Plastics Third 3Ed Microstructure and Engineering Applications 3rd Edition Nigel Mills 2024 Scribd Download
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Plastics
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Plastics
Microstructure and Applications
Third Edition
N J Mills
ISBN-13: 978-0-7506-5148-6
ISBN-10: 0-7506-5148-2
Preface viii
1. Introduction to plastics 1
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Dismantling consumer products 2
1.3 Mechanical and optical properties of everyday products 9
1.4 Identifying plastics 13
1.5 Product features related to processing 14
1.6 Summary 20
2. Molecular structures and polymer manufacture 21
2.1 Introduction 22
2.2 Bonding and intermolecular forces in polymers 24
2.3 Polymerisation 27
2.4 Chain regularity 34
2.5 Branched and crosslinked polymers 38
2.6 Technology and economics of manufacture 42
2.7 Grades and applications of commodity plastic 46
3. Microstructure 55
3.1 Introduction 56
3.2 Modelling the shape of a polymer molecule 56
3.3 Non-crystalline forms 59
3.4 Semi-crystalline polymers 77
4. Polymeric composites 95
4.1 Introduction 96
4.2 Elastic moduli 96
4.3 Layered structures 103
4.4 Rubber toughening 105
4.5 Phase-separated structures 113
4.6 Modulus of spherulitic polyethylene 117
4.7 Foams 121
4.8 Short fibre reinforcement 127
5. Processing 133
5.1 Introduction 134
5.2 Heat transfer mechanisms 134
5.3 Melt flow of thermoplastics 139
vi Contents
This book is intended for students of engineering and materials science degree courses, and
for scientists and engineers as an introduction to the properties and applications of plastics.
The mechanical design of plastics products is emphasised and physical properties in terms of
microstructure are explained in detail. The sales of plastics are growing, partly at the expense
of traditional materials, and partly via the development of new markets. When plastics are
substituted for other materials, products should be redesigned to suit polymer processing.
Therefore, the merits and limitations of these processes must be understood. Processing has
permanent consequences on the microstructure of the product; these must be anticipated,
and used to advantage if possible. This interlocking nature of different aspects of plastics
technology provides a challenge to engineers.
By exploring the relation between the properties of plastics and their microstructure we
begin to see the possibilities and the limitations of this class of materials. The responses of
polymers to the environment differ from other materials, so the particular pitfalls must be
recognised. The book emphasises concepts, and links between polymer engineering and other
areas of science and technology. The derivation of key equations is included, since the
assumptions made should be recognised. To keep the length manageable, details of polymer
properties or processing routes should be sought from the sources given in the Further
Reading section. Questions are given for each chapter in Appendix D, to give the student
confidence in polymer engineering approach.
Major changes were made in revising the second edition. In this edition, a new chapter,
Chapter 1, introduces properties of plastics through practical exercises, to help students see
the relevance of more academic chapters. Computer modelling has revealed the mechanics of
many types of composites, so the emphasis of Chapter 4 has shifted to modelling. Applica-
tions, product design and process technology have moved on; consequently, the case studies
in Chapter 14 were updated. A new Chapter 15 introduces sport and biomaterials with case
studies, since increasing numbers of students are enrolled in courses related to these areas.
The material has been thoroughly updated, and the principles of polymer structure–property
relationships set out more clearly.
Materials science and engineering degree courses traditionally had a considerable practical
content, to apply the principles of the subject, and develop practical skills. Experimental
work on polymer microstructure, measurements of mechanical and physical properties, and
use of polymer process equipment, are of great benefit in developing understanding. The
basics of microstructure and processing are usually covered in the first year of a course.
Detailed consideration of mechanical properties is best left until after simple elastic materials
have been studied. Polymer selection, covered in Chapter 13, can be integrated with the
selection of other materials. There is sufficient range of topics in Chapters 10 and 11 to suit
options on electrical, chemical or optical properties. The case studies in Chapters 14 and 15
illustrate the compromises needed in the design of complex products. The references to
Preface ix
primary research journals could be used as the basis of literature search exercises; now
relatively easy via online journals.
It is assumed that the reader has an elementary knowledge of the mechanics of materials.
However, appendices given at the end summarise the necessary principles and provide the
heat and fluid flow theories relevant to plastics.
Birmingham, March 2005
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
Chapter 1
Introduction to plastics
Chapter contents
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Dismantling consumer products 2
1.3 Mechanical and optical properties
of everyday products 9
1.4 Identifying plastics 13
1.5 Product features related to processing 14
1.6 Summary 20
2 Microstructure and Engineering Applications 3E
1.1 Introduction
This chapter encourages the reader to familiarize themselves with plastics. It
aims to open the reader’s eyes to design features in familiar products, and to
relate these features to polymer processes. This prepares them for polymer
selection exercises in Chapters 13–15. The dismantling exercises can be
adapted to suit different courses; for students on a biomaterials course,
blood sugar monitors, asthma inhalers, or blood apheresis units can be
dismantled. For those on a sports/materials course, the components of a
running shoe could be considered (see also further reading). Product exam-
ination can be tackled at different levels. The level described here is suitable at
the start of a degree course. Later, when most of the topics in the book have
been studied, more complex tasks can be tackled – improving the design of an
existing product, with reselection of materials and processing route.
There are some polymer identification exercises, using simple equipment.
This would make the reader familiar with the appearance of the main
plastics. Professional methods of polymer identification, such as differential
scanning calorimetry, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and
optical microscopy, may be dealt with later in degree courses.
This book explores the characteristic properties of polymers and attempts
to explain them in terms of microstructure.
A new plastic kettle can be bought for less than £30, or a discarded one
used. Preferably use a cordless kettle, which can be lifted from the powered
base. The following four activities can be extended if necessary, by consid-
eration of aesthetics, weight, and ease of filling and pouring.
Briefly touch the kettle’s outer surface when the water is boiling
Although the initial temperature of the kettle’s outer surface may be 90 8C,
the low thermal conductivity of the plastic body compared with that of your
finger, means that the skin surface temperature takes more than a minute to
Chapter 1 Introduction to plastics 3
reach an equilibrium value, and this value is c. 50 8C. With a dry finger
touch the kettle’s outer surface for less than 5 s. If you have access to a digital
thermometer with a fine thermocouple probe, tape the thermocouple to
the outer surface of the kettle and check the temperature. What can you
deduce about the thermal conductivity of the plastic? Chapter 5 explores
the balance between thermal conduction through the plastic and convection
from its outer surface.
Figure 1.1 Section of a plastic kettle and powered base unit (most of electrical heater was removed
from the kettle).
4 Microstructure and Engineering Applications 3E
Video cassettes are becoming obsolete with the increasing use of DVDs, so
one such cassette could be sacrificed.
Figure 1.2 Underside of the heater unit inside the kettle, showing the power switch and switch
mechanism.
Chapter 1 Introduction to plastics 5
be seen, check how it is attached to the main body. Count the number of
parts. After dismantling, see how easy it is to reassemble!
Figure 1.3 Mechanism that locks the spools when the tape is not being played, as seen inside a video
cassette.
6 Microstructure and Engineering Applications 3E
Figure 1.4 PET tape in a VHS cassette passes round a plastic guide roller and a fixed metal cylinder.
This has a polypropylene (PP) seat, with welded tubular-steel legs. Use a
Phillips screwdriver to remove the four screws that attach seat to the legs.
These self-tapping screws (Fig. 1.5) with sharp, widely spaced threads, are
much longer than the typical 4 mm thick seat. When screwed into a
moulded cylindrical boss on the hidden side of the seat, the threads cut
grooves in the initially smooth plastic. It is supported by four or more
buttresses, to prevent bending loads causing failure, where the boss joins
the seat. Measure the thickness of the buttresses.
Note the texture on the upper surface of the chair (Fig. 1.6), whereas the
lower surface is smooth. How has this texture been achieved? Is it a
reproduction of the mould surface texture, or has it been produced by a
post-moulding operation?
Figure 1.5 Self-tapping screw for attached tubular metal legs, and the boss with buttresses under the
seat of a PP stacking chair.
Figure 1.7 Views from both sides of an injection-moulded rubber switch from a telephone.
1.2.5 Summary
Having completed the dismantling exercises, try to add to the following list.
Plastics have advantages over metals of being
1. self-coloured, by adding about 0.1% of dispersed pigment. There are no
painting costs, and the product maintains its colour if scratched.
Chapter 1 Introduction to plastics 9
Find a Bic biro (or a similar ballpoint pen) with a transparent polystyrene
body. Hold it up towards a light source and bend it, using the thumbs as
the inner and the forefingers as the outer loading points. Make sure that the
curved portion is away from you and not aimed at anyone else. Deform
the biro by about 10 mm and hold this for about 30 s, then release the load.
The biro should return to its original shape, showing that large elastic
strains can occur. Tilt the biro against the light and look for parallel
reflective planes (Fig. 1.8a). These are called crazes.
Continue the loading until the body fractures. Although the ink tube will
trap the broken pieces of the body, it is likely that a small piece(s) of PS
might detach (Fig. 1.8b). Do not do the experiment without the ink tube, as
pieces can fly off at speed. The strain energy released by the fracture is
enough to create more than one fracture surface.
LA ROUTE
LA VILLE