Sampling techniques are essential in research as they determine how data is collected from a

subset of a population, influencing the validity and reliability of the study's findings. This
discussion will cover four sampling techniques: two probabilistic (simple random sampling and
stratified sampling) and two non-probabilistic (convenience sampling and purposive sampling).

1. Simple Random Sampling

Description:
Simple random sampling is a fundamental probabilistic technique where every member of the
population has an equal chance of being selected. This method can be implemented using
random number generators or drawing lots.

Elimination of Bias: Since every individual has an equal chance of selection, this method
minimizes selection bias, leading to a representative sample of the population. The results
obtained can be generalized to the entire population, making it a robust method for quantitative
research (Palys & Atchison, 2014). A complete list of the population (sampling frame) is
required, which may not always be available. For large populations, this method can be time-
consuming and costly due to the need for comprehensive data collection (Palys & Atchison,
2014).
There are a variety of probability samples that researchers may use. For our purposes, we will
focus on four: simple random samples, systematic samples, stratified samples, and cluster
samples . Simple random samples are the most basic type of probability sample, but their use is
not particularly common. Part of the reason for this may be the work involved in generating a
simple random sample. To draw a simple random sample, a researcher starts with a list of every
single member, or element, of his or her population of interest. This list is sometimes referred to
as a sampling frame. Once that list has been created, the researcher numbers each element
sequentially and then randomly selects the elements from which he or she will collect data. To
randomly select elements, researchers use a table of numbers that have been generated randomly.
There are several possible sources for obtaining a random number table. Some statistics and
research methods textbooks offer such tables as appendices to the text. Perhaps a more accessible
source is one of the many free random number generators available on the Internet. A good
online source is the website Stat Trek, which contains a random number generator that you can
use to create a random number table of whatever size you might need.
2. Stratified Sampling
Description:
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into distinct subgroups (strata) based on
shared characteristics (e.g., age, gender, income). Random samples are then drawn from each
stratum. By controlling for specific characteristics, stratified sampling can reduce variability
within each subgroup, improving the precision of estimates (Palys & Atchison, 2014).It requires
detailed knowledge of the population to create appropriate strata, which can complicate the
sampling process. Analyzing data from stratified samples can be more complex compared to
simple random samples (Palys & Atchison, 2014).
Stratified sampling is a good technique to use when, as in the example, a subgroup of interest
makes up a relatively small proportion of the overall sample. In the example of a study of use of
public space in your city or town, you want to be sure to include weekdays and weekends in your
sample. However, because weekends make up less than a third of an entire week, there is a
chance that a simple random or systematic strategy would not yield sufficient weekend
observation days. As you might imagine, stratified sampling is even more useful in cases where a
subgroup makes up an even smaller proportion of the study population, say, for example, if you
want to be sure to include both male and female perspectives in a study, but males make up only
a small percentage of the population. There is a chance that simple random or systematic
sampling strategy might not yield any male participants, but by using stratified sampling, you
could ensure that your sample contained the proportion of males that is reflective of the larger
population. Let us look at another example to help clarify things.
3. Convenience Sampling
Description:
Convenience sampling is a non-probabilistic technique where participants are selected based on
their availability and willingness to participate. This method is often used in exploratory
research. This method is quick and cost-effective, making it suitable for preliminary studies or
when time and resources are limited. Researchers can easily gather data from participants who
are readily available, facilitating faster data collection (Palys & Atchison, 2014).
Finally, convenience sampling is another nonprobability sampling strategy that is employed by
both qualitative and quantitative researchers. To draw a convenience sample, a researcher simply
collects data from those people or other relevant elements to which he or she has most
convenient access. This method, also sometimes referred to as haphazard sampling, is most
useful in exploratory research. It is also often used by journalists who need quick and easy access
to people from their population of interest. If you have ever seen brief interviews of people on
the street on the news, you have probably seen a haphazard sample being interviewed. While
convenience samples offer one major benefit—convenience—we should be cautious about
generalizing from research that relies on convenience sample.

The sample may not accurately represent the broader population, leading to biased results.
Findings from convenience samples are often not generalizable to the entire population due to
the non-random selection process (Palys & Atchison, 2014).
4. Purposive Sampling (Judgmental Sampling)
Purposive sampling involves selecting participants based on specific characteristics or criteria set
by the researcher. This technique is commonly used in qualitative research where in-depth
understanding is required. Researchers can focus on individuals who are most likely to provide
relevant information, enhancing the depth of data collected. This method allows researchers to
adapt their sampling strategy based on the evolving needs of the study (Palys & Atchison, 2014).
The selection process is based on the researcher’s judgment, which can introduce bias and affect
the credibility of the findings. Similar to convenience sampling, the results may not be applicable
to a wider population due to the focused nature of the sample (Palys & Atchison, 2014).
Conclusion
The choice of sampling technique significantly impacts the outcomes of research. Probabilistic
methods like simple random and stratified sampling enhance the validity and reliability of results
by minimizing bias, while non-probabilistic methods like convenience and purposive sampling
are often more practical in exploratory research but come with limitations regarding
generalizability. Researchers must carefully consider their research objectives, available
resources, and the characteristics of the population when selecting a sampling technique.

References
Palys, T., & Atchison, C. (2014). Research Methods for the Social Sciences: An Introduction.
Sampling methods in Clinical Research; an Educational Review. (n.d.). Retrieved from PMC.
An Introduction to Research Methods in Sociology. (n.d.). Retrieved from [source].
Probabilistic and Non-Probabilistic Sampling Techniques - Research Methods for the Social
Sciences: An Introduction
Sampling methods in Clinical Research; an Educational Review - PMC
Probabilistic and Non-Probabilistic Sampling Techniques - An Introduction to Research Methods
in Sociology

How does sampling error arise and how can it minimized

Sampling error arises when a sample does not accurately represent the population from which it
is drawn. This discrepancy can lead to inaccurate conclusions about the population.
Understanding the sources of sampling error and employing strategies to minimize it is crucial
for obtaining reliable research results.

Sources of Sampling Error

Sample Size:
Smaller samples are more likely to produce results that deviate from the true population
parameters due to random variation. Larger samples tend to yield more accurate estimates.
Sampling Method:
The technique used to select participants can introduce bias. Non-probabilistic methods, such as
convenience sampling, are particularly prone to sampling error because they may not capture the
diversity of the population.
Non-response Bias:
If certain individuals selected for the sample do not respond, and if their characteristics differ
significantly from those who do respond, the sample may not be representative.
Population Variability:
High variability within the population can increase sampling error. If the population is diverse, a
small sample may not capture all relevant characteristics.
Strategies to Minimize Sampling Error
Increase Sample Size:
A larger sample size reduces the impact of random variation. As the sample size increases, the
sampling distribution becomes narrower, leading to more precise estimates of population
parameters.
Use Random Sampling Techniques:
Employing probabilistic sampling methods (e.g., simple random sampling, stratified sampling)
ensures that every member of the population has a known and non-zero chance of being selected,
reducing bias.
Stratification:
If the population is heterogeneous, stratified sampling can help ensure that various subgroups are
adequately represented. By dividing the population into strata and sampling from each,
researchers can reduce variability and improve representativeness.
Address Non-response Bias:
Implement strategies to encourage participation, such as follow-up reminders or incentives.
Researchers can also analyze the characteristics of non-respondents to assess potential bias and
adjust the analysis accordingly.
Pilot Studies:
Conducting a pilot study can help identify potential issues with the sampling method and allow
for adjustments before the main study.
Conclusion
Sampling error is a natural part of statistical research, but understanding its sources and
implementing strategies to minimize it can significantly enhance the reliability of research
findings. By carefully designing the sampling process and employing appropriate techniques,
researchers can reduce the impact of sampling error and draw more accurate conclusions about
their populations of interest.

Distinguish between type one error and type two error.

In statistical hypothesis testing, Type I and Type II errors represent two different ways in which
conclusions about a population may be incorrect. Here’s a detailed distinction between the two:

Type I Error (False Positive)

Definition: A Type I error occurs when the null hypothesis (H0) is rejected when it is actually
true. In other words, the test indicates that there is an effect or a difference when, in fact, there is
none. Symbol: Denoted by α (alpha), the significance level of the test, which is the probability of
making a Type I error. Consequences: If a Type I error occurs, researchers may falsely conclude
that a treatment or intervention is effective when it is not. This can lead to unnecessary actions,
such as implementing ineffective policies or treatments. Example: A clinical trial concludes that
a new drug is effective in treating a disease when it actually has no effect.

On the other hand

Type II Error (False Negative)

Definition: A Type II error occurs when the null hypothesis is not rejected when it is actually
false. This means the test fails to detect an effect or difference that is present. Denoted by β
(beta), which represents the probability of making a Type II error. If a Type II error occurs,
researchers may miss identifying a beneficial treatment or significant effect, leading to lost
opportunities for improvement or intervention. A clinical trial concludes that a new drug is not
effective when it actually is effective.

Distinguish between Null hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis

In statistical hypothesis testing, the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis are fundamental
concepts that help researchers evaluate claims about a population based on sample data. Here’s a
detailed distinction between the two:

Null Hypothesis (H₀)

Definition: The null hypothesis is a statement that there is no effect, no difference, or no
relationship in a given context. It serves as the default or baseline assumption that any observed
variations are due to chance or random sampling error. Purpose: The null hypothesis provides a
framework for statistical testing. Researchers aim to gather evidence against the null hypothesis
to support an alternative hypothesis. Symbol: Typically denoted as H₀. Example: In a clinical
trial testing a new drug, the null hypothesis might state: "The new drug has no effect on the
disease compared to the placebo."
On the other hand
Alternative Hypothesis (H₁ or Hₐ)
Definition: The alternative hypothesis is the statement that contradicts the null hypothesis. It
posits that there is an effect, a difference, or a relationship present in the data. Purpose: The
alternative hypothesis is what researchers aim to support through their data analysis. If the
evidence is strong enough to reject the null hypothesis, the alternative hypothesis may be
accepted. Symbol: Typically denoted as H₁ or Hₐ.Example: Continuing with the clinical trial, the
alternative hypothesis might state: "The new drug has a positive effect on the disease compared
to the placebo."

Discuss in detail any five data mining techniques

1)Classification Analysis
This analysis is used to retrieve important and relevant information about data, and metadata. It
is used to classify different data in different classes. Classification is similar to clustering in a
way that it also segments data records into different segments called classes. But unlike
clustering, here the data analysts would have the knowledge of different classes or cluster. So, in
classification analysis you would apply algorithms to decide how new data should be classified.
A classic example of classification analysis would be Outlook email. In Outlook, they use certain
algorithms to characterize an email as legitimate or spam.
Predictive modeling can sometime—but not necessarily desirably—be seen as a “black box” that
makes predictions about the future based on information from the past and present. Some models
are better than others in terms of accuracy. Some models are better than others in terms of
understandability; for example, the models range from easy-to-understand to incomprehensible
(in order of understandability): decision trees, rule induction, regression models, neural
networks. Classification is one kind of predictive modeling. More specifically, classification is
the process of assigning new objects to predefined categories or classes: Given a set of labeled
records, build a model such as a decision tree, and predict labels for future unlabeled records
This approach assigns the elements in data sets to different categories defined as part of the data
mining process. Decision trees, Naive Bayes classifiers, k-nearest neighbors (KNN) and logistic
regression are examples of classification methods.
Classification analysis is a supervised learning technique used to categorize data into predefined
classes or groups. The process involves training a model on a labeled dataset, where the outcome
is known, and then using this model to classify new, unseen data. Common algorithms used in
classification include decision trees, support vector machines, and neural networks. For example,
email filtering systems use classification to determine whether an email is spam or not based on
its content and metadata

2. Association rule learning

It refers to the method that can help you identify some interesting relations (dependency
modeling) between different variables in large databases. This technique can help you unpack
some hidden patterns in the data that can be used to identify variables within the data and the
concurrence of different variables that appear very frequently in the dataset. Association rules are
useful for examining and forecasting customer behavior. It is highly recommended in the retail
industry analysis. This technique is used to determine shopping basket data analysis, product
clustering, catalog design, and store layout. In IT, programmers use association rules to build
programs capable of machine learning.
Association rule learning is a technique used to discover interesting relationships between
variables in large datasets. It is commonly applied in market basket analysis, where retailers
analyze customer purchase patterns to identify products that are frequently bought together. The
most famous algorithm for this technique is the Apriori algorithm, which generates rules based
on item sets that appear frequently in transactions. For instance, a rule might indicate that if a
customer buys bread, they are likely to also buy butter
In data mining, association rules are if-then statements that identify relationships between data
elements. Support and confidence criteria are used to assess the relationships. Support measures
how frequently the related elements appear in a data set, while confidence reflects the number of
times an if-then statement is accurate.
3 Anomaly or outlier detection
This refers to the observation for data items in a dataset that do not match an expected pattern or
an expected behavior. Anomalies are also known as outliers, novelties, noise, deviations, and
exceptions. Often, they provide critical and actionable information. An anomaly is an item that
deviates considerably from the common average within a dataset or a combination of data. These
types of items are statistically aloof as compared to the rest of the data and hence, it indicates
that something out of the ordinary has happened and requires additional attention. This technique
can be used in a variety of domains, such as intrusion detection, system health monitoring, fraud
detection, fault detection, event detection in sensor networks, and detecting eco-system
disturbances. Analysts often remove the anomalous data from the dataset top discover results
with an increased accuracy.

4 Clustering analysis
The cluster is a collection of data objects; those objects are similar within the same cluster. That
means the objects are similar to one another within the same group and they are rather different,
or they are dissimilar or unrelated to the objects in other groups or in other clusters. Clustering
analysis is the process of discovering groups and clusters in the data in such a way that the
degree of association between two objects is highest if they belong to the same group and lowest
otherwise. A result of this analysis can be used to create customer profiling.
Given n samples without class labels. It is sometimes important to find a “meaningful” partition
of the n samples into c subsets or groups. Each of the c subsets can then be considered a class by
themselves. That is, we are discovering the c classes that the n samples can be meaningfully
categorized into. The number c may be itself given or discovered. This task is called clustering .
In this case, data elements that share particular characteristics are grouped together into clusters
as part of data mining applications.
Clustering analysis is an unsupervised learning technique that groups a set of objects in such a
way that objects in the same group (or cluster) are more similar to each other than to those in
other groups. This technique is useful for exploratory data analysis, customer segmentation, and
pattern recognition. Common clustering algorithms include K-means, hierarchical clustering, and
DBSCAN. For example, a company might use clustering to segment its customers based on
purchasing behavior, allowing for targeted marketing strategies [1].

5. Regression analysis
In statistical terms, a regression analysis is the process of identifying and analyzing the
relationship among variables. It can help you understand the characteristic value of the
dependent variable changes, if any one of the independent variables is varied. This means one
variable is dependent on another, but it is not vice versa. It is generally used for prediction and
forecasting.
Regression analysis is a statistical technique used to model and analyze the relationships between
a dependent variable and one or more independent variables. It is widely used for prediction and
forecasting. Linear regression, logistic regression, and polynomial regression are some of the
common types. For instance, a real estate company might use regression analysis to predict
house prices based on features such as location, size, and number of bedrooms [1].
Anomaly detection, also known as outlier detection, is the identification of rare items, events, or
observations that raise suspicions by differing significantly from the majority of the data. This
technique is crucial in fraud detection, network security, and fault detection. Algorithms used for
anomaly detection include statistical tests, clustering-based methods, and machine learning
techniques. For example, credit card companies use anomaly detection to identify potentially
fraudulent transactions by flagging those that deviate from a customer's usual spending patterns

References
Palys, T. & Atchison, C. (2014). Research Design in the Social Sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA:
SAGE Publications.
Mohammed J. Zaki, Department of Computer Science, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Troy,
New York 12180-3590, USA, E-mail: zaki@cs.rpi.edu, Limsoon Wong, Institute for Infocomm
Research ,21 Heng Mui Keng Terrace, Singapore 119613, E-mail: limsoon@i2r.a-star.edu.sg.

DATA MINING TECHNIQUES, January 1996ACM SIGMOD Record,

DOI:10.1142/9789812794840_0004, Mohammed J. Zaki and Limsoon Won.