Measurement Lab Report _241211_091940 (1)

Title:Measurement and
uncertainty
#Abstract
The laboratory experiment on
measurement and uncertainty is a
fundamental aspect of
scientific inquiry, as it allows
researchers to understand the
limitations and variability of their
measurements. In this
experiment, it is typically tasked
with measuring various physical
quantities such as length, mass,
and time using different tools and
techniques.
One of the key concepts explored
in this experiment is the idea of
uncertainty or error in
measurements. Uncertainty arises
due to various factors such as
limitations of the measuring
instruments, human error in
reading the instruments, and
inherent variability in the physical
quantities being measured.
Understanding and quantifying
this uncertainty is crucial for
interpreting experimental results
and drawing meaningful
conclusion
# Objective(s) of the Experiment
In this experiment you will:-:-
�practice estimating distance,
mass and time interval,
�practice how to use vernier
calipers and micrometer screw
gauges,
�make basic length, mass, and
time measurements with
increasing precisions,
�make calculations of volume
and density.
#Theory
In physics, measurements,
observations, and data analysis
are equally important as theory
and conceptualiza-tion in order to
understand and describe how
things work.
Basic measurements and
observations require the use of
measuring devices like the meter
stick, vernier calipers, the
micrometer, beam or digital
balances, analog or digital timers.
Data analysis is done using
formulas for obtaining derived
quantities and using statistics for
calculating averages and errors.
All measurements have errors and
uncertainties, no matter how
sophisticated the measuring
instrument is and
no matter how hard the
experimenter attempts to minimize
them. Understanding and
managing the sources of errors
and controlling uncertainties are
crucial in drawing valid and strong
conclusions from the outcomes of
experimental data analyses.
In addition to measurement
uncertainties, calculations
introduce uncertainties in the
results. Below, the major concepts
in measurements and handling
uncertainties will be discussed in
two parts: the first part focuses on
measurements and units; the
second part deals with the nature
of error and uncertainty.
A) Measurements and Units
Scientific measurements normally
use metric units. The International
System of Units (SI) is a modern
form of the metric system based
on units of ten.
LENGTH: The meter
The meter (m) is the basic SI unit
of length. Since 1983, the meter
has been defined as the distance
travelled by
light in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458
of a second.
There are three commonly used
instruments for measuring length
in the physics lab: the meter stick
(or simple
ruler), the vernier calipers and the
micrometer screw gauge.
MASS: The Kilogram
The kilogram (kg) is the SI unit of
mass. In the lab, we usually work
with the gram (g) which
represents one-
thousandth of a kilogram, and with
the milligram (mg) which equals
one-thousandth of a gram.
To read the mass value on the
triple beam balance start with the
middle scale, then read from the
upper scale and finally read from
the lower scale.
TIME: The Second
The second (s) is the basic SI unit
of time. In the physics lab we use
analog or digital stopwatches to
measure
time intervals.
Volume
The basic unit of volume used in
the science lab is the liter (L). A
fraction of the liter is the milliliter
(mL) which
is one-thousandth of a liter (0.001
L).
Density
Density can be calculated from
measured values of mass and
volume using the formula:
ρ =m/V (The SI unit is kg/m3)
Volume can also be calculated

from other measurements. For
example, for a right cylinder:
V = πr2ℓ =
1
4
πd2ℓ
where:r= radius,d= diameter,ℓ=
length andπ= ratio of
circumference to diameter (≈22/7).
Combining the
two euaton we obtain a density
forula interms of measurale
quantities
ρ =4m/πd2ℓ
The densities of liquids are usually
reported in grams per milliliter
(g/mL). The densities of solids are
usually reported in grams per
cubic centimeter (g/cm3). The
density of water is 1 g/mL.
Substances with densities less
than 1 g/mL will float on water.
Other densities: Aluminum = 2.70
g/cm3, Iron=7.85g/cm3, Lead =
11.35 g/cm3,
Gold = 19.30 g/cm3.
B) The Nature of Error and
Uncertainty
C) Error
Error is defined as the difference
between an observed value and a
true value.
Error=observed value−true value
The observed value is either a
result of direct measurement or a
calculated value using
other measured values in a
formula. The “true”value exists but
is unknown.Then how can one
determine the error in
measurement?
The goal of measurement is to
estimate the true value of a
physical constant using
experimental methods.
D) Sources Error
Measurement errors can arise
from three possible origins: the
measuring device, the
measurement procedure,
and the measured quantity
itself. Usually the largest of these
errors will determine the
uncertainty in the data.
Errors can be divided into two
different types:
Systematic errors: Arise from
procedures, instruments, bias or
ignorance. Systematic errors bias
every mea-surement in the same
direction, that is, they will cause
your measurement to consistently
be higher or lower than the
accepted value.
Random errors: Uncontrollable
differences between
measurements because of
environment, equipment, or other
sources, no matter how well
designed and calibrated the tools
are.Random errors are unbiased
small variations that have both
positive and negative values.
Random errors can be estimated
from sta-tistical repetition. In
general, making multiple
measurements and averaging can
reduce the effect of random
errors.
#Note: Any measurement is
reported by including an estimate
of the random uncertainty. If we
measure a time of 7.6 s and
expect a random error of about
0.2 s, we write the result as t
=(7.6±0.2) s where± indicates the
random uncertainty is unbiased.
Fluctuations
Fluctuations are other contributors
to uncertainty that are not
classified as an experimental
error’, but still represent
differences between measured
and a true values. Fluctuations
indicate the variability in a mea-
surement from its average due to
some physical process. They are
not random errors in the same
sense as above. Example: the
number of air molecules in an
open glass fluctuates not because
of a random error but
because of the physical process
of molecular motion into and out
of the glass.
E) Accuracy vs. Precision
In physics, there are two distinct
and independent aspects of
measurement related to
uncertainties:
Accuracy: refers to the closeness
of a measured value to the true
(standard or known) value. It
describes how well we eliminate
systematic error. Example: if you
measure the weight of a given
substance as 3.2kg, but the actual
or known weight is 10 kg, then
your measurement is not
accurate. In this case, your
measurement is not close to the
known value.
Precision: refers to the closeness
of two or more measurements to
each other without referring to the
‘true’ value. It describes how
well we suppress random errors.
Example: if you weigh a given
substance five times, and get 3.2
kg each time, then your
measurement is very precise
Precision and accuracy are
independent. A measurement can
be precise but inaccurate, or
accurate but impre-cise.
F) Notation of Uncertainties
Letδxrepresent the magnitude of
the absolute uncertainty of a
measurement inxin the same
units. The result is then expressed
asx±δx.
G) Estimating Uncertainties
We will now discuss three
approximation techniques to
estimate uncertainties.
*upper bound of the uncertainty
is an amount equal to half of the
smallest division (least count) that
can be unambiguously read from
the device.
Estimation from the Spread
Find the interval around the mean
(¯x) that contains about 68% of
the measured points: half the size
of this interval (34%) is a good
estimate of the uncertainty in each
measurement.
Square-Root Estimation in
Counting
For inherently random
phenomena that involve counting
individual events or occurrences,
we measure only a single
numberN. The (absolute)
uncertainty of such a single
measurement is estimated as the
square root of N, that is, a
counting measurement is
expressed asN±√N.
H) Quantifying Uncertainties
Experimental precision requires
using statistics to quantify random
errors.
I) Error Propagation
-Measurement is a fundamental
aspect of scientific
experimentation, enabling the
quantification of physical
properties. However, all
measurements contain some
degree of uncertainty due to
limitations in measurement tools
and techniques. This report aims
to explore the concept of
measurement and uncertainty,
accurately
quantify uncertainties, and discuss
their implications in experimental
results.
#Equipment
Meter Stick or Metric Ruler :-to
measure the
dimensions of the objects
Vernier Caliper :- to measure the
dimensions. &
diameter of the objects.
Triple-beam balance:-to measure
the mass of the objects .
Graduated Cylinder, 25 mL:-to
calculate cylindrical volume .
Stopwatch-digital :-to measure the
time of rolling .
Rectangular block:-used as an
object .
Cylindrical Blocks (copper and
aluminum) :-as object .
#Procedure/ Data Collection
1.Estimate the dimensions of the
rectangular block.
2.Measure the dimensions of the
rectangular block using the meter
stick or ruler three times
3. Estimate the diameters of the
copper and aluminum cylindrical
blocks.
4. Measure the dimensions of
each cylindrical block using the
vernier calipers three times.
5. Calculate the volumes of each

object (rectangular block &
cylindrical block).
. Measure the volumes of the
objects using the graduated
cylinder. Compare measured
values with calculated values in
Step 5.
6. Estimate the masses of the
copper and aluminum cylinders.
7. Measure the mass of each
cylinder using the triple beam
balance at least three times.
8. Calculate the density of copper
and aluminum from your
measurements.
9.Roll one of the cylinders across

a a specific distance marked off
on the lab table. First estimate
and then measure the time taken
by the cylinder using the digital
stopwatch at least three times.
Data Analysis and Results

# Discussion
The results exhibit the principle
that every measurement carries
an inherent uncertainty. In this
experiment,uncertainty arises
from various factors, such as
instrumental precision and human
error. The calculated uncertainties
reflect the potential variation in
measurements.
# Conclusion
This experiment demonstrates the
importance of accurately
measuring physical properties and
calculating associated
uncertainties. Recognizing the
limitations of measurement tools
and techniques enhances the
scientific accuracy of reported
data. Future experiments should
emphasize reducing uncertainties
through better methods and
repeated trials.
Recommendation
The use of more accurate and up-
to-date measuring instruments will
greatly help in generating more
accurate and precise
measurements. This will not only
make the measuring process
effective but will also reduce
ambiguity and confusion for the
person performing the experiment.
Answer for post-lab Questions
1,Because accurately estimating
length, time, and mass is
fundamental across various
dimensions of life and work. It
influences safety, efficiency,
quality, and scientific credibility.
Emphasizing precision in
measurements ensures improved
outcomes, reliability in results, and
overall effectiveness in processes.
2,done in the analysis
3,Disregarding the highest and
lowest data points when taking the
average helps mitigate the effects
of outliers, leading to a more
accurate and representative
measure of central tendency. This
practice enhances the validity and
reliability of the data analysis,
ultimately contributing to better
decision-making and
understanding of the underlying
phenomena.
4,Averages are considered more
accurate than individual
measurements due to their ability
to minimize random errors and
provide a more reliable estimate
of the true value. Relying on
averages helps improve data
quality and reduces the influence
of outliers, leading to better
decision-making and analysis in
scientific, engineering, and
practical applications.
5,To minimize unacceptable
measurement errors with a worn
ruler, start your measurements
from a clearly identifiable mark
rather than the worn ends. Ensure
proper alignment and consider
taking multiple readings to
improve accuracy. These
practices will help enhance the
reliability of your measurements
despite the ruler's condition.
6,Meter Stick:
-minor mark:0.1cm
major:7.15cm
Vernier calipers
Minor:0.02mm
Major:31.10mm
Micro screw gauge
Minor:0.01mm
Major:3.90mm
Triple beam balance
Minor:0.01g
Major :290.2g
## References
1. Serway, R. A. and Vuille C.
2.Author A. and Author B. (2003).

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Title:Measurement and

Volume can also be calculated

5. Calculate the volumes of each

9.Roll one of the cylinders across

Data Analysis and Results

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