EARTHWORKS

1. DATA COLLECTION
 Topographic Data: A detailed survey of the site is essential to determine existing and proposed elevations.
 Cut and Fill Volumes: Calculate the amount of material that needs to be excavated (cut) and the volume required
to fill based on the design.

2. CUT AND FILL BALANCING

Strive to balance the cut-and-fill volumes on-site to minimize the need for importing or exporting material.
Use software like Civil 3D or similar to model the terrain and get a volume analysis.
3. HAUL STRATEGIES
 Minimizing Haul Distance: Ensure that materials from cut areas are used as close as possible to fill areas. The
farther the material has to be moved, the more expensive the project becomes.
 Equipment Selection: Choose appropriate hauling equipment based on the haul distance. Larger trucks or scrapers
are more efficient for long hauls, while smaller equipment can be more cost- effective for shorter hauls.
4. EARTHWORK COST
 Excavation Cost: Based on the type of material and depth of excavation.
 Haul Costs: As calculated above, based on distance and equipment.
 Fill/Compaction Costs: Includes placing and compacting the material in the fill area.

SURFACE AND GUIDWAYS

Components of pavements design
 SUBGRADE
Definition: The native soil or improved soil beneath the pavement layers.
Purpose: Provides foundational support for the pavement structure.
Considerations: Soil strength, compaction, and drainage properties.
 SUBBASE
Definition: A layer of granular material placed on top of the subgrade.
Purpose: Enhances load distribution and improves drainage.
Material: Crushed stone, gravel, or recycled materials.
 BASE COURSE
Definition: A layer of aggregate or stabilized material between the subbase and the surface course.
Purpose: Provides structural support, distributing the loads to the subbase and subgrade.
Material: Crushed stone, asphalt-treated base, or cement-treated base.
 SURFACE COURSE
Definition: The top layer of the pavement, which directly supports vehicular traffic.
Purpose: Provides a smooth, durable, and skid-resistant surface.
Types: Flexible Pavements and Rigid Pavements
 DRAINAGE SYSTEM
Purpose: Prevents water accumulation beneath the pavement, which can weaken the subgrade.
Components: Pipes, drains, and slopes to channel water away.
 EXPANSION JOINTS
Purpose: Allows for thermal expansion and contraction of concrete slabs to prevent cracking.

Components of Railroad Track Design

 SUBGRADE
Definition: The underlying natural soil layer.
Purpose: Acts as the foundation for the entire track system.
Considerations: Proper drainage, compaction, and load-bearing capacity.
 BALLAST
Definition: layer of crushed stone or gravel that lies directly beneath the railroad ties (sleepers).
Purpose: Provides stability, distributes loads, and facilitates drainage.
Material: Typically granite or basalt.
 TIES (SLEEPERS)
Definition: Horizontal supports that hold the rails in place.
Purpose: Maintain track gauge, distribute loads to the ballast, and secure the rails.
Types: Wood, concrete, or steel.
 RAILS
Definition: Steel bars on which trains run.
Purpose: Provide a smooth, durable surface for train wheels.
Types: Vary in weight and profile depending on traffic loads and speed.
 FASTENERS
Definition: Components used to attach rails to the ties.
Types: Clips, spikes, bolts, and screws.
Purpose: Ensure that rails remain securely attached to the ties and maintain the correct alignment.
 SUBBALLAST
Definition: A layer between the ballast and subgrade.
Purpose: Provides additional filtration and drainage, and helps to stabilize the subgrade.

TYPES OF WEAR, DISTRESS & DETERIORATION OF PAVEMENTS AND RAILROAD TRACKS

REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. It is a decrease in volume of earthwork after deposition and compaction. (SHRINKAGE)
a. Bulking
b. Shrinkage
c. Borrow
d. Overhaul
2. It is the distance from the center of gravity of the cutting to the center of gravity of the filling. (AVERAGE HAUL DISTANCE)
a. Haul Distance
b. Average Haul Distance
c. Free Haul Distance
d. Overhaul Distance
3. It is the volume of material brought into a section due to a deficiency. (BORROW)
a. Bulking
b. Borrow
c. Overhaul
d. Waste
4. This failure occurs when there is a weakness in the subgrade that causes the asphalt to shift (DISTORTION)
a. Cracking
b. Distortion
c. Disintegration
d. Skidding
5. This is the most basic form of assessment where engineers visually check the pavement for signs of distress (VISUAL
INSPECTION)
a. Visual Inspection
b. Non-Destructive Testing
c. Deflection Testing
d. Ultrasonic Testing
6. This occurs in hot weather when thermal expansion causes the rails to buckle due to inability to accommodate the changes in
length (RAIL BUCKLING)
a. Rail Wear
b. Rail Buckling
c. Corrugation
d. Rail Fatigue and Cracking
7. It is constructed from cement concrete or reinforced concrete slabs. (RIGID PAVEMENT)
a. Asphalt Road
b. Concrete Pavement
c. Rigid Pavement
d. Asphalt Pavement
8. It is used to fix the railroad track to underlying baseplate and sleepers. (RAIL CLIP)
a. Rail Clip
b. Fastener
c. Rail
d. Ballast
9. It is a component for rolling stocks to turn from one track to another. Also known as turnout.
(RAIL SWITCH)
a. Sleepers
b. Rail Switch
c. Rail Clip
d. Drainage
10. It is the removal of the exposed layer of the earth's surface, including vegetation.
(TOPSOIL EXCAVATION)
a. Rock Excavation
b. Topsoil Excavation
c. Muck Excavation
d. None of the Above
1. Includes sand, gravel, or crushed stone that provides structural strength and stability to the pavement.
ANSWER: AGGREGATE
2. Horizontal supports, usually made of wood, concrete, or steel, these hold the rails in place and distribute the load
across the track bed.
ANSWER: SLEEPERS
3. It is mixture of bitumen (a form of petroleum) and aggregate materials (like sand and gravel) that forms the top
layer of roads, providing a smooth, durable surface.
ANSWER: ASPHALT
4. It is the cost of hauling material beyond the free haul distance
ANSWER: COST OF OVERHAUL
5. The natural soil or prepared earth surface that serves as the foundation for the pavement layers.
ANSWER: SUBGRADE
6. Also known as alligator cracking, this occurs due to repeated traffic loads and is characterized by interconnected
cracks resembling alligator skin.
ANSWER: FATIGUE CRACKING
7. The vertical displacement of adjacent concrete slabs, usually at joints, caused by subgrade settlement or load
transfer inefficiency.
ANSWER: FAULTING
8. The gradual disintegration of the pavement surface as aggregate particles are loosened and lost due to weathering or
poor compaction.
ANSWER: RAVELING
9. Comprised of compacted soil and crushed stone layers that support the pavement and distribute loads to the
underlying soil.
ANSWER: SUBBASE AND BASE LAYER
10. Sometimes placed between the ballast and subgrade, this layer helps improve drainage and provides additional
stability.
ANSWER: TRACK BED
11. depressions or grooves that form in the wheel paths, typically caused by repeated traffic load and inadequate
pavement thickness. It can cause water pooling and affect vehicle safety.
ANSWER: RUTTING
12. Crushed stone placed under and around the sleepers to stabilize the track, facilitate drainage, and support the
weight of the trains.
ANSWER: BALLAST
13. also quoted in dollars per cubic meter, is the cost of any material that has to be obtained off the job site in order to
make a fill.
ANSWER: COST OF BORROW
14. are plotted from tables known as summary sheets. These tables list the cut and fill volumes for each section and
the cumulative volumes of earthwork that are to be plotted as the mass diagram ordinates at each station.
ANSWER: MASS DIAGRAM
15. Involves the breakdown of the ballast stones into smaller fragments due to the pressure from train loads.
ANSWER: BALLAST DEGRADATION

TEAM D QUESTIONAIRE
1. It is the native soil or improved soil beneath the pavement layers
 ANSWER: SUBGRADE
2. The layer of crushed stone or gravel that lies directly beneath the railroad ties (sleepers).
ANSWER: BALLAST
3. It is a horizontal support that holds the rails in place.
ANSWER: TIES
4. The purpose of this component is to provide a smooth durable surface for train wheels
ANSWER: RAILS
5. The loss of surface aggregate due to traffic wear or aging of the asphalt binder, leaving a rough and uneven
surface.
ANSWER: RAVELING
6. Lateral displacement of the pavement surface due to traffic forces, often at intersections or where heavy
braking occurs.
ANSWER: SHOVING
7. It is a layer of granular material placed on top of the subgrade.
ANSWER: SUBBASE
8. The purpose of this component is to ensure that rails remain securely attached to the ties and maintain the
correct alignment.
ANSWER: FASTENERS
9. It is a detailed survey of the site to determine existing and proposed elevations.
ANSWER: TOPOGRAPHIC DATA
10. It occurs along the pavement edge, often due to poor drainage or lack of shoulder support.
ANSWER: EDGE CRACKING

SLEEPERS -Horizontal supports, usually made of wood, concrete, or steel, these hold the rails in place and distribute
the load across the track bed.
LONGITUDINAL CRACKING -Cracks that run parallel to the centerline, often due to poor construction, subgrade
settlement, or shrinkage.
RUTTING -Depressions or grooves that form in the wheel paths, typically caused by repeated traffic load and
inadequate pavement thickness. It can cause water pooling and affect vehicle safety.
POTHOLES -Small to large bowl-shaped depressions or holes in the pavement surface, caused by water infiltration
and traffic, leading to material breakdown.
RAVELING -The gradual disintegration of the pavement surface as aggregate particles are loosened and lost due to
weathering or poor compaction.
BLEEDING -The appearance of excess asphalt binder on the surface of asphalt pavements, creating a shiny, sticky
layer, typically due to overheating or excessive binder in the mix.
POLISHED AGGREGATE -A condition where the aggregates on the surface of the pavement become smooth and
polished, reducing skid resistance.
EDGE CRACKING -Cracks that form along the pavement edges, often due to poor support, water infiltration, or
weak shoulders.
FAULTING -The vertical displacement of adjacent concrete slabs, usually at joints, caused by subgrade settlement or
load transfer inefficiency.
BALLAST DEGRADATION -Involves the breakdown of the ballast stones into smaller fragments due to the
pressure from train loads. It can lead to track instability and requires replenishment or replacement to maintain track
support.