time-Sharing Systems is that in case of Multiprogrammed
batch systems, the objective is to maximize processor use,
whereas in Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to minimize
response time.

Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between

them, but the switches occur so frequently. Thus, the user can
receive an immediate response. For example, in a transaction
processing, the processor executes each user program in a short
burst or quantum of computation. That is, if n users are present,
then each user can get a time quantum. When the user submits
the command, the response time is in few seconds at most.

The operating system uses CPU scheduling and

multiprogramming to provide each user with a small portion of a
time. Computer systems that were designed primarily as batch
systems have been modified to time-sharing systems.

Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −

 Provides the advantage of quick response.

 Avoids duplication of software.
 Reduces CPU idle time.

Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows

−

 Problem of reliability.
 Question of security and integrity of user programs and
data.
 Problem of data communication.
Distributed operating System

Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve

multiple real-time applications and multiple users. Data
processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly.

The processors communicate with one another through various

communication lines (such as high-speed buses or telephone
lines). These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed
systems. Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and
function. These processors are referred as sites, nodes,
computers, and so on.

The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −

 With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able

to use the resources available at another.
 Speedup the exchange of data with one another via
electronic mail.
 If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites
can potentially continue operating.
 Better service to the customers.
 Reduction of the load on the host computer.
 Reduction of delays in data processing.
Network operating System

A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the

server the capability to manage data, users, groups, security,
applications, and other networking functions. The primary
purpose of the network operating system is to allow shared file
and printer access among multiple computers in a network,
typically a local area network (LAN), a private network or to other
networks.

Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft

Windows Server 2003, Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX,
Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.

The advantages of network operating systems are as follows −

 Centralized servers are highly stable.

 Security is server managed.
 Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily
integrated into the system.
 Remote access to servers is possible from different locations
and types of systems.

The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows −

 High cost of buying and running a server.

 Dependency on a central location for most operations.
 Regular maintenance and updates are required.
Real Time operating System

A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in

which the time interval required to process and respond to inputs
is so small that it controls the environment. The time taken by
the system to respond to an input and display of required
updated information is termed as the response time. So in this
method, the response time is very less as compared to online
processing.

Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time

requirements on the operation of a processor or the flow of data
and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a
dedicated application. A real-time operating system must have
well-defined, fixed time constraints, otherwise the system will
fail. For example, Scientific experiments, medical imaging
systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air
traffic control systems, etc.

There are two types of real-time operating systems.

Hard real-time systems

Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on

time. In hard real-time systems, secondary storage is limited or
missing and the data is stored in ROM. In these systems, virtual
memory is almost never found.

Soft real-time systems

Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time

task gets priority over other tasks and retains the priority until it
completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard
real-time systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality,
Advanced Scientific Projects like undersea exploration and
planetary rovers, etc.

Operating System - Services

An Operating System provides services to both the users and to
the programs.

 It provides programs an environment to execute.

 It provides users the services to execute the programs in a
convenient manner.

Following are a few common services provided by an operating

system −

 Program execution
 I/O operations
 File System manipulation
 Communication
 Error Detection
 Resource Allocation
 Protection
Program execution

Operating systems handle many kinds of activities from user

programs to system programs like printer spooler, name servers,
file server, etc. Each of these activities is encapsulated as a
process.

A process includes the complete execution context (code to

execute, data to manipulate, registers, OS resources in use).
Following are the major activities of an operating system with
respect to program management −

 Loads a program into memory.

 Executes the program.
 Handles program's execution.
 Provides a mechanism for process synchronization.
 Provides a mechanism for process communication.
 Provides a mechanism for deadlock handling.
I/O Operation

An I/O subsystem comprises of I/O devices and their

corresponding driver software. Drivers hide the peculiarities of
specific hardware devices from the users.

An Operating System manages the communication between user

and device drivers.

 I/O operation means read or write operation with any file or

any specific I/O device.
 Operating system provides the access to the required I/O
device when required.
File system manipulation

A file represents a collection of related information. Computers

can store files on the disk (secondary storage), for long-term
storage purpose. Examples of storage media include magnetic
tape, magnetic disk and optical disk drives like CD, DVD. Each of
these media has its own properties like speed, capacity, data
transfer rate and data access methods.

A file system is normally organized into directories for easy

navigation and usage. These directories may contain files and
other directions. Following are the major activities of an operating
system with respect to file management −

 Program needs to read a file or write a file.

 The operating system gives the permission to the program
for operation on file.
 Permission varies from read-only, read-write, denied and so
on.
 Operating System provides an interface to the user to
create/delete files.
 Operating System provides an interface to the user to
create/delete directories.
 Operating System provides an interface to create the
backup of file system.
Communication

In case of distributed systems which are a collection of processors

that do not share memory, peripheral devices, or a clock, the
operating system manages communications between all the
processes. Multiple processes communicate with one another
through communication lines in the network.

The OS handles routing and connection strategies, and the

problems of contention and security. Following are the major
activities of an operating system with respect to communication
−

 Two processes often require data to be transferred between

them
 Both the processes can be on one computer or on different
computers, but are connected through a computer network.
 Communication may be implemented by two methods,
either by Shared Memory or by Message Passing.
Error handling

Errors can occur anytime and anywhere. An error may occur in

CPU, in I/O devices or in the memory hardware. Following are the
major activities of an operating system with respect to error
handling −

 The OS constantly checks for possible errors.

 The OS takes an appropriate action to ensure correct and
consistent computing.
Resource Management

In case of multi-user or multi-tasking environment, resources

such as main memory, CPU cycles and files storage are to be
allocated to each user or job. Following are the major activities of
an operating system with respect to resource management −

 The OS manages all kinds of resources using schedulers.

 CPU scheduling algorithms are used for better utilization of
CPU.
Protection

Considering a computer system having multiple users and

concurrent execution of multiple processes, the various processes
must be protected from each other's activities.

Protection refers to a mechanism or a way to control the access

of programs, processes, or users to the resources defined by a
computer system. Following are the major activities of an
operating system with respect to protection −

 The OS ensures that all access to system resources is

controlled.
 The OS ensures that external I/O devices are protected from
invalid access attempts.
 The OS provides authentication features for each user by
means of passwords.

Operating System - Properties

Batch processing

Batch processing is a technique in which an Operating System

collects the programs and data together in a batch before
processing starts. An operating system does the following
activities related to batch processing −

 The OS defines a job which has predefined sequence of

commands, programs and data as a single unit.
 The OS keeps a number a jobs in memory and executes
them without any manual information.
 Jobs are processed in the order of submission, i.e., first
come first served fashion.
  When a job completes its execution, its memory is released
and the output for the job gets copied into an output spool
for later printing or processing.

Advantages
 Batch processing takes much of the work of the operator to
the computer.
 Increased performance as a new job get started as soon as
the previous job is finished, without any manual
intervention.
Disadvantages
 Difficult to debug program.
 A job could enter an infinite loop.
 Due to lack of protection scheme, one batch job can affect
pending jobs.
Multitasking

Multitasking is when multiple jobs are executed by the CPU

simultaneously by switching between them. Switches occur so
frequently that the users may interact with each program while it
is running. An OS does the following activities related to
multitasking −

 The user gives instructions to the operating system or to a

program directly, and receives an immediate response.
 The OS handles multitasking in the way that it can handle
multiple operations/executes multiple programs at a time.
 Multitasking Operating Systems are also known as Time-
sharing systems.
  These Operating Systems were developed to provide
interactive use of a computer system at a reasonable cost.
 A time-shared operating system uses the concept of CPU
scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with
a small portion of a time-shared CPU.
 Each user has at least one separate program in memory.

 A program that is loaded into memory and is executing is

commonly referred to as a process.
 When a process executes, it typically executes for only a
very short time before it either finishes or needs to perform
I/O.
 Since interactive I/O typically runs at slower speeds, it may
take a long time to complete. During this time, a CPU can be
utilized by another process.
 The operating system allows the users to share the
computer simultaneously. Since each action or command in
a time-shared system tends to be short, only a little CPU
time is needed for each user.
 As the system switches CPU rapidly from one user/program
to the next, each user is given the impression that he/she
has his/her own CPU, whereas actually one CPU is being
shared among many users.
Multiprogramming

Sharing the processor, when two or more programs reside in

memory at the same time, is referred as multiprogramming.
Multiprogramming assumes a single shared processor.
Multiprogramming increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs so
that the CPU always has one to execute.
The following figure shows the memory layout for a
multiprogramming system.

An OS does the following activities related to multiprogramming.

 The operating system keeps several jobs in memory at a

time.
 This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool.
 The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the
jobs in the memory.
 Multiprogramming operating systems monitor the state of all
active programs and system resources using memory
management programs to ensures that the CPU is never
idle, unless there are no jobs to process.
Advantages
 High and efficient CPU utilization.
 User feels that many programs are allotted CPU almost
simultaneously.
Disadvantages
 CPU scheduling is required.
 To accommodate many jobs in memory, memory
management is required.
Interactivity

Interactivity refers to the ability of users to interact with a

computer system. An Operating system does the following
activities related to interactivity −

 Provides the user an interface to interact with the system.

 Manages input devices to take inputs from the user. For
example, keyboard.
 Manages output devices to show outputs to the user. For
example, Monitor.

The response time of the OS needs to be short, since the user

submits and waits for the result.

Real Time System

Real-time systems are usually dedicated, embedded systems. An

operating system does the following activities related to real-time
system activity.

 In such systems, Operating Systems typically read from and

react to sensor data.
 The Operating system must guarantee response to events
within fixed periods of time to ensure correct performance.
Distributed Environment

A distributed environment refers to multiple independent CPUs or

processors in a computer system. An operating system does the
following activities related to distributed environment −

 The OS distributes computation logics among several

physical processors.
 The processors do not share memory or a clock. Instead,
each processor has its own local memory.
 The OS manages the communications between the
processors. They communicate with each other through
various communication lines.
Spooling

Spooling is an acronym for simultaneous peripheral operations on

line. Spooling refers to putting data of various I/O jobs in a
buffer. This buffer is a special area in memory or hard disk which
is accessible to I/O devices.

An operating system does the following activities related to

distributed environment −

 Handles I/O device data spooling as devices have different

data access rates.
 Maintains the spooling buffer which provides a waiting
station where data can rest while the slower device catches
up.
 Maintains parallel computation because of spooling process
as a computer can perform I/O in parallel fashion. It
becomes possible to have the computer read data from a
tape, write data to disk and to write out to a tape printer
while it is doing its computing task.

Advantages
 The spooling operation uses a disk as a very large buffer.
 Spooling is capable of overlapping I/O operation for one job
with processor operations for another job.

Operating System - Processes

Process

A process is basically a program in execution. The execution of a

process must progress in a sequential fashion.

A process is defined as an entity which represents the basic unit

of work to be implemented in the system.
To put it in simple terms, we write our computer programs in a
text file and when we execute this program, it becomes a process
which performs all the tasks mentioned in the program.

When a program is loaded into the memory and it becomes a

process, it can be divided into four sections ─ stack, heap, text
and data. The following image shows a simplified layout of a
process inside main memory −

S.N. Component & Description

Stack
1 The process Stack contains the temporary data such as method/function
parameters, return address and local variables.

2 Heap
This is dynamically allocated memory to a process during its run time.

Text
3 This includes the current activity represented by the value of Program Counter
and the contents of the processor's registers.

4 Data
This section contains the global and static variables.
Program

A program is a piece of code which may be a single line or

millions of lines. A computer program is usually written by a
computer programmer in a programming language. For example,
here is a simple program written in C programming language −

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
printf("Hello, World! \n");
return 0;
}

A computer program is a collection of instructions that performs a

specific task when executed by a computer. When we compare a
program with a process, we can conclude that a process is a
dynamic instance of a computer program.

A part of a computer program that performs a well-defined task is

known as an algorithm. A collection of computer programs,
libraries and related data are referred to as a software.

Process Life Cycle

When a process executes, it passes through different states.

These stages may differ in different operating systems, and the
names of these states are also not standardized.

In general, a process can have one of the following five states at

a time.

S.N. State & Description

1 Start
This is the initial state when a process is first started/created.

Ready
The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor. Ready processes are
2 waiting to have the processor allocated to them by the operating system so that
they can run. Process may come into this state after Start state or while running
it by but interrupted by the scheduler to assign CPU to some other process.

3 Running
 Once the process has been assigned to a processor by the OS scheduler, the
process state is set to running and the processor executes its instructions.

Waiting
4 Process moves into the waiting state if it needs to wait for a resource, such as
waiting for user input, or waiting for a file to become available.

Terminated or Exit
5 Once the process finishes its execution, or it is terminated by the operating
system, it is moved to the terminated state where it waits to be removed from
main memory.

Process Control Block (PCB)

A Process Control Block is a data structure maintained by the

Operating System for every process. The PCB is identified by an
integer process ID (PID). A PCB keeps all the information needed
to keep track of a process as listed below in the table −

S.N. Information & Description

Process State
1 The current state of the process i.e., whether it is ready, running, waiting, or
whatever.

2 Process privileges
This is required to allow/disallow access to system resources.

3 Process ID
Unique identification for each of the process in the operating system.

4 Pointer
A pointer to parent process.

Program Counter
5 Program Counter is a pointer to the address of the next instruction to be
executed for this process.
 CPU registers
6 Various CPU registers where process need to be stored for execution for
running state.

CPU Scheduling Information

7 Process priority and other scheduling information which is required to schedule
the process.

Memory management information

8 This includes the information of page table, memory limits, Segment table
depending on memory used by the operating system.

Accounting information
9 This includes the amount of CPU used for process execution, time limits,
execution ID etc.

10 IO status information
This includes a list of I/O devices allocated to the process.

The architecture of a PCB is completely dependent on Operating

System and may contain different information in different
operating systems. Here is a simplified diagram of a PCB −

The PCB is maintained for a process throughout its lifetime, and is

deleted once the process terminates.
 Operating System - Process Scheduling
Definition

The process scheduling is the activity of the process manager

that handles the removal of the running process from the CPU
and the selection of another process on the basis of a particular
strategy.

Process scheduling is an essential part of a Multiprogramming

operating systems. Such operating systems allow more than one
process to be loaded into the executable memory at a time and
the loaded process shares the CPU using time multiplexing.

Process Scheduling Queues

The OS maintains all PCBs in Process Scheduling Queues. The OS

maintains a separate queue for each of the process states and
PCBs of all processes in the same execution state are placed in
the same queue. When the state of a process is changed, its PCB
is unlinked from its current queue and moved to its new state
queue.

The Operating System maintains the following important process

scheduling queues −

 Job queue − This queue keeps all the processes in the

system.
 Ready queue − This queue keeps a set of all processes
residing in main memory, ready and waiting to execute. A
new process is always put in this queue.
 Device queues − The processes which are blocked due to
unavailability of an I/O device constitute this queue.
The OS can use different policies to manage each queue (FIFO,
Round Robin, Priority, etc.). The OS scheduler determines how to
move processes between the ready and run queues which can
only have one entry per processor core on the system; in the
above diagram, it has been merged with the CPU.

Two-State Process Model

Two-state process model refers to running and non-running

states which are described below −

S.N. State & Description

1 Running
When a new process is created, it enters into the system as in the running state.

Not Running
Processes that are not running are kept in queue, waiting for their turn to
execute. Each entry in the queue is a pointer to a particular process. Queue is
2 implemented by using linked list. Use of dispatcher is as follows. When a
process is interrupted, that process is transferred in the waiting queue. If the
process has completed or aborted, the process is discarded. In either case, the
dispatcher then selects a process from the queue to execute.
Schedulers

Schedulers are special system software which handle process

scheduling in various ways. Their main task is to select the jobs
to be submitted into the system and to decide which process to
run. Schedulers are of three types −
  Long-Term Scheduler
 Short-Term Scheduler
 Medium-Term Scheduler
Long Term Scheduler

It is also called a job scheduler. A long-term scheduler determines

which programs are admitted to the system for processing. It
selects processes from the queue and loads them into memory
for execution. Process loads into the memory for CPU scheduling.

The primary objective of the job scheduler is to provide a

balanced mix of jobs, such as I/O bound and processor bound. It
also controls the degree of multiprogramming. If the degree of
multiprogramming is stable, then the average rate of process
creation must be equal to the average departure rate of
processes leaving the system.

On some systems, the long-term scheduler may not be available

or minimal. Time-sharing operating systems have no long term
scheduler. When a process changes the state from new to ready,
then there is use of long-term scheduler.

Short Term Scheduler

It is also called as CPU scheduler. Its main objective is to increase

system performance in accordance with the chosen set of criteria.
It is the change of ready state to running state of the process.
CPU scheduler selects a process among the processes that are
ready to execute and allocates CPU to one of them.

Short-term schedulers, also known as dispatchers, make the

decision of which process to execute next. Short-term schedulers
are faster than long-term schedulers.

Medium Term Scheduler

Medium-term scheduling is a part of swapping. It removes the

processes from the memory. It reduces the degree of
multiprogramming. The medium-term scheduler is in-charge of
handling the swapped out-processes.

A running process may become suspended if it makes an I/O

request. A suspended processes cannot make any progress
towards completion. In this condition, to remove the process from
memory and make space for other processes, the suspended
process is moved to the secondary storage. This process is
called swapping, and the process is said to be swapped out or
rolled out. Swapping may be necessary to improve the process
mix.

Comparison among Scheduler

S.N. Long-Term Scheduler Short-Term Scheduler Medium-Term Scheduler

It is a process swapping
1 It is a job scheduler It is a CPU scheduler
scheduler.

Speed is in between both

Speed is lesser than short Speed is fastest among
2 short and long term
term scheduler other two
scheduler.

It provides lesser control

It controls the degree of It reduces the degree of
3 over degree of
multiprogramming multiprogramming.
multiprogramming

It is almost absent or
It is also minimal in time It is a part of Time sharing
4 minimal in time sharing
sharing system systems.
system

It selects processes from It selects those It can re-introduce the

5 pool and loads them into processes which are process into memory and
memory for execution ready to execute execution can be continued.

Context Switch

A context switch is the mechanism to store and restore the state

or context of a CPU in Process Control block so that a process
execution can be resumed from the same point at a later time.
Using this technique, a context switcher enables multiple
processes to share a single CPU. Context switching is an essential
part of a multitasking operating system features.

When the scheduler switches the CPU from executing one process
to execute another, the state from the current running process is
stored into the process control block. After this, the state for the
process to run next is loaded from its own PCB and used to set
the PC, registers, etc. At that point, the second process can start
executing.

Context switches are computationally intensive since register and

memory state must be saved and restored. To avoid the amount
of context switching time, some hardware systems employ two or
more sets of processor registers. When the process is switched,
the following information is stored for later use.

 Program Counter
 Scheduling information
 Base and limit register value
 Currently used register
 Changed State
  I/O State information
 Accounting information

Operating System Scheduling algorithms

A Process Scheduler schedules different processes to be assigned
to the CPU based on particular scheduling algorithms. There are
six popular process scheduling algorithms which we are going to
discuss in this chapter −

 First-Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling

 Shortest-Job-Next (SJN) Scheduling
 Priority Scheduling
 Shortest Remaining Time
 Round Robin(RR) Scheduling
 Multiple-Level Queues Scheduling

These algorithms are either non-preemptive or preemptive. Non-

preemptive algorithms are designed so that once a process enters
the running state, it cannot be preempted until it completes its
allotted time, whereas the preemptive scheduling is based on
priority where a scheduler may preempt a low priority running
process anytime when a high priority process enters into a ready
state.

First Come First Serve (FCFS)

 Jobs are executed on first come, first serve basis.
 It is a non-preemptive, pre-emptive scheduling algorithm.
 Easy to understand and implement.
 Its implementation is based on FIFO queue.
 Poor in performance as average wait time is high.
Wait time of each process is as follows −

Process Wait Time : Service Time - Arrival Time

P0 0-0=0

P1 5-1=4

P2 8-2=6

P3 16 - 3 = 13

Average Wait Time: (0+4+6+13) / 4 = 5.75

Shortest Job Next (SJN)

 This is also known as shortest job first, or SJF
 This is a non-preemptive, pre-emptive scheduling algorithm.
 Best approach to minimize waiting time.
 Easy to implement in Batch systems where required CPU
time is known in advance.
 Impossible to implement in interactive systems where
required CPU time is not known.
 The processer should know in advance how much time
process will take.

Given: Table of processes, and their Arrival time, Execution time

Process Arrival Time Execution Time Service Time

P0 0 5 0

P1 1 3 5

P2 2 8 14

P3 3 6 8

Waiting time of each process is as follows −

Process Waiting Time

P0 0-0=0

P1 5-1=4

P2 14 - 2 = 12

P3 8-3=5

Average Wait Time: (0 + 4 + 12 + 5)/4 = 21 / 4 = 5.25

Priority Based Scheduling
 Priority scheduling is a non-preemptive algorithm and one of
the most common scheduling algorithms in batch systems.
 Each process is assigned a priority. Process with highest
priority is to be executed first and so on.
 Processes with same priority are executed on first come first
served basis.
 Priority can be decided based on memory requirements,
time requirements or any other resource requirement.

Given: Table of processes, and their Arrival time, Execution time,

and priority. Here we are considering 1 is the lowest priority.

Process Arrival Time Execution Time Priority Service Time

P0 0 5 1 0

P1 1 3 2 11

P2 2 8 1 14

P3 3 6 3 5

Waiting time of each process is as follows −

Process Waiting Time

P0 0-0=0

P1 11 - 1 = 10

P2 14 - 2 = 12

P3 5-3=2

Average Wait Time: (0 + 10 + 12 + 2)/4 = 24 / 4 = 6

Shortest Remaining Time

 Shortest remaining time (SRT) is the preemptive version of
the SJN algorithm.
 The processor is allocated to the job closest to completion
but it can be preempted by a newer ready job with shorter
time to completion.
 Impossible to implement in interactive systems where
required CPU time is not known.
 It is often used in batch environments where short jobs
need to give preference.
Round Robin Scheduling
 Round Robin is the preemptive process scheduling
algorithm.
 Each process is provided a fix time to execute, it is called
a quantum.
 Once a process is executed for a given time period, it is
preempted and other process executes for a given time
period.
 Context switching is used to save states of preempted
processes.

Wait time of each process is as follows −

 Process Wait Time : Service Time - Arrival Time

P0 (0 - 0) + (12 - 3) = 9

P1 (3 - 1) = 2

P2 (6 - 2) + (14 - 9) + (20 - 17) = 12

P3 (9 - 3) + (17 - 12) = 11

Average Wait Time: (9+2+12+11) / 4 = 8.5

Multiple-Level Queues Scheduling

Multiple-level queues are not an independent scheduling

algorithm. They make use of other existing algorithms to group
and schedule jobs with common characteristics.

 Multiple queues are maintained for processes with common

characteristics.
 Each queue can have its own scheduling algorithms.
 Priorities are assigned to each queue.

For example, CPU-bound jobs can be scheduled in one queue and

all I/O-bound jobs in another queue. The Process Scheduler then
alternately selects jobs from each queue and assigns them to the
CPU based on the algorithm assigned to the queue.