Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs

2.1.Introduction

A slab is a flat surface planar structural element having thickness small compared to its other two
dimensions. It provides a working flat surface or a covering shelter in buildings. Depending on
the load transfer mechanism, slabs can be classified as One-way and Two-way slab systems, as
discussed in Reinforced Concrete Structures-I course.

The analysis and design of one-way slabs, especially for beam supported and one-way ribbed
slab systems was done by taking 1m strip width in the shorter span and designed as a singly
reinforced rectangular beam. Analysis and design of two-way slab system is a lot more complex
as load transfer is in two orthogonal directions and computing the design actions is not
straightforward as in one-way slabs. For rectangular slabs with standard edge conditions (beam
supported slabs) and subject to uniformly distributed loads, normally the bending moments are
obtained using tabulated coefficients.

Concrete two-way slabs may in some cases be supported by relatively shallow, flexible beams
(submerged beam or hidden beam), or directly by columns without the use of beams or girders.
Such slabs are generally referred as column supported two-way slabs (Flat slabs) (refer ES EN
1992-1-1:2015 section 5.11). Beams may also be used where the slab is interrupted as around
stair, walls or at discontinuous edges. The main concern of this chapter is we can analysis and
design such types of slabs.

2.1.1. Classification of Flat slabs

In practice column supported two-way slabs take various forms:

a) Flat Plate: they are flat slabs with flat soffit. Such slabs have uniform thickness
supported on columns. They are used for relatively light loads, as experienced in
apartments or similar buildings. Flat plats are most economical for spans from 4.5𝑚 to
6𝑚 (see Figure 2.1a).
b) Flat slab: they are slab systems with the load transfer to the column is accomplished by
thickening the slab near the column, using drop panels and/or by flaring the top of the

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 1

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

column to form a column capital. They may be used for heavy industrial loads and for
spans of 6𝑚 to 9𝑚 (see Figure 2.1b)
c) Waffle slabs: they are two-way joist systems with reduced self-weights. They are used
for spans from 7.5𝑚 to 12𝑚. (Note: for large spans, the thickness required to transmit the
vertical loads to the columns exceeds that required for bending. As a result the concrete at
the middle of the panel is not efficiently used. To lighten the slab, reduce the slab
moments, and save material, the slab at mid-span can be replaced by intersecting ribs.
Near the columns the full depth is retained to transmit loads from the slab to the columns
(see Figure 2.1c).

a) Flat plate b) Flat slab

c) Waffle slab d) Two-way slab with beams

Figure 2.1 Types of two way slabs

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 2

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Why needed drop panels or Column head?

 Effective in reducing the shearing stresses developed around column where the
column is liable to punch through the slab.
 Influence the distribution of moments in the slab by reducing the clear or effective
span.
 It also provide an increased moment of resistance of slab where the negative moments
are greatest.
 Stiffen the slab and hence reduce deflection

Dimension of drop panels

Drop panels are square or rectangular. The side of the drop panel shall be at least one-third of the
smaller span length. The maximum thickness of drop panel below slab used in computing the
negative steel area shall not be more than one-fourth of the distance from edge of the drop to the
edge of the column capital (𝑡𝑑 ≤ 𝑠⁄4) or 25 to 50 percent thicker than the rest of the slab.

Figure 2.2 Drop panel dimension

Dimension of Column head or Capitals

The columns in practically all cases flare out toward the top, forming a capital of a shape
somewhat similar to an inverted truncated cone.

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 3

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

The effective diameter of the capital should be taken as the diameter of the circle at the point at
which a 45º line form the base of the capital intersects the bottom of the slab or dropped panel.

The diameter of column head ℎ𝑐 should not exceed 1⁄4𝑡ℎ of the shortest span framing in to the
column. The effective diameter of a column or column head ℎ𝑐 is the diameter of a circle whose
area equals the cross-sectional area of the column or if column heads are used, the area of the
column head based on the effective dimensions.

The effective dimensions of a column head for use in calculation of ℎ𝑐 are limited according to
the depth of the head. In any direction, the effective dimension of a head 𝐿ℎ shall be taken as the
lesser of the actual dimension 𝐿ℎ0 or 𝐿ℎ,𝑚𝑎𝑥 where 𝐿ℎ,𝑚𝑎𝑥 is given by:

𝑳𝒉,𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑳𝒄 + 𝟐(𝒅𝒉 − 𝟒𝟎𝒎𝒎) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 𝟐. 𝟏

For a flared head, the actual dimension 𝐿ℎ0 is that measured 40𝑚𝑚 below the soffit of the slab
or drop as shown in figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3 Effective dimension of column heads or Capitals

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 4

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

For circular columns or column capitals of diameter 𝑑𝑐 , replace column dimensions by an

equivalent square column width side lengths equal to 0.886𝑑𝑐 .

If the head is not circular, ℎ𝑐 should be the diameter of circle having an equivalent area.

𝑨𝒄
𝒉𝒄 = 𝟐√
𝝅

Advantages of flat slab over beam supported slab

 Simplified form work and reduced story heights make flat slab more economical.

 Windows can extend up to the underside of the slab and there is no beam to obstruct the
light and the circulation of air.

 Suitable for irregular column layouts, curved floor shapes, ramps, etc.

 Ease of installation of mechanical and electrical services.

 Prefabricated welded mesh may be used.

Disadvantages of flat slabs

 Flat slab carries a high concentration of shear force around the column, when the total
shear force exceeds the shear resistance of the slab, the slab will be pushed down around
the column.

 Suffer greater deflections.

 Flat slab construction is that the arrangement of reinforcement can be very complex,
particularly adjacent to columns where punching shear reinforcement is often required if
the slab depth is kept to a minimum.

2.1.2. Behavior of Flat Slab Systems under the loads

A flat slab spans between column supports without the need for beams. For a regular layout of
columns, failure can occur by the formation of hinge lines along the lines of maximum
hogging/support and sagging/span moments. A complementary set of yield lines can form in the
orthogonal direction. One misconception of some engineers is to consider a reduced loading

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 5

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

when analyzing in a particular direction. The moments applied in each orthogonal direction must
each sustain the total loading to maintain equilibrium. There is no sharing of the load by partial
resistance in each orthogonal direction.

Figure 2.4: Possible failure modes of flat slabs

The deflected shape of an interior panel of a flat slab on a regular grid of columns under typical
in-service conditions is a function of the sum of the deflections in each orthogonal direction as
shown in Figure 2.5. Similar deflected shapes will obtain from an irregular grid of columns, but
the interaction between adjacent bays may be more complex.

Figure 2.5: Typical deflected shape of an interior flat slab panel

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 6

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Deflection is one of the governing factor in dimension flat slab systems, especially when the
flat slab system doesn‘t incorporate deeper beams.

Moment Contours in Flat slabs

The use of finite element methods shows that the distribution of bending moments per unit width
is characterized by hogging moments that are sharply peaked in the immediate vicinity of the
columns. The magnitude of the hogging moments locally to the column face can be several times
that of the sagging moments in the mid-span zones. These moments do occur in practice and the
design should take them into account. Redistribution allows a more uniform spread of
reinforcement but increases the likelihood of cracking.

A typical distribution of bending stresses for a uniformly distributed load on a flat slab with a
regular layout of columns is illustrated in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6: Typical distribution of bending stress for a flat slab

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 7

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Flexural behavior of a flat slab as the vertical load is increased

As the vertical load on the slab increases, the following changes occur:

Stage 1: Moments at the supports and mid-span increase elastically until the first cracks occur.

These are likely to appear first at the top of the slab close to the column and may occur during
construction if the removal of formwork takes place early. Otherwise, this limited cracking may
occur under the quasi-permanent combination of actions.

Stage 2: As the loading is increased beyond the characteristic combination of actions, cracking
may increase to some way into the span from the column, and cracks may also have started to
appear at mid-span. This is unlikely under the frequent or quasi-permanent combination of
actions. The cracking increases the non-linear behavior of the slab, although it still behaves
elastically as the load increases between the formations of new cracking, and can be modeled
elastically-taking account of the tension stiffening of the concrete.

Stage 3: As the loading is further increased, the reinforcement first starts to yield in the top bars
close to the columns and the junction of the slab at edge column starts to behave as a plastic
hinge. Apart from this, the slab still behaves elastically as the load increases between the
formation of new cracks but with reducing tension stiffening.

Stage 4: Failure will occur once a failure mechanism is reached.

A typical load versus deflection curve of a flat slab is shown in Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7: Typical load Vs deflection behavior of flat slab

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 8

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

2.1.3. Load transfer in Flat Slabs

2.1.3.1.Surface Loads

Consider the following column supported two way slabs. If a surface load 𝑤 is applied (see
Figure 2.8a), it is shared between imaginary slab strips 𝑙𝑎 in the short direction and 𝑙𝑏 in the
longer direction. Note that the portion of the load that is carried by the long strips 𝑙𝑏 is delivered
to the beams B1 which in turn carried in the short direction plus that directly carried in the short
direction by the slab strips 𝑙𝑎 sums up to 100 percent of the load applied to the panel. The same
is true in the other direction.

A similar situation is obtained in the flat plate floor (see Figure 2.8b) where broad strips of the
slab centered on the column lines in each direction serve the same function as the beams.
Therefore; for column supported construction, 100 percent of the applied load must be carried in
each direction, jointly by the slab and its supporting beams.

Figure 2.8: Column-supported two-way slabs

2.1.3.2.Moments in Flat slab Floors (Total static Moment 𝑴𝟎 )

The static moment 𝑴𝟎 is simply the total moment required by statics to be carried by a member.

Consider the typical interior panel of a flat slab subjected to a uniform load ‘𝑤’ per unit area
supported by columns at A, B, C and D as shown in Figure 2.9a.

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 9

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

(𝑎)
Figure 2.9 Moment variations in column-supported two-way slabs

Nichols had developed total static moment based on the assumption that the boundaries of the
slab panel and all line of symmetry are free from shear and torsion except the curved sections
which follows column capital.

Considering equilibrium of loads on half of the slab panels:

𝑙𝑦 𝑤𝜋ℎ𝑐2 𝑙𝑥 𝑙𝑦 𝜋ℎ𝑐2
Loads on half panel, 𝑤1 = 𝑤 ∗ 𝑙𝑥 ∗ − = 𝑤( − )
2 8 2 8

𝑀𝐴𝐶 due to downward load 𝑤1 about column line AC:

𝑤𝑙𝑥 𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑦 𝑤𝜋ℎ𝑐2 2ℎ𝑐

𝑀𝐴𝐶 = ∗( )− ∗( ) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . .2.2
2 4 8 3𝜋

If the upward shear 𝑤1 around curved section is considered uniformly distributed, the resultant
ℎ𝑐⁄
acts at 𝜋 distance from AC. Then, equilibrium of moment about AC gives:

ℎ 𝑤𝑙𝑥 𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑦 𝑤𝜋ℎ𝑐2 2ℎ𝑐

↺ + ∑ 𝑀𝐴𝐶 = 0 → 𝑀𝑛 + 𝑀𝑝 + 𝑤1 ∗ ( 𝑐⁄𝜋) − ∗( )− ∗( )=0
2 4 8 3𝜋

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 10

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

𝑙𝑥 𝑙𝑦 𝜋ℎ𝑐2 ℎ𝑐⁄ 𝑤𝑙𝑥 𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑦 𝑤𝜋ℎ𝑐2 2ℎ𝑐

𝑀𝑛 + 𝑀𝑝 = 𝑤 ( − ) ∗ ( 𝜋) − ∗( )− ∗( )
2 8 2 4 8 3𝜋

2
𝑤𝑙𝑥 𝑙𝑦2 4ℎ𝑐 4ℎ𝑐3 𝑤𝑙𝑥 𝑙𝑦2 2ℎ𝑐
𝑀𝑛 + 𝑀𝑝 = (1 − + 2
) ≅ (1 − ) … … … … … … … … … … … … … .2.3
8 𝜋𝑙𝑦 3𝑙𝑥 𝑙𝑦 8 3𝑙𝑦

Let 𝑀0 = 𝑀𝑛 + 𝑀𝑝 be total of positive and negative static moment in 𝑦 −direction, then

2
𝑤𝑙𝑥 𝑙𝑦2 2ℎ𝑐 𝑤𝑙𝑥 2ℎ𝑐 2
𝑀0𝑦 ≅ (1 − ) = (𝑙𝑦 − ) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 2.4
8 3𝑙𝑦 8 3

Similarly, the total static moment in 𝑥 −direction can be obtained as:

𝑤𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑥2 2ℎ𝑐 2 𝑤𝑙𝑦 2ℎ𝑐 2

𝑀0𝑥 ≅ (1 − ) = (𝑙 − ) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . .2.5
8 3𝑙𝑥 8 𝑥 3

Where ℎ𝑐 – diameter of column capital

𝑙𝑦 - Length of longer span of slab

𝑙𝑥 - Length of shorter span of slab

From the equations 2.4 and 2.5 static moment in each direction, the moment in the long direction
is larger than those in the short direction unlike to the situation for the slab with stiff edge beams.

Moment variations in column-supported two-way Slabs

Both equations (2.4 and 2.5) of total static moments does not give any information regarding
how total static moment is distributed between positive and negative moment, and how these
moments vary along the width of the slab.

Longitudinal Distributions of moments

The total static moment in the longer direction may vary along the width of the slab as shown
Figure 2.10. The variation shows larger share of moment developed in flat slab near to columns,
smaller near to middle of slab panel.

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 11

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Lateral Distributions of moments

The moments across the width of critical sections such as AB or EF are not constant as shown
qualitatively (see figure 2.10).

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 12

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Figure 2.10: Variation of bending moments through the width of a slab

For design purpose, moments may be considered constant within the bounds of a middle strip or
column strip, unless beams are present in column lines.

Figure 2.11: Design bending moments through the width of a slab

Hence, for analysis and design purpose the panel in flat slab is divided in to column strips and
middle strips as shown Figure 2.12 (adopted from ES EN 1992-1-1:2015Annex I).

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 13

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Figure 2.12: Division of panels in flat slabs (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1992-1-1:2015Annex I)

A column strip is a design strip with a width on each side of a column centerline equal to 0.25𝐿𝑥
𝐿𝑥⁄
or if drops with dimension not less than 3 are used, a width equal to the drop dimension. A
middle strip is a design strip bounded by two column strips.

2.2.Analysis of Flat slabs

2.2.1. Method of analysis of Flat slabs as per ES EN 1992 Part 1-1:2015 (Annex I)

Flat slabs should be analyzed using a proven method of analysis, such as grillage (in which the
plate is idealized as a set of interconnected discrete members), finite element, yield line or
equivalent frame.

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 14

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Equivalent frame:-this method is suitable for regular layouts of columns, but requires
engineering judgment for irregular layouts.

Finite element analysis:-this method allows the design of irregular column layouts and can
provide the design of reinforcement details. Where the appropriate software is available, it is
possible to obtain reasonable assessment of deflections.

Grillage analysis:-this method has similar facilities to finite element models and can also be used
for irregular layouts of columns.

Yield-line methods:-these can provide suitable designs for ULS but do not give adequate
information for serviceability design (the concern of chapter 4 of this course).

But, in this course we have limited to deals with the direct design method (DDM) (Simplified
moment coefficient method) and Equivalent Frame Analysis method (EFM).

The provision in these methods (DDM and EFM) are for the design of flat slabs supported by a
generally rectangular arrangement of columns and where the ratio of the longer to the shorter
spans does not exceed 2. For both methods, the negative moments greater than those at a distance
ℎ𝑐 ⁄2 from the center-line of the column may be ignored provide that the sum of the maximum
positive moment and the average of the maximum negative moments in any span of the slab
must be greater than or equal to the total static moment of slab.

𝑤𝑑 𝐿𝑥 2ℎ𝑐 2
𝑀0 = 𝑀𝑝 + 𝑀𝑛.𝑎𝑣𝑔 ≥ (𝐿𝑦 − ) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .2.6
8 3

Where 𝐿𝑦 is length of the longer span and 𝐿𝑥 is length of the shorter span

When the above condition is not satisfied, the negative design moments shall be increased by
providing the drop panels or column capitals.

2.2.1.1.Direct Design Method

The direct-design method could have been called the simplified moment coefficient method
because this method essentially prescribes values for moments in various parts of the slab panel
without the need for structural analysis. It has to be noted that this method was introduced in the
era when most engineering calculations were made with hand & no computer software was
available. Thus, for continuous-floor slab panels with relatively uniform lengths and subjected to

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 15

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

distributed loading, a series of moment coefficients were developed that would lead to safe
flexural designs of two-way floor systems.

For design purpose, the slab is considered to be a series of frames in the two directions as shown
in Figure 2.13.

Figure 2.13: Division of slab into frames for design

Static Moment, 𝐌𝟎

These frames extend to the middle of the panels on each side of the column lines. In each span of
each of the frames, it is necessary to compute the total static moment 𝑀0 . We thus have

𝑤𝑑 𝑙2 𝑙𝑛2
𝑀0 =
8

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 16

 Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Where:

𝑤𝑑 is the factored design load per unit area

𝑙2 is transverse width of the strip

𝑙𝑛 is clear span between columns

The longitudinal distribution of design span and support moments depends on the relative
stiffness of the different sections which in turn depends on the restraint provided for the slab by
the supports. Accordingly, the prescribed distribution factors of the longitudinal design moments
without structural analysis are given in the Table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Bending Moment and Shear Force coefficients for flat slabs of three or more spans
(Direct design method)

Outer support Near center First interior Center of Interior

Column Wall of first span support interior span support
Moment −0.040𝐹𝐿 −0.020𝐹𝐿 0.083𝐹𝐿 −0.063𝐹𝐿 0.071𝐹𝐿 −0.055𝐹𝐿
Shear 0.45𝐹 0.40𝐹 - 0.60𝐹 - 0.50𝐹
Total Col. moments 0.040FL - - 0.022𝐹𝐿 - 0.022𝐹𝐿
Note:

 𝐹 is the total design ultimate load on the strip of slab between adjacent columns
considered. 𝐹 = 𝑤𝑑 ∗ 𝐿𝑥 ∗ 𝐿𝑦
2ℎ𝑐
 𝐿 is the effective span 𝐿 = 𝐿𝑦 − 3

 The moments shall not be redistributed

Lateral distribution of moments between Column strips and Middle strips for negative and
positive moments

The design moment obtained from the above (or equivalent frame analysis) shall be divided
between the column and middle strips according to the following Table 2.2.

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 17

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Table 2.2: Simplified apportionment of bending moment for a flat slab (Source: Adopted from ES
EN 1992-1-1:2015Annex I)

Strips Negative moments Positive moments

Column Strip 60 − 80% 50 − 70%
Middle Strip 40 − 20% 50 − 30%
Note: Total negative and positive moments to be resisted by the column and middle
strips together should always add up to100%.
Where the width of the column strip is different from 0.5𝐿𝑥 and made equal to width of drop, the
width of middle strip should be adjusted accordingly.

Limitations on the use of the Direct Design Method as per ACI Code (Section 13.6.1)

1) There must be a minimum of 3 continuous spans in each direction. Thus a nine-panel

structure (3 by 3) is the smallest that can be divided. If there are fewer than three panels,
the interior negative moments from the direct-design method tend to be too small.
2) Rectangular panels must have a long-span/short-span ratio not greater than 2
(i.e. 𝐿𝑦 ⁄𝐿𝑥 ≤ 2.0).
3) Successive span length in each direction shall not differ by more than one-third of the
longer span. This limit is imposed so that certain standard reinforcement cutoff details
can be used.
4) Columns should not offset from the basic rectangular grid of the building more than 10%
of the span parallel to the offset.
5) All loads must be due to gravity only. The direct design method cannot be used for
unbraced laterally loaded frames, foundation mats or pre-stressed slabs.
6) The service live load shall not exceed two times the service dead load (to reduce effects
of pattern load). Strip or checkerboard loadings with large ratios of live load to dead load
may lead to moments larger than those assumed in this method of analysis. Hence, the
design is based on the single load case of all spans loaded with the maximum design
ultimate load.
7) For a panel with beams between supports on all sides, the relative stiffness of the beams
in the two orthogonal directions given by (𝛼𝑓1 𝑙22 )⁄(𝛼𝑓2 𝑙12 ) shall not be less than 0.2 or
greater than 5. (𝛼 is the beam-to-slab stiffness ratio to be defined later).

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 18

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

If a beam is present in the column strip, it affects the distribution of negative moments in the
column and middle strips. At an exterior edge, the division of the exterior-end factored negative
moment distributed to the column and middle strips spanning perpendicular to the edge also
depends on the torsional stiffness of the edge beam, calculated as the shear modulus, 𝐺 times the
torsional constant of the edge beam, 𝐶 divided by the flexural stiffness of the slab spanning
perpendicular to the edge beam (i.e. 𝐸𝐼 for a slab having a width equal to the length of the edge
beam from the center of one span to the center of the other span as shown Figure 2.14.

Assuming that Poisson‘s ratio is zero 𝐺 = 𝐸/2 gives then this torsional stiffness ratio is defined
𝐸 𝐶
as 𝛽𝑡 = 2𝐸𝑐𝑏 𝐼
𝑐𝑠 𝑠

The term 𝐶 refers to the torsional constant of the edge beam. This is roughly equivalent to a polar
moment of inertia.

Torsional constant of the edge beam, 𝑪

It is calculated by subdividing the cross section into rectangles and carrying out the summation
where 𝑥 the shorter side of a rectangle is and 𝑦 is the longer side. Different combinations of
rectangles should be tried to get the maximum value of 𝐶. The maximum value normally is
obtained when the wider rectangle is made as long as possible.

𝑥 𝑥3𝑦
𝐶 = ∑ [(1 − 0.63 ) ]
𝑦 3

Figure 2.14: Edge beams

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 19

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Beam-to-Slab stiffness ratio 𝜶𝒇𝟏

Slabs frequently are built with beams spanning from column to column around the perimeter of
the building. These beams act to stiffen the edge of the slab and help to reduce the deflections of
the exterior panels of the slab.

In the ACI Code, the effects of beam stiffness on deflections and the distribution of moments are
expressed as a function of 𝜶𝒇𝟏 defined as the flexural stiffness 4𝐸𝐼/𝐿 of the beam divided by the
flexural stiffness of a width of slab bounded laterally by the centerlines of the adjacent panels on
each side of the beam:

4𝐸𝑐𝑏 𝐼𝑏 /𝐿
𝛼𝑓 =
4𝐸𝑐𝑠 𝐼𝑠 /𝐿

Because the lengths, of the beam and slab are equal, this quantity is simplified and expressed in
the code as

4𝐸𝑐𝑏 𝐼𝑏 𝐸𝑐𝑏 𝐼𝑏
𝛼𝑓 = =
4𝐸𝑐𝑠 𝐼𝑠 𝐸𝑐𝑠 𝐼𝑠

Where 𝐸𝑐𝑏 and 𝐸𝑐𝑠 are the moduli of elasticity of the beam concrete and slab concrete,
respectively 𝐼𝑏 and 𝐼𝑠 are the moments of inertia of the un-cracked beams and slabs.

The sections considered in computing 𝐼𝑏 and 𝐼𝑠 are shown shaded below.

The span perpendicular to the direction being designed is 𝑙2 .

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 20

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Table 2.3: Percentage distribution of negative factored moment to the column strip at exterior
supports

2.2.1.2.Equivalent Frame Method

The direct design method is applicable when the proposed structures satisfy the restrictions on
geometry and loading. If the structure does not satisfy the criteria, the more general method of
elastic analysis is the equivalent frame method.

EFM is based on the idealization of three dimensional slab and column system by a series of two
dimensional frames in longitudinal and transverse directions. Each frame consists of a slab-beam
element bounded laterally by the center line of panels on each side of the center of supports as
shown in Figure 2.15.

This provides an acceptable representation of the behavior of the floor by a system of columns
and slab strips analyzed separately in each direction. Rather than a full height frame, a series of
sub-frames comprising a single floor with columns above and below is more commonly used,
subject to the most unfavorable arrangement of load. The final moments can be redistributed.

The width of the frame strips is taken between mid-points of the columns or the edge of the slab
as appropriate. When considering only vertical loads, the stiffness of the slab strip may be based
on the full width. In any combination of loading that includes lateral loads the stiffness should be
based on the half the width.

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 21

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Figure 2.15: Equivalent frames

The moment obtained from the analysis of the equivalent frame are the total moments on the slab
strip. However, the distribution of moment across the width of the strip is quite obviously not
uniform, since the slab is only supported in the center of the strip.

To ensure that the distribution of reinforcement corresponds approximately to the distribution of

moments arising from a rigorous analysis of the slab system, the slab strip is divided into a
column strip and middle strip (half each side), thus apportionment of bending moment is the
same with the direct design method.

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 22

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Unless there are perimeter beams, which are adequately designed for torsion, moments
transferred to edge or corner columns𝑀𝑠𝑢,𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 should be limited to the moment of resistance of a
rectangular section equal to 0.17𝑏𝑒 𝑑 2 𝑓𝑐𝑘 . 𝑏𝑒 Effective width of a flat slab see Figure 2.26. The
positive moment in the end span should be adjusted accordingly.

Limitations on the use of the Equivalent Frame Method as per ES EN 1992-1-1:2015 (Annex I)

1) The width of slab used to define the effective stiffness of the slab will depend upon the
aspect ratio of the panels and the type of loading, but the following provisions may be
applied in the absence of more accurate methods:
 In the case of vertical loading, the full width of the panel, and
 For lateral loading, 40% the width of the panel may be used to calculate the
stiffness of the slab.
2) The moment of inertia of any section of slab or column used in calculating the relative
stiffness of members may be assumed to be that of the cross section of the concrete alone.
3) Moments and forces within a system of flat slab panels may be obtained from analysis of
the structure under the single load case of maximum design load on all spans or panels
simultaneously, provided:
 The ratio of the characteristic imposed load to the characteristic dead load does not
exceed 1.25. The characteristic imposed load does not exceed 5.0𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 excluding
partitions.
4) Where it is not appropriate to analyse for the single load case of maximum design load on
all spans, it will be sufficient to consider following arrangement of vertical loads:
 All spans loaded with the maximum design ultimate load, and

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 23

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

 Alternate spans with the maximum design ultimate load and all other spans loaded with
the minimum design ultimate load (1.0𝐺𝑘 ).
5) Each frame may be analysed in its entirety by any elastic method. Alternatively, for
vertical loads only, each strip of floor and roof may be analysed as a separate frame with
the columns above and below fixed in position and direction at their extremities. In either
case, the analysis shall be carried out for the appropriate design ultimate loads on each
span calculated for a strip of slab of width equal to the distance between centre lines of
the panels on each side of the columns.
Method of analysis of Flat slabs with Irregular column layout ES EN 1992-1-1:2015 (Annex I)

Where, due to the irregular layout of columns, a flat slab cannot be sensibly analyzed using the
equivalent frame method, a grillage or other elastic method may be used. In such a case the
following simplified approach will normally be sufficient:

i. Analyze the slab with the full load, 𝛾𝑄 𝑄𝑘 + 𝛾𝐺 𝐺𝑘 on all bays

ii. The mid-span and column moments should then be increased to allow for the effects of
pattern loads. This may be achieved by loading a critical bay (or bays) with 𝛾𝑄 𝑄𝑘 + 𝛾𝐺 𝐺𝑘
and the rest of the slab with 𝛾𝐺 𝐺𝑘 . Where there may be significant variation in the
permanent load between bays, 𝛾𝐺 should be taken as 1 for the unloaded bays.
iii. The effects of this particular loading may then be applied to other critical bays and
supports in a similar way.

Summary of the method of analysis of Flat slabs

Items Direct Design Method Equivalent Frame method

The slab is consider panel by The slab is divided into a series of
Modeling panel. 2D frames (in each direction).
The calculation static moment is The positive and negative
Analysis by the prescribed equations moments are computed via an
without the need for structural elastic frame analysis.
analysis.
Static moment then is divided Once the positive and negative
between positive and negative moments are known, they are

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 24

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Distribution moments moments, and these are further divided between middle strips and
divided between middle strips and column strips in exactly the same
column strips. way as in the direct-design
method.
It should be noted that the difference between the two methods is in the analysis of the static
moment only.

2.3.Design of flat slabs

Slabs to be designed by any procedure that satisfies both equilibrium and geometric
compatibility, provided that every section has a strength at least equal to the required strength
and that serviceability conditions are satisfied. The thickness of the flat slabs provided based on
deflections requirement should be checked for the shear and bending moments.

2.3.1. Shear in Flat Slabs

A shear failure in a beam results from an inclined crack caused by flexural and shearing stresses.
This crack starts at the tensile face of the beam and extends diagonally to the compression zone,
as explained in previous sections. In the case of a two-way slab or footing, the two shear failure
mechanisms shown in Figure 2.16 are possible. One-way shear or beam-action shear (Figure
2.16a) involves an inclined crack extending across the entire width of the structure. Two-way
shear or punching shear involves a truncated cone or pyramid-shaped surface around the
column, as shown schematically in Figure 2.16b.

Figure 2.16: Shear failure in slabs

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 25

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

2.3.1.1.Punching shear

Consider a portion of slab subjected to an increasing concentrated load. Eventually the slab will
fail. One possible method of failure is that the load punches through the slab. The failure
mechanism is by shear, hence the name Punching Shear. Some examples of the occurrence of
concentrated loads on a slab or on a pad foundation are a common.

A flat slab supported by a column, where there is a high concentration of shear force around the
column head. When the total shear force exceeds the shear resistance of the slab, the slab will be
pushed down around the column, or this can be viewed as the column being pushed through the
slab.

2.3.1.1.1. Punching shear resistance in accordance to ES EN 1992-1-1: 2015 section 6.4

Punching shear is the most common, and is a major design consideration, in flat slab
construction. In pad foundations, where weight and depth are not so critical, its effects are
satisfied by providing sufficient depth. The major emphasis of this topic is, therefore,
concentrated on flat slabs.

Methods have been proposed for checking the stress on the failure planes, but the general method
adopted is similar to that for transverse shear in beams, but checks shear stresses rather than
shear forces.

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 26

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

a) Plan

b) Section

Figure 2.17: Verification model for punching shear at the ultimate limit state (Source: Adopted
from ES EN 1992-1-1:2015 section 6.4)

Thus, the shear force acting on a perimeter u around the loaded area is resisted by a nominal
shear stress (capacity) 𝑽𝑹𝒅,𝒄 acting over the average effective depth d of the section.

Once punching has occurred, the top bars make only a very limited contribution to the shear
resistance since the cover is easily turn away (but prior to punching they are vital to the truss
analogy in determining the strength. However, the bottom bars, being more deeply embedded,
are not pushed out in the same way and thus provide more resistance. This is attributable initially
to dowel action, and then later at larger deformation to its being kinked, as shown.

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 27

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

When punching occurs at a slab-column connection without shear reinforcement the resistance
and thus the load carrying capacity is greatly reduced. The load is therefore transferred to the
adjacent connections, which may also suffer punching failures. This may lead to a general failure
of the floor which in turn could lead to a progressive collapse of the structure as one floor fails
onto the floor below. This has occurred several times with flat slab structures in recent years,
frequently during construction when the concrete strength is not fully developed.

Providing shear reinforcement to restrain the top bars by tying them to the bottom bars greatly
increases the resistance and ductility of the slab-column connection. Running the bottom bars
through the column or anchoring them in the column will also increases the ductility.

The empirical formula for the shear capacity (stress), 𝑽𝑹𝒅,𝒄 of a section shear reinforcement
(similar to beam shear) is given below.

Punching shear resistance of slabs and column bases without shear reinforcement 𝑽𝑹𝒅,𝒄 ES EN
1992-1-1:2015 section 6.4.4

The punching shear resistance of a slab should be assessed for the basic control section
according to 6.4.2. The design punching shear resistance [𝑀𝑃𝑎] may be calculated as follows:

1
𝐶 𝑘(100𝜌𝑓𝑐𝑘 ) ⁄3 + 𝑘1 𝜎𝑐𝑝
𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑐 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥. { 𝑅𝑑,𝑐
𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑘1 𝜎𝑐𝑝

Where:

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 28

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

𝑘 is a coefficient to allow for the scale effect and given by:

200
𝑘 =1+√ ≤ 2.0 𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚
𝑑

𝜌 = √𝜌𝑥 ∗ 𝜌𝑦 ≤ 0.02

𝝆𝒙 , 𝝆𝒚 relate to the bonded tension steel in 𝑥 − and 𝑦 − directions respectively.

𝐴𝑠𝑥 𝐴𝑠𝑦
𝜌𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌𝑦 =
𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑑

The values 𝝆𝒙 and 𝝆𝒚 should be calculated as mean values taking into account a slab width 𝒃
equal to the column width plus 3d each side (𝑚𝑚2 ⁄𝑚𝑚).

𝜎𝑐𝑦 +𝜎𝑐𝑥
𝜎𝑐𝑝 = ≤ 0.2𝑓𝑐𝑑 [𝑀𝑃𝑎]
2

𝝈𝒄𝒚 , 𝝈𝒄𝒙 are the normal concrete stresses in the critical section in 𝑦 − and 𝑥 −directions (𝑀𝑃𝑎
positive if compression):

𝑁𝐸𝑑,𝑦 𝑁𝐸𝑑,𝑥
𝜎𝑐𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎𝑐𝑥 =
𝐴𝑐𝑦 𝐴𝑐𝑥

𝑵𝑬𝒅,𝒚, 𝑵𝑬𝒅,𝒙 are the design axial compression load in 𝑦 − and 𝑥 −directions

𝐶𝑅𝑑,𝑐 = 0.18⁄𝛾𝑐 𝛾𝑐 is the partial factor of safety of concrete

𝑘1 = 0.1

3⁄ 1⁄
𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.035𝑘 2 𝑓𝑐𝑘 2

𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑐 is the design value of the punching shear resistance of a slab without punching shear
reinforcement along the control section considered.

𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑐𝑠 is the design value of the punching shear resistance of a slab with punching shear
reinforcement along the control section considered.

𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the design value of the maximum punching shear resistance along the control section
considered.

The following checks should be carried out:

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 29
Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

(a) At the column perimeter, or the perimeter of the loaded area, the maximum punching
shear stress should not be exceeded:

𝑉𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥

(b) Punching shear reinforcement is not necessary if:

𝑉𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑐

(c) Where 𝑉𝐸𝑑 exceeds the value 𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑐 for the control section considered, punching shear
reinforcement should be provided according to ES EN 1992-1-1:2015 section 6.4.5.

The design shear resistance of the section without shear reinforcement is:-

𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑐 ∗ 𝑈 ∗ 𝑑

𝑈 is the length of the perimeter of the section.

𝑑𝑥 +𝑑𝑦
𝑑 is the average effective depth of the section 𝑑 = 2

Load distribution and basic control perimeter 𝑈1 ES EN 1992-1-1:2015 section 6.4.2

Comparisons with a large number of test results show that the closer the basic control perimeter
is to the loaded area, the greater is the influence on the size of the loaded area relative to the
slab depth on the shear resistance of the slab. To be largely independent to this ratio, the distance
of the basic control perimeter from the face of the loaded area is taken as 2𝑑 from the loaded
area and should be constructed so as to minimize its length (see Figure 2.18).

Figure 2.18: Basic control perimeter (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1992-1-1:2015 section 6.4.2)

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 30

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

There are other parameters which affect the positions and length of control perimeters.

Free edges

For loaded areas situated near an unsupported edge or corner, the basic control perimeter is as
shown Figure 2.19, provided this gives a perimeter, excluding the unsupported edges, which is
less than that calculated for an internal loaded area. For loaded areas situated near an edge or
corner, i.e. at a distance smaller than 𝑑, special edge reinforcement should always be provided,
see 9.3.1.4.

Figure 2.19: Basic control perimeters for loaded areas close to or at edge or corner (Source:
Adopted from ES EN 1992-1-1:2015 section 6.4.2)

Openings

For loaded areas situated near openings, if the shortest distance between the perimeter of the
loaded area and the edge of the opening does not exceed 6𝑑, that part of the control perimeter
contained between the two tangents drawn to the outline of the opening from the center of the
loaded area is considered ineffective (see Figure 2.20).

Figure 2.20: Control perimeter near an opening (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1992-1-1:2015
section 6.4.2)

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 31

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Heads and drops

For slabs with circular column heads for which 𝑙𝐻 < 2ℎ𝐻 (see Figure 2.21) a check of the
punching shear stresses according to 6.4.3 is only required on the control section outside the
column head. The distance of this section from the centroid of the column 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡 may be taken as:

𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡 = 2𝑑 + 𝑙𝐻 + 0.5𝐶

Where:

𝑙𝐻 is the distance from the column face to the edge of the column head

𝐶 is the diameter of a circular column

Figure 2.21: Slab with enlarged column head where 𝑙𝐻 < 2.0ℎ𝐻 (Source: Adopted from ES EN
1992-1-1:2015 section 6.4.2)

For a rectangular column with a rectangular head with 𝑙𝐻 < 2.0ℎ𝐻 (see Figure 2.21) and
overall dimensions 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 (𝑙1 = 𝐶1 + 2𝑙𝐻1 , 𝑙2 = 𝐶2 + 2𝑙𝐻2 , 𝑙1 < 𝑙2), the value 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡 may be
taken as the lesser of:

2𝑑 + 0.56√𝑙1 𝑙2
𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡 = 𝑀𝑖𝑛. {
2𝑑 + 0.69𝑙1

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 32

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

For slabs with enlarged circular column heads where 𝑙𝐻 < 2ℎ𝐻 (see Figure 2.22) control
sections both within the head and in the slab should be checked and may be taken as:

𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡,𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 2𝑑 + 𝑙𝐻 + 0.5𝐶

𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡,𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 2(𝑑 + ℎ𝐻 ) + 0.5𝐶

Figure 2.22: Slab with enlarged column head where 𝑙𝐻 > 2(𝑑 + ℎ𝐻 ) (Source: Adopted from ES
EN 1992-1-1:2015 section 6.4.2)

Effective Shear Force (Equivalent Punching shear adjacent to columns) [ES EN 1992-1-
1:2015 section 6.4.2]

For a slab-column connection the design is based on the total shear force, 𝑉𝐸𝑑 at the column face
(where an equivalent frame analysis has been used the direction giving the greater value of 𝑉𝐸𝑑 is
used). Generally, moment is transferred to the columns so the shear distribution is not uniform
and a factor, 𝛽 is used to take account of local concentrations.

𝑉
𝑣𝐸𝑑 = 𝛽 𝑢𝐸𝑑𝑑
0

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 33

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Figure 2.23: Shear distribution due to an unbalanced moment at a slab internal column
connection (Source: Adopted ES EN 1992-1-1:2015 section 6.4.3)

For structures where the lateral stability does not depend on frame action between the slabs and
columns, and where the adjacent spans do not differ in length by more than 25%, simplified
values of 𝛽 may be used. Otherwise 𝛽 must be calculated

Figure 2.24: Recommended values for 𝛽 (Source: Adopted ES EN 1992-1-1:2015 section 6.4.3)

Design procedure

Step 1: Calculate the effective shear force, 𝛃𝑽𝑬𝒅 at the face of the loaded area.

Step 2: Calculate the shear stress, 𝑣𝐸𝑑 at the face of the loaded area, where 𝑢0 is the perimeter of
(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 )⁄
the loaded area and 𝑑 = 2.

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 34

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

𝑉𝐸𝑑
𝑣𝐸𝑑 = 𝛽
𝑢0 𝑑

Step 3: Calculate the maximum allowable punching shear stress, 𝑽𝑹𝒅,𝒎𝒂𝒙

𝑓𝑐𝑘
𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.5𝑣𝑓𝑐𝑑 𝑣 = 0.6 (1 − 250 )

Step 4: If 𝑽𝑬𝒅 > 𝑽𝑹𝒅,𝒎𝒂𝒙 the design fails. Redesign needed

Step 5: Calculate the punching shear stress resistance, 𝑽𝑹𝒅,𝒄 of the slab at the basic control
perimeter.

1
𝐶 𝑘(100𝜌𝑓𝑐𝑘 ) ⁄3 + 𝑘1 𝜎𝑐𝑝
𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑐 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥. { 𝑅𝑑,𝑐
𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑘1 𝜎𝑐𝑝

Step 6: Calculate the shear stress at the basic control perimeter, 𝑣𝐸𝑑 (for edge and order columns
the reduced perimeter, 𝑢1 may be used).

𝑉𝐸𝑑
𝑣𝐸𝑑 = 𝛽
𝑢1 𝑑

Step 7: If 𝑽𝑬𝒅 > 𝑽𝑹𝒅,𝒄 several design options are available to increase the shear resistance of the
slab, such as:

i. Shear reinforcement (Punching shear reinforcement)

ii. Column Head/Capital
iii. Drop Panel

i. Punching shear resistance of slabs and column bases with shear reinforcement [ES
EN 1992-1-1:2015 section 6.4.5]

The shear resistance of the section with shear reinforcement, 𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑐𝑠 is:-

1.5𝑑 𝐴𝑠𝑤 𝑓𝑦𝑤𝑑,𝑒𝑓 sin 𝛼

𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑐𝑠 = 0.75𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑐 + ∗
𝑆𝑟 𝑢1 𝑑

Where

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 35

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

𝐴𝑠𝑤 is the area of one perimeter of shear reinforcement around the column [𝑚𝑚2 ]

𝑆𝑟 is the radial spacing of perimeters of shear reinforcement (not exceed 0.75𝑑) [𝑚𝑚]

𝑓𝑦𝑤𝑑,𝑒𝑓 is the effective design strength of the punching shear reinforcement, according to

𝑓𝑦𝑤𝑑,𝑒𝑓 = 250 + 0.25𝑑 ≤ 𝑓𝑦𝑤𝑑 [𝑀𝑃𝑎]

𝑑 is the mean of the effective depths in the orthogonal directions [𝑚𝑚]

𝛼 is the angle between the shear reinforcement and the plane of the slab

The control perimeter where shear reinforcement is not required, 𝑈𝑜𝑢𝑡 can be calculated:-

𝛽𝑉𝐸𝑑
𝑈𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑐 𝑑

The outermost perimeter of shear reinforcement should be placed at a distance not greater than
𝑘𝑑 within 𝑈𝑜𝑢𝑡 (see Figure 2.25).

Figure 2.25: Control perimeters at internal columns

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 36

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Detailing Consideration of Punching Shear reinforcement

The placing of shear reinforcement should comply with the following:-

 It should be fixed on at least two perimeters, the inner of which, 𝑆𝑂 is located between
0.3𝑑 and 0.5𝑑 from the face of the loaded area;
 The spacing of link perimeters, 𝑆𝑟 must not exceed 0.75𝑑;
 The spacing of links around a perimeter, 𝑆𝑡 must not exceed 1.5𝑑 for perimeters with in
the basic control perimeter and 2𝑑 for perimeters outside the basic control perimeter.

These criteria will often dedicate the amount of shear reinforcement provided.

Forms of Punching shear reinforcement

a) Links

Traditional shear links provide a strong reinforcement cage around the column head. However,
they do take a long time to fix and often require additional longitudinal link hanger’s bars
running between the main bars.

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 37

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

b) Ladders

The area and spacing of reinforcement in the vertical legs of the shear ladders is determined
from the area and spacing of the links they are designed to replace.

c) Shear Connectors or Stud Rails

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 38

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

d) Shear Hoops

A shear hoop is a prefabricated, single perimeter of links tied together by two hoop bars.

The fixing time is far less than for traditional links. Different size hoops are placed around the
column, here four shear hoops have been fixed as shown.

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 39

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

e) Shear heads

A shear head is prefabricated from structural steel channel sections which carry all the shear
force at the column. Service holes are easily provided adjacent to the column.

The detail is much simpler than traditional links, making is far easier to fix. The shear resistance
of a shear head is either determined by test, or provided by the manufacturer.

ii. Column head/capital

An enlarged column head or column capital increases the perimeter of the loaded area, 𝑢𝑜 so
reducing the shear stress 𝑣𝐸𝑑 . It also increases the length of the basic control perimeter, 𝑢1
thereby reducing the shear stress, 𝑣𝐸𝑑 at that section.

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 40

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

The main disadvantage of providing a column head is the additional formwork and the
consequential increase in the construction time. Column heads are used, generally, as
architectural features where the soffit is exposed.

iii. Drop panel

An increased depth of slab by providing drop panel around the column reduces 𝑣𝐸𝑑 by increasing
the length of the basic control perimeter 𝑢1 . It also reduces 𝑣𝐸𝑑 at the face of the loaded area by
increasing the effective depth 𝑑.

Generally, drop panels are provided with a shallow slab to carry large shear forces. Because of
this they tend to be quiet large such that punching is checked on another control perimeter within
the drop.

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 41

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

The main disadvantages of drops are the extra formwork, resulting in an increase in construction
time, and the possible interference with routing of services below the slab.

iv. Other ways to increase slab shear capacity

If 𝑣𝐸𝑑 exceeds 𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑐 , the basic control perimeter by small amount, and this was true of many
slab-column connection in the design, then either the loaded area or the slab depth could be
increased, although the latter would also increase the permanent load. The most economical
solution might be to increase the concrete strength. If, at the face of the loaded area 𝑣𝐸𝑑 greatly
exceeds 𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑐 then thought must be given to changing the structural layout or even the form of
construction.

Detailing rules of reinforcements for the Flat Slabs as per ES EN 1992-1-1: 2015 section 9.4

Slab at internal columns

(1) The arrangement of reinforcement in flat slab construction should reflect the behaviour under
working conditions. In general this will result in a concentration of reinforcement over the
columns.

(2) At internal columns, unless rigorous serviceability calculations are carried out, top
reinforcement of area 0.5𝐴𝑡 should be placed in a width equal to the sum of 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔 the
panel width on either side of the column. 𝐴𝑡 represents the area of reinforcement required to
resist the full negative moment from the sum of the two half panels each side of the column.

(3) Bottom reinforcement (≥ 2𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠) in each orthogonal direction should be provided at internal
columns and this reinforcement should pass through the column.

Slab at edge and corner columns

Reinforcement perpendicular to a free edge required to transmit bending moments from the slab
to an edge or corner column should be placed within the effective width be shown in Figure 2.26.

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 42

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Figure 2.26: Effective width 𝑏𝑒 of a flat slab

Punching shear reinforcement

(1) Where punching shear reinforcement is required it should be placed between the loaded
area/column and 𝑘𝑑 inside the control perimeter at which shear reinforcement is no
longer required. It should be provided in at least two perimeters of link legs (see Figure
2.27). The spacing of the link leg perimeters should not exceed 0.75𝑑.

a) Spacing of links b) Spacing of bent-up bars

Figure 2.27: Punching shear reinforcement

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 43

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

The vertical component of only those pre-stressing tendons passing within a distance of
𝟎. 𝟓𝒅 of the column may be included in the shear calculation.
(2) Bent-up bars passing through the loaded area or at a distance not exceeding 0.25𝑑 from
this area may be used as punching shear reinforcement (see Figure 2.27 b).
(3) The spacing of link legs around a perimeter should not exceed 1.5𝑑 within the first
control perimeter (2𝑑 from loaded area), and should not exceed 2𝑑 for perimeters outside
the first control perimeter where that part of the perimeter is assumed to contribute to the
shear capacity (see Figure 2.28).

Figure 2.28: Control perimeters at internal columns

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 44

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Table 2.4: Minimum bend point locations and Extensions for reinforcement in Flat Slabs

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 45

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

Summary of steps in Slab design

Step 1: Choose the layout and type of slab to be used

Step 2: Choose the slab thickness (deflection limitation and shear at both exterior and interior
columns)

Step 3: Choose the design method (direct design or equivalent frame methods)

Step 4: Compute positive and negative moments in the slab

Step 5: Check thickness of the slab for both shear and flexure

Step 6: Determine the distribution of the moments across the width of the slab

Step 7: If there are beams, a portion of the moments must be assigned to the beams

Step 8: Reinforcement is designed for moments in 6 & 7.

Minimum thickness of Two-way slabs from Deflection control criteria according to ES EN

1992-1-1: 2015 section 7.4.2 (2)

Generally, it is not necessary to calculate the deflections explicitly as simple rules, provided the
limits to span/depth ratio formulated are satisfied, which will be adequate for avoiding deflection
problems in normal circumstances. More rigorous checks are necessary for members which lie
outside such limits, or where deflection limits other than those implicit in simplified methods are
appropriate.

 Provided that reinforced concrete beams or slabs in buildings are dimensioned so that
they comply with the limits of span to depth ratio.
 The appearance and general utility of the structure could be impaired when the calculated
sag of a beam, slab or cantilever subjected to quasi-permanent loads exceeds 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛/250.
Pre-camber may be used to compensate for some or all of the deflection but any upward
deflection incorporated in the formwork should not generally exceed 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛/250.
 For the deflection after construction, 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛/500 is normally an appropriate limit for
quasi-permanent loads.
 The limiting span to depth ratio may be estimated from expressions and multiplying this
by correction factors to allow for the type of reinforcement used and other variables.

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 46

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

 No allowance has been made for any pre-camber in the derivation of these expressions.

3⁄
𝐿 𝜌0 𝜌 2
𝑑
= 𝐾 [11 + 1.5√𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝜌
+ 3.2√𝑓𝑐𝑘 ( 𝜌0 − 1) ] 𝑖𝑓 𝜌 ≤ 𝜌0 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 7.16𝑎

𝐿 0 𝜌 𝜌′
= 𝐾 [11 + 1.5√𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝜌−𝜌′ + 3.2√𝑓𝑐𝑘 √𝜌 ] 𝑖𝑓 𝜌 > 𝜌0 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 7.16𝑏
𝑑 0

Where:
𝐿
𝑑
is the limit span/depth

𝐾 is the factor to take into account the different structural systems from Table 7.4N

𝜌0 is the reference reinforcement ratio = √𝑓𝑐𝑘 ∗ 10−3

𝜌 is the required tension reinforcement ratio at mid-span to resist the moment due to the design
loads (at support for cantilevers)
𝜌′ is the required compression reinforcement ratio at mid-span to resist the moment due to design
loads (at support for cantilevers)

𝑓𝑐𝑘 is cylindrical compressive strength of concrete in 𝑀𝑃𝑎 units

Correction factors for the type of reinforcement used

Expressions (7.16𝑎) and (7.16𝑏) have been derived on the assumption that the steel stress under
the appropriate design load at SLS at a cracked section at the mid-span of a beam or slab or at the
support of a cantilever is 310𝑀𝑃𝑎 (corresponding roughly to 𝑓𝑦𝑘 = 500𝑀𝑃𝑎). Where other
stress levels are used, the values obtained using Expression (7.16) should be multiplied
by 310⁄𝜎𝑠 . It will normally be conservative to assume that:

310 500
=
𝜎𝑠 𝐴𝑠,𝑟𝑒𝑞
(𝑓𝑦𝑘 ⁄𝐴 )
𝑠,𝑝𝑟𝑜

Initially, taking 𝐴𝑠,𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝐴𝑠,𝑝𝑟𝑜 ,

310 500
=
𝜎𝑠 𝑓𝑦𝑘

Where:

𝜎𝑠 is the tensile steel stress at mid-span (at support for cantilevers) under the design load at SLS

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 47

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

𝐴𝑠,𝑝𝑟𝑜 is the area of steel provided at this section

𝐴𝑠,𝑟𝑒𝑞 is the area of steel required at this section for ultimate limit state

Correction factors for the span length

For flat slabs where the greater span exceeds 8.5𝑚, and which support partitions liable to be
damaged by excessive deflections, the values of 𝐿/𝑑 given by Expression (7.16) should be
multiplied by 8.5⁄𝐿 (𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠).
𝑒𝑓𝑓

Table 7.4N: Basic ratios of 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛/𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ for reinforced concrete members without
axial compression

Limitation of Reinforcement in Flat slabs

Minimum and maximum reinforcement (ES EN 1992-1-1: 2015 section 9.2.1)

0.26𝑓𝑐𝑡𝑚 𝑏𝑡 𝑑
 𝐴𝑠,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = but not less than 0.0013𝑏𝑡 𝑑
𝑓𝑦𝑘

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 48

Department of Civil Engineering Reinforced Concrete Structures II

 𝐴𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.04𝐴𝑐

Maximum spacing of reinforcement 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑠 (ES EN 1992-1-1: 2015 section 9.3)

In areas with concentrated loads or areas of maximum moment those provisions become
respectively:

 For the principal reinforcement, 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑠 ≤ 2ℎ ≤ 250𝑚𝑚

 For the secondary reinforcement, 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑠 ≤ 3ℎ ≤ 400𝑚𝑚

The minimum clear distance (horizontal and vertical) between individual parallel bars or
horizontal layers of parallel bars should be not less than (ES EN 1992-1-1: 2015 section 8.2)

𝑘1 ∗ 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥 { 𝜙𝑔 + 𝑘2 𝑚𝑚 = 𝜙𝑔 + 5
20𝑚𝑚

Where; 𝜙𝑔 is the maximum size of aggregate

The recommended values of 𝑘1 and 𝑘2 are 1𝑚𝑚 and 5𝑚𝑚 respectively.

Chapter-2: Design of Flat slabs Page 49