Mechanics 1

MR B. MUJOKORO
BSC, MSC
 About The Course

Part A (Mechanics)

• Measurements

• SI units and Quantities

• Kinematics, Statics and Dynamics

• Circular motion

• Work, Energy and Power

 About The Course

Part B (Waves)
• Wave motion

• Sound waves

• Electromagnetic waves

• Physical and geometric optics

 About The Course

Part C (Fluid Mechanics)

• Hydrostatic pressure
• Archimedes principle,
• Surface and interfacial phenomena
• Fluid Dynamics
• Steady flow
• Fluid flow continuity
• Bernoulli principle
 INTRODUCTION

WHAT IS PHYSICS?
 Physics aims to describe the fundamental
mechanisms underlying everything around us from the
smallest indivisible constituent of matter to the
massive planets and infinite universe.

 Any physical phenomena is governed by “processes”

involving energy and matter and their interaction.

 These processes evolve in space and time.

 INTRODUCTION

 All applications of Physics are generally

encompassed in fields called “Engineering”.
 The role of a Physicist is to understand (!!!) not
cram!!!, the laws governing time or spatial
evolution of matter or energy or their interaction.
 Then you choose your own path;
 Theoretical Physicist, provide relationships between
different processes, E = mc2
 Applied Physicist (Inventor), apply your knowledge
through manipulation of existing laws and knowledge to
create technology.
 MEASUREMENT AND THE SCIENTIFIC
METHODS
 Science and Physics is the study of reproducible
phenomena.

 The study is usually through experimentation and

measurements must be taken and recorded in a way
comparable with other experiments.
 These measurements should be accurate, valid and
reliable.
 For measurements to be compared a standard system of
units has been established and is called the System
Internationale or SI units.
 MEASUREMENT AND THE SCIENTIFIC
METHODS

 The three fundamental mechanical quantities used

to describe the physical world are:
 mass,
 length and

 Time
Table 1.1: Basic physical quantities
Basic quantity Unit
Name Symbol
Mass kilogram kg
Length metre m
Time second s
Electric current Ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela Cd
Amount of substance
mole mol
 ACCURACY AND SIGNIFICANT DIGITS,
ROUNDING OFF

 All measurements are never exact!

 One therefore, needs to evaluate the degree of

uncertainty in the measurement.

 A common practice is to record the measurement

together with the probable range of uncertainty.

 For a given uncertainty, rounding off is very important,

e.g 36.5 ± 0.5 cm
ACCURACY AND SIGNIFICANT DIGITS, ROUNDING
OFF

 In experiments, where the final result is obtained by

combining the results of several measurements, each of
which has an associated error. The uncertainty in the
final results of any experiment must be obtained by
considering the uncertainties of the individual
measurements.
 A rough rule of thumb is that the final result should not
have more significant digits than the most uncertain
individual element.
 3.0 ± 0.2 m, 2.41 ± 0.02 m, and 0.6835 ± 0.0005 m.
The volume calculation would give 2.41 x 3.0 x 0.6835 =
4.941705 m3
ACCURACY AND SIGNIFICANT DIGITS, ROUNDING
OFF

 An alternative way to assess the errors in a result

which combines several measurements is to
calculate the percentage of uncertainty of each
measurement and add the percentage to obtain an
upper bound of the error in the result.
 Find the area of a floor with length and width of a
floor are 10.52 ± 0.04 m and 6.45 ± 0.08 m resp.
 Another way to calc the uncertainty in single valued
measurements is to calculate the average and
determine how each value differs from the mean.
ACCURACY AND SIGNIFICANT DIGITS, ROUNDING
OFF

 This method requires one to take a large number of

observations and use the formula;

 e.g, below are measurements of body temperature

taken under the tongue every minute are;
35.9, 36.2, 37.5, 36.0, 36.4, 36.6, 35.9, 36.7, 37.1, 37.0,
36.5, 36.5, 36.8, 36.3, 36.6, 36.9, 36.8, 37.2, 36.3 & 36.7
Calculate the average temperature and its error.
[NB: You will use this method in most of your lab work]
 Accuracy and Precision

 Accuracy  Precision
How close a measurement How close the measured
is to the acceptable/ values are to each other.
reference value.
 Accuracy and Precision

 Accuracy  Precision
High accuracy/low Low accuracy/high
precision usually results precision usually is a result
from random errors due to of default instrument,
environmental conditions systematic error.
or improper instrument
usage. Can be corrected by;
Can be corrected by;  Calibration of instrument.
 Altering conditions,
 Taking multiple readings
and averaging
Proper Use of Equipment
Calibration of Equipment
 Significant Digits

 Measurements have to be rationale (logical) and

they have to make “sense”.

 The measurement instrument usually tell us about

the degree to which one can specify the
measurement.

 As such, the number of significant digits in the

measurement are those given on the scale plus 1
estimate.
Significant Digits
 Significant Digits

 Knowing the figures which are significant allows one

to understand the degree of accuracy of the
instrument used (is it acceptable or not?, Can you
proceed with the process?).
 The last digit in the measurement is an estimate,
therefore the most uncertain!
 In order to be more accurate, we take several
measurements and calculate the mean (discussed
previously).
 However, there’s one problem, the answer is
numerically correct but physically exaggerated!
 Significant Digits
 Example,
You have taken the following 7 measurements of the
same length of a road on a map.
2.51 cm, 2.50 cm, 2.53 cm, 2.51 cm, 2.52 cm, 2.52 cm,
2.53 cm.

1. Calculate the mean.

2. Does it make sense?
3. Suppose the map has a scale of 1 cm = 2.5 km.
4. Calculate the actual distance.
5. At which point does it make sense?
 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

 Any two bodies separated by a distance of r will attract

each other with a force directly proportional to the
product of the masses of the bodies and inversely
proportional to the square of their distance apart. The
constant of proportionality, G, has a value of
0.0000000000667408 m3kg-1s-2.

 The bohr radius of the hydrogen atom is

0.0000000000529 m.

 This is tedious writing, thus need for a new system

called scientific notation.
 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION


SCIENTIFIC NOTATION & CONVERSION OF UNITS

 Express the number of cells and smallest cell in terms

of their prefixes.
Conversion of units
● Not every measurement can be taken in SI units.
● However, physics formulae is derived based on SI units,
thus one has to convert from one system to another.

 The task of conversion is made easier by carrying out

the conversion as a product, with the conversion factors
and their associated units treated like numerical factions.
 CONVERSION OF UNITS

 Example: A light ray is said to cover a distance of

300 000 000 m in just 1 second of its take-off. What
is its speed during this time in m/s and km/hr?
(recall s = d/t)
 MECHANICS

 The state of a mechanical system can be characterized

by its motion (or lack of it)
 The parameters which characterize this state can either
be;
1. Scalars (mass, energy, time, speed, distance)
2. Vectors (force, velocity, displacement, acceleration)
 The three main continuum in physics which deals with
mechanical systems are;
 Kinematics
 Statics, and
 Dynamics
 Scalars

 Scalars are just numbers.

 In Physics, they represent the size (or magnitude) of

physical quantities.

 For example, a journey from Harare to Mutare

(distance ~ 300 km) takes 3 hours, whilst light travels a
distance of 300,000 km in 1 sec.

 A current of 3 mA merely tingles, whilst a current of 3

A can kill you!
 Vectors

 Vectors on the other hand have an additional

property of directionality.

 For example,
 Mutare is 300 km due East of Harare.
 Light travels in a straight line from source in a specific direction.

 Direction can be specified by

i. Angle
ii. Cardinal points
iii. Coordinate system (i, j, k)
Properties of Vectors
Vector Algebra (1-D)
Vector Algebra (2-D)
Cartesian Coordinates
Polar Coordinates
 MECHANICS


 KINEMATICS

 Hence, one only needs to specify the speed (velocity),

distance (displacement), time and acceleration.

 Inorder to simplify the problem,

 one ignores any rotation,

 assumes a constant acceleration,

 motion occurs in a straight line,

 g is constant when object is falling under gravity.

 KINEMATICS: EQNS OF MOTION
1. Distance and
displacement
 Distance is a scalar
quantity, which describes
the total (complete) path
taken by an object from
an initial point to its final
point.

 Displacement is a vector
quantity and specifies the
shortest path followed by
an object and its direction
from the initial point to
the final point.
 KINEMATICS: EQNS OF MOTION

1. Speed & Velocity

● Speed is specified by two scalar quantities, i.e.
distance traveled per unit time, hence a scalar
quantity.

● Velocity is a vector quantity and is defined as the

rate of change of displacement.
 KINEMATICS: EQNS OF MOTION


 KINEMATICS: EQNS OF MOTION


 KINEMATICS: EQNS OF MOTION


 Projectile Motion

 The kinematics equations of motion derived thus far

are only for one dimensional motion, in this case, in
the horizontal direction perpendicular to the vertical
axis.
 For 1-D motion in the vertical direction, falling
objects in space or vertical rising objects (e.g
rockets) some adjustments needs to be done to
account for the effect of g(negative when motion is
upwards) and initial position.
Projectile Motion
Projectile motion
Maximum height of a projectile
 Time of Flight

 The time of flight of a

projectile which is
launched and impacted
on the same horizontal
surface is obtained by
first noting that the
vertical displacement is
zero, i.e (y – y0 = 0) and
solving the quadratic
equation in t.
 Trajectory

 The trajectory of a projectile gives the full path of the

projectile motion from launch to impact.
 The information obtained from the trajectory is the
position and direction of the projectile at any point in
its motion.
 Velocity and acceleration of the projectile at any
specific point in the path can be determined if one
knows the time duration for the motion to reach that
point.
Trajetory
 CAUSES OF MOTION

 The two fields of mechanics which deals with

causes of motion are, statics and dynamics.
● Inorder to understand the behavior of moving objects,
one needs to first understand Newton’s Laws of
motion.
a. Newton's 1st law
● An object will remain at rest or uniform motion in a
straight line unless some net external force acts
upon it.
 CAUSES OF MOTION

 This law is sometimes called the law of inertia.

 Inertia is the reluctance of any body to move.
 Consequently, this defines mass – measurement of
inertia.
b. Newton’s 2nd Law
● Acceleration acquired by a body is directly
proportional to the force and inversely proportional
to its mass.
F = ma
Fundamental equation of motion
 CAUSES OF MOTION


 CAUSES OF MOTION

c. Newton’s 3rd Law

● For every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
● This implies that forces seldom act singly, rather
they exist in pairs.
● If the forces are such that they balance, i.e, their
vector sum is zero, then they are said to be in
equilibrium.
2. The study of forces in equilibrium (at rest) is called
statics.
 Statics: Conditions for Equilibrium

 We can only guarantee that all the forces acting on a

body are balanced if and only if;
1. The net force (translational) = 0 (no acceleration)
Translational forces cause motion in a plane (non-
rotational motion) such that the object moves in a
straight line.
2. The net torque (rotational) = 0 (no rotation)
The turning effect of a force is called torque. A
torque results in the rotation of an object about an axis.
is the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation.┴
where r┴Torque, τ = Fr
 Equilibrium

 A system can also be in a state of dynamic

equilibrium.

 In dynamic equilibrium a system or object will move

with constant velocity (‫ ؞‬a = 0).
 Statics

Find T1 and T2
 Never lift a weight with your back! Use your legs!
 Consider the person lifting
a heavy box with his back,
a) Calculate the magnitude
of the force FB – in the
back muscles that is
needed to support the
upper body plus the box
and compare this with
his weight. The mass of
the upper body is 55.0 kg
and the mass of the box
is 30.0 kg.
b) Calculate the magnitude
and direction of the
force FV – exerted by the
vertebrae on the spine at
the indicated pivot point.
 CAUSES OF MOTION

 The study of forces and the associated changes in

motion is called dynamics
 Forces acting on living things can create motion, be a
healthy stimulus for growth and development, or
overload tissues causing injury.
 Dynamics provides us with quantitative knowledge of
the magnitude, direction and point of application of the
force.
 Human movement, sports medicine and treatment can
all be understood from dynamics of the human body.
 Dynamics

 Newton’s first and second laws of motion provide

information about the forces on a moving object.
 As mentioned before, Newton’s first law of motion is
called the law of inertia.
 In all dynamical systems which obey Newton's 1st
law (that is systems under constant velocity), there
is a reference frame from which the motion is
described.
 This reference frame is called “inertial reference
frame”.
 Dynamics

 By definition, an inertial reference frame is a

reference frame in which Newton’s first law is valid.
 A reference frame moving at constant velocity
relative to an inertial frame is also inertial. A
reference frame accelerating relative to an inertial
frame is not inertial.
 Thus an inertial reference frame (and consequently
Newton’s first law) describes a system in dynamic in
dynamic equilibrium, net force = 0.
 However, for Newton’s 2nd law net force ≠ 0, hence
we have acceleration.
 Dynamics

 Suppose you have two drivers driving different cars

travelling at a constant velocity. Suppose car A is
travelling at a speed of 60 km/hr and car B is
travelling at 80 km/hr. The driver in car A has a
mass of 82 kg and that in car B has a mass of 58 kg.
a. If both drivers are forced to come to stop in 10
seconds, who is at greatest risk? Calculate the risk
(i.e, force of impact) for both drivers.
b. Repeat the analysis if both drivers are to
immediately come to rest, i.e in a car crash.