Que – 1(a) Explain the concept of FEM briefly and outline the procedure.

Ans The Finite Element Method (FEM) is a numerical technique used for solving
complex structural engineering problems. It allows engineers to approximate the
behaviour of structures under various conditions by breaking down a large, complex
system into smaller, simpler parts called finite elements. Each of these elements can
be analysed separately and then assembled to form the overall solution.
Concept of FEM
1. Discretization: The structure or continuum is divided into a finite number of small,
manageable parts called elements. The collection of these elements is known as
the mesh. Each element is connected to adjacent elements at points called nodes.
2. Selection of Element Type: Depending on the problem, different types of
elements (such as 1D elements like bars, 2D elements like triangles or
quadrilaterals, and 3D elements like tetrahedrons or hexahedrons) are chosen.
3. Derivation of Element Equations: Mathematical equations that describe the
behaviour of each element are derived. These typically involve relationships
between nodal displacements, element stiffness, and external forces.
4. Assembly of Global System: The individual element equations are assembled
into a global system of equations that represents the entire structure.
5. Application of Boundary Conditions: The boundary conditions (constraints and
loads) are applied to the global system. This step is crucial for the accuracy and
relevance of the solution.
6. Solution of Equations: The global system of equations is solved using numerical
methods to find the unknown nodal displacements. From these displacements,
other quantities of interest such as strains and stresses can be derived.
7. Post-Processing: The results are interpreted and visualized. This involves
evaluating the accuracy of the solution, and checking for stresses, displacements,
and other critical factors to ensure that the design meets the required performance
criteria.
FEM Procedure
1. Preprocessing:
 Define the geometry of the structure.
 Discretize the structure into finite elements (mesh generation).
 Select the appropriate type of element based on the problem.
 Assign material properties to each element.
 Define boundary conditions and external loads.
2. Element Formulation:
 Derive the stiffness matrix for each element using shape functions and material
properties.
 Establish the relationship between nodal displacements and element forces.
3. Assembly:
 Assemble the global stiffness matrix by summing the contributions from individual
element matrices.
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 Assemble the global force vector by considering the applied loads.
4. Application of Boundary Conditions:
 Modify the global stiffness matrix and force vector to incorporate the boundary
conditions (e.g., fixed supports, applied loads).
5. Solution of the Global System:
 Solve the global system of linear algebraic equations to obtain the nodal
displacements.
6. Post-Processing:
 Calculate element strains and stresses using the nodal displacements.
 Visualize the results through contour plots, deformation shapes, and other
graphical representations.
 Check the results for accuracy and validate against expected physical behaviour
or experimental data.
Example
Consider a simple 2D truss structure:
1. Preprocessing:
 Geometry: Define the nodes and elements connecting them.
 Mesh: Create elements between nodes.
 Material Properties: Assign Young's modulus and cross-sectional area.
 Boundary Conditions: Fix certain nodes and apply loads to others.
2. Element Formulation:
 Derive the element stiffness matrix for each truss element using its length, material
properties, and orientation.
3. Assembly:
 Combine the element stiffness matrices to form the global stiffness matrix.
4. Application of Boundary Conditions:
 Apply boundary conditions by modifying the global stiffness matrix and force
vector.
5. Solution:
 Solve the global equations to find nodal displacements.
6. Post-Processing:
 Calculate axial forces in each element.
 Visualize deformation and check for overstressed elements.

Que – 1(b) Find out deflection at centre of a simply supported beam of length
(L) subjected to a concentrated load W. Use Rayleigh Ritz method. Take EI is
constant.
Ans The Rayleigh-Ritz method is a powerful technique for approximating the solution
of complex problems in structural mechanics. It is particularly useful when dealing
with problems involving beams, plates, and shells. In this case, we'll apply the
Rayleigh-Ritz method to find the deflection at the centre of a simply supported beam

2
of length L subjected to a concentrated load W at its centre. The beam has a constant
flexural rigidity EI.
Rayleigh-Ritz Method
1. Assume an Appropriate Deflection Shape Function: Since the beam is simply
supported, we choose a deflection shape function that satisfies the boundary
conditions at x=0 and x=L (i.e., the deflection w(0)=0 and w(L)=0).
A suitable shape function for a simply supported beam is :
𝝅𝒙
w(x) = a Sin( ) where a is an unknown coefficient to be determined.
𝑳
2. Potential Energy of the System: The total potential energy Π of the system is the
sum of the strain energy U in the beam and the work done by the external load W:
Π=𝑈−V
where U is the strain energy given by:
𝑳
𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝝎
𝑼= 𝑬𝑰 𝒅𝒙
𝟐 𝒅𝒙𝟐
𝟎
and 𝑉Vis the potential energy of the load 𝑊W given by:
𝑳
𝑉=𝑊𝑤(
𝟐
3. Strain Energy Calculation: First, compute the second derivative of 𝑤(𝑥):
𝒅𝟐 𝝎 𝝅 𝟐 𝝅𝒙
= −𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝑳 𝑳
Then, the strain energy 𝑈U becomes:
𝑳
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝝅 𝝅𝒙
𝑼= 𝑬𝑰 −𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒅𝒙
𝟐 𝑳 𝑳
𝟎
Simplifying,
𝑳 𝟐 𝑳
𝟏 𝝅𝟐 𝝅𝒙
𝑼= 𝑬𝑰 𝒂𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝑳
𝟎 𝟎
Using the integral result:
𝑳
𝝅𝒙 𝑳
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒅𝒙 =
𝟎
𝑳 𝟐
We get:
𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
𝝅𝟐
𝑼 = 𝑬𝑰𝒂
𝟐 𝑳𝟐
𝑬𝑰𝝅𝟒
𝑼= 𝒂𝟐
𝟐𝑳𝟑

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4. Potential Energy of the Load: The deflection at the centre 𝑥=𝐿/2
𝑤(𝐿/2) = 𝑎 sin(𝜋/2)=𝑎
Thus, the potential energy of the load V is:
𝑉=𝑊𝑎
5. Total Potential Energy: The total potential energy Π is:
𝑬𝑰𝝅𝟒
Π=
𝟐𝑳𝟑
𝒂𝟐 - Wa
6. Minimize the Total Potential Energy: To find the coefficient 𝑎a, we set the
derivative of Π with respect to 𝑎a to zero:
𝒅𝜫 𝑬𝑰 ⋅ 𝝅𝟒
= 𝒂−𝑾=𝟎
𝒅𝒂 𝑳𝟑
Solving for a,
𝑾𝑳𝟑
𝒂=
𝑬𝑰𝝅𝟒
7. Deflection at the Centre: The deflection at the centre x=L/2 is:
𝑳 𝑾𝑳𝟑
𝒘 =𝒂=
𝟐 𝑬𝑰𝝅𝟒
Thus, the deflection at the centre of the simply supported beam under a concentrated
load W using the Rayleigh-Ritz method is:
𝑳 𝑾𝑳𝟑
𝒘 =
𝟐 𝑬𝑰𝝅𝟒

Que -2(a) Derive the equations of equilibrium in case of a three-dimensional

stress system.
Ans The equations of equilibrium for a three-dimensional stress system are derived
from the principles of static equilibrium. These equations ensure that the sum of forces
and moments acting on any infinitesimal volume element of a material is zero,
indicating that the element is in a state of static equilibrium.
Equilibrium of Forces
Consider a small cubic element with side lengths dx, dy, and dz in a three-dimensional
Cartesian coordinate system. The normal stresses acting on the faces of the cube are
denoted by σxx, σyy, and σzz, while the shear stresses are denoted by 𝜏𝑥𝑦, 𝜏𝑥𝑧,
𝜏𝑦𝑥, 𝜏𝑦𝑧, 𝜏𝑧𝑥, and 𝜏𝑧𝑦. Note that for equilibrium, the shear stresses on perpendicular
faces are equal, i.e., 𝜏𝑥𝑦=𝜏𝑦𝑥, 𝜏𝑥𝑧=𝜏𝑧𝑥, and 𝜏𝑦𝑧=𝜏𝑧𝑦.
Summation of Forces
In the x-Direction
The forces due to normal stress σxx on the x-faces are:
 On the face at x: 𝜎𝑥𝑥⋅𝑑𝑦⋅𝑑𝑧

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 𝝏𝝈𝒙𝒙
 On the face at 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥: (𝜎𝑥𝑥+ 𝑑𝑥)𝑑𝑦⋅𝑑𝑧 The net force in the x-direction
𝝏𝒙
due to normal stress is:
The net force in the x-direction due to normal stress is:
𝝏𝝈𝒙𝒙 𝝏𝝈𝒙𝒙
(𝜎𝑥𝑥+ 𝑑𝑥)𝑑𝑦⋅𝑑𝑧 – 𝑥𝑥dy.dz = 𝑑𝑥.dy.dz
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙
The forces due to shear stresses 𝜏𝑥𝑦 and 𝜏𝑥𝑧 are similarly calculated on their
respective faces.
Summing up the forces in the x-direction and including the body force 𝑓𝑥 per unit
volume, we get:
𝝏𝝈𝒙𝒙 𝝏𝝉𝒙𝒚 𝝏𝝉𝒙𝒛
𝑑𝑥.dy.dz + 𝑑𝑥.dy.dz + 𝑑𝑥.dy.dz + 𝑓x .dx⋅dy⋅dz =0
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
Dividing by the volume 𝑑𝑥⋅𝑑𝑦⋅𝑑𝑧, we obtain:
𝝏𝝈𝒙𝒙 𝝏𝝉𝒙𝒚 𝝏𝝉𝒙𝒛
+ + + 𝒇𝒙 = 𝟎
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
In the y-Direction
Similarly, considering the forces in the y-direction:
𝝏𝝈𝒚𝒚 𝝏𝝉𝒚𝒙 𝝏𝝉𝒚𝒛
𝑑𝑥.dy.dz + 𝑑𝑥.dy.dz + 𝑑𝑥.dy.dz + 𝑓y .dx⋅dy⋅dz =0
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒛
Dividing by the volume 𝑑𝑥⋅𝑑𝑦⋅𝑑𝑧, we obtain:
𝝏𝝈𝒚𝒚 𝝏𝝉𝒚𝒙 𝝏𝝉𝒚𝒛
+ + + 𝒇𝒚 = 𝟎
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒛

In the z-Direction
Similarly, considering the forces in the z-direction:
𝝏𝝈𝒛𝒛 𝝏𝝉𝒛𝒙 𝝏𝝉𝒛𝒚
𝑑𝑥.dy.dz + 𝑑𝑥.dy.dz + 𝑑𝑥.dy.dz + 𝑓z .dx⋅dy⋅dz =0
𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

Dividing by the volume 𝑑𝑥⋅𝑑𝑦⋅𝑑𝑧, we obtain:

𝝏𝝈𝒛𝒛 𝝏𝝉𝒛𝒙 𝝏𝝉𝒛𝒚
+ + + 𝒇𝒛 = 𝟎
𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒛
Equilibrium of Moments
For static equilibrium, the moments of any axis must also sum to zero. However, for
simplicity in the case of small deformations and linear elasticity, these conditions are
often inherently satisfied due to the symmetry of the stress tensor, i.e., 𝜏𝑥𝑦=𝜏𝑦𝑥 ,
𝜏𝑥𝑧=𝜏𝑧𝑥 , and 𝜏𝑦𝑧=𝜏𝑧𝑦 .
Summary of Equations of Equilibrium
The final form of the equilibrium equations in a three-dimensional stress system is:

5
 𝝏𝝈𝒙𝒙 𝝏𝝉𝒙𝒚 𝝏𝝉𝒙𝒛
+ + + 𝒇𝒙 = 𝟎
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝝏𝝈𝒚𝒚 𝝏𝝉𝒚𝒙 𝝏𝝉𝒚𝒛
+ + + 𝒇𝒚 = 𝟎
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒛
𝝏𝝈𝒛𝒛 𝝏𝝉𝒛𝒙 𝝏𝝉𝒛𝒚
+ + + 𝒇𝒛 = 𝟎
𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒛
These equations represent the conditions for static equilibrium of a three-dimensional
stress system in the presence of body forces 𝑓𝑥, 𝑓𝑦, and 𝑓𝑧.

Que -2 (b) State and explain the principle of minimum potential energy.
Principle of Minimum Potential Energy
The Principle of Minimum Potential Energy is a fundamental concept in the field of
structural mechanics and continuum mechanics. It states that among all possible
displacement configurations that satisfy the boundary conditions of a structure, the
actual displacement configuration is the one that minimizes the total potential energy
of the system.
Explanation
The total potential energy (Π) of a system is the sum of the strain energy stored in the
structure due to deformation and the potential energy of the external loads applied to
it.
Mathematically, this can be expressed as:
Π=𝑈−𝑉
where:
 U is the strain energy stored in the structure.
 V is the potential energy due to the external loads.
Strain Energy (U)
The strain energy 𝑈U is the energy stored in the material due to deformation. For a
linear elastic material, it can be expressed as:
𝟏
𝑈 = ∫𝑽 𝝈𝒊𝒋𝝐𝒊𝒋 𝑑𝑉
𝟐
where:
 𝜎𝑖𝑗 is the stress tensor.
 𝜖𝑖𝑗 is the strain tensor.
 𝑉 is the volume of the structure.
Potential Energy of External Loads (V)
The potential energy 𝑉V due to external loads is the work done by these loads. For a
set of concentrated loads, it can be expressed as:
𝑉=∑𝒊 𝑷𝒊𝒖𝒊
where:
 Pi are the external forces.

6
  ui are the displacements at the points of application of these forces.
For distributed loads, the expression would be:
⬚ ⬚
𝑉=∫𝒗 𝒇𝒖.𝑑𝑉+∫𝒔 𝒕𝒖 .𝑑𝑆
where:
 f is the body force per unit volume.
 t is the traction (surface force) per unit area.
 u is the displacement vector.
 S is the surface over which the traction is applied.
Principle Statement
The principle of minimum potential energy states that the equilibrium configuration of
a deformable body is the one that makes the total potential energy ΠΠ a minimum.
Application
1. Deriving Equilibrium Equations: By applying the calculus of variations to the total
potential energy, we can derive the governing equilibrium equations of the system.
The condition for minimum potential energy is: 𝛿Π=0
where δΠ is the variation of the total potential energy. This leads to the Euler-
Lagrange equations, which are the equilibrium equations for the system.
2. Finite Element Method (FEM): The principle is extensively used in the finite
element method. In FEM, an approximate displacement field is assumed, and the
potential energy is minimized with respect to the assumed displacements. This
results in a set of algebraic equations that can be solved for the unknown
displacements.
Example
Consider a simple case of a cantilever beam subjected to a tip load P at its free end.
The total potential energy Π of the system is the sum of the strain energy due to
bending and the potential energy of the load.
1. Strain Energy:
𝟐
𝟏 𝑳 𝒅𝟐 𝝎
𝑈= ∫ 𝑬𝑰 𝒅𝒙
𝟐 𝟎 𝒅𝟐𝒙
where 𝐸𝐼EI is the flexural rigidity of the beam, and 𝑤(𝑥)w(x) is the transverse
displacement.
2. Potential Energy of the Load: 𝑉=𝑃𝑤(𝐿)
3. Total Potential Energy:
𝟐
𝟏 𝑳 𝒅𝟐 𝝎
𝜫= ∫
𝟐 𝟎
𝑬𝑰 𝒅𝟐𝒙
𝒅𝒙 + 𝑃𝑤(𝐿)
To find the equilibrium configuration, we assume an appropriate displacement
function 𝑤(𝑥), substitute it into Π, and minimize Π with respect to the parameters of
the assumed function.

7
3 (a) State and explain the convergence requirements of polynomial shape
functions.
Ans In the context of the Finite Element Method (FEM), polynomial shape functions
are used to approximate the displacement field within an element. For the numerical
solution to converge to the true solution as the mesh is refined, certain requirements
must be met by these shape functions. These requirements are known as the
convergence requirements of polynomial shape functions and include completeness,
compatibility (or continuity), and sometimes smoothness. Here's a detailed
explanation of these requirements:
1. Completeness
The shape functions must be able to represent constant, linear, and higher-order
polynomial fields exactly within each element. This ensures that the finite element
approximation can exactly represent the rigid body motions and constant strains. For
example, for a polynomial shape function of degree 𝑝p:
𝒏
 Zeroth-degree (constant): ∑𝒊 𝟏 𝑵𝒊 =1
𝒏 𝒏
 First-degree (linear): ∑𝒊 𝟏 𝑵𝒊 𝒙𝒊 =x , ∑𝒊 𝟏 𝑵𝒊 𝒚𝒊 = 𝒚 for a 2D element
 Higher degrees: Include quadratic, cubic, etc., depending on the degree of the
polynomial used.
2. Compatibility (Continuity)
The shape functions must ensure that the displacement field is continuous across
element boundaries. This means that there should be no gaps or jumps in the
displacement field at the nodes shared by adjacent elements. The compatibility
requirement ensures that the displacement field across the entire mesh remains
continuous.
For instance, in a 1D problem, if ui and uj are the displacements at the ends of two
adjacent elements, the shape functions Ni and Nj should be such that:
 𝑁𝑖(𝑥)=𝑁𝑗(𝑥) at the common node, ensuring continuous displacement.
3. Smoothness (Differentiability)
For problems involving higher-order derivatives, such as those involving bending of
beams and plates (which require second-order derivatives), the shape functions
should also ensure a certain degree of smoothness or differentiability. This
requirement is especially important in the context of plate and shell elements.
For example, in the case of beam elements, 𝐶1 continuity (continuity of first
derivatives) is required to ensure that both displacement and slope are continuous at
the element boundaries. This means the shape functions should be such that:
 ∂𝑁𝑖/∂𝑥 are continuous across the element boundaries.
Summary of Convergence Requirements
1. Completeness: The shape functions must be able to represent the complete
polynomial space up to a certain degree to accurately capture the displacement
and strain fields.

8
2. Compatibility (Continuity): The shape functions must ensure the continuity of the
displacement field across the boundaries of adjacent elements, ensuring no gaps
or overlaps.
3. Smoothness (Differentiability): For certain problems, the shape functions must
also ensure continuity of derivatives to accurately model bending and other higher-
order effects.
Practical Implications
When designing polynomial shape functions for FEM, these convergence
requirements guide the selection and formulation of the functions. For example:
 Linear Shape Functions: These ensure continuity of displacement but not of
derivatives. They are suitable for problems where C0 continuity is sufficient.
 Quadratic and Higher-Order Shape Functions: These can provide better
accuracy and smoother solutions by including higher-degree terms, thus capturing
curvature and higher-order effects more accurately.
Ensuring these requirements are met is crucial for the FEM solution to converge to
the true solution as the mesh is refined (i.e., as the element size decreases and/or
the polynomial order increases). This convergence guarantees that the numerical
solution will accurately represent the physical behaviour of the system being
modelled.

Que – 3(b) Derive the expression for shape function for a two nodes bar element
taking natural coordinate as varying from -1 to 1.
Ans To derive the shape functions for a two-node bar element using natural
coordinates that vary from −1 to 1, we will follow these steps:
1. Define the Element and Coordinates:
 Consider a one-dimensional bar element with two nodes.
 Let the natural coordinate ξ range from −1 to 1.
 Node 1 corresponds to ξ=−1 and Node 2 corresponds to ξ=1.
2. Formulate the Shape Functions:
 The shape functions N1(ξ) and N2(ξ) should satisfy the following conditions:
𝑁1(−1)=1, 𝑁1(1)=0
𝑁2(−1)=0, 𝑁2(1)=1
3.Linear Interpolation:
 Since we are using a linear element, the shape functions will be linear polynomials
in ξ.
 We can assume the general form of the shape functions as:
N1(ξ) = a1ξ+b1
N2(ξ) = a2ξ+b2
4.Determine the Coefficients:
 Apply the boundary conditions to determine the coefficients for N1(ξ):
For N1(ξ):

9
 N1(−1)=a1(−1)+b1=1
N1(1)=a1(1)+b1=0
Solving these equations:
−a1+b1=1
a1+b1=0
Adding the equations: 2b1=1⟹b1=1/2
Subtracting the equations: 2𝑎1=−1 ⟹ 𝑎1=−1/2
Therefore, the shape function N1(ξ) is:
𝑁1(𝜉)=−1/2𝜉+1/2
𝑁1(𝜉)=1/2(1−𝜉)
Apply the boundary conditions to determine the coefficients for N2(ξ):
For N2(ξ):
𝑁2(−1)=𝑎2(−1)+𝑏2=0
𝑁2(1)=𝑎2(1)+𝑏2=1
Solving these equations:
−𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 0
𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 1
Adding the equations: 2𝑏2=1 ⟹ 𝑏2=1/2
Subtracting the equations: 2𝑎2=1 ⟹ 𝑎2=1/2
Therefore, the shape function N2(ξ) is:
𝑁2(𝜉)=1/2𝜉+1/2
𝑁2(𝜉)=1/2(1+𝜉)
Summary of Shape Functions
The shape functions for a two-node bar element in natural coordinates ξ ranging from
−1 to 1 are:
𝑁1(𝜉)=1/2(1−𝜉)
𝑁2(𝜉)=1/2(1+𝜉)
These shape functions 𝑁1(𝜉) and 𝑁2(𝜉) satisfy the necessary conditions and ensure
that the displacement field within the element is a linear interpolation of the nodal
displacements.

Que - 5(a) Explain the terms isoparametric, subparametric and superparametric

elements.
Ans In the Finite Element Method (FEM), the terms isoparametric, subparametric,
and superparametric refer to the relationship between the interpolation of the
geometry and the interpolation of the field variables (such as displacements,
temperatures, etc.) within an element. Here's an explanation of each term:
1. Isoparametric Elements
Isoparametric elements use the same shape functions for both the geometry
(coordinates) and the field variables. This means that the same polynomial functions

10
are used to interpolate the nodal coordinates as well as the displacements (or other
field variables).
Characteristics:
 The shape functions used to interpolate the element's geometry are identical to
those used for the field variables.
 Ensures that the mapping from the natural coordinate system to the actual
coordinate system is consistent.
 Facilitates easier integration and formulation of the element stiffness matrix since
the same functions and coordinates are used for both geometry and fields.
2. Subparametric Elements
Subparametric elements use lower-order polynomials to interpolate the geometry
than the polynomials used to interpolate the field variables. This means the shape
functions for the geometry have a lower degree compared to those for the field
variables.
Characteristics:
 The geometry is represented using lower-order shape functions.
 Useful when the geometry is simple, but the field variables require higher-order
interpolation for accuracy.
 Computationally less intensive for geometry but more complex for field variables.
Example:
For a cubic element, the geometry might be interpolated using linear shape functions,
while the field variables are interpolated using quadratic shape functions.
3. Superparametric Elements
Superparametric elements use higher-order polynomials to interpolate the
geometry than the polynomials used to interpolate the field variables. This means the
shape functions for the geometry have a higher degree compared to those for the
field variables.
Characteristics:
 The geometry is represented using higher-order shape functions.
 Useful when the geometry is complex and needs higher-order interpolation for
accurate representation.
 Can handle complex geometries better, but at a higher computational cost.
Example:
For a quadratic element, the geometry might be interpolated using cubic shape
functions, while the field variables are interpolated using linear or quadratic shape
functions.

Que – 5(b) Write short notes on serendipity elements with necessary figure.
Ans Serendipity elements are a class of finite elements that are used in the finite
element method (FEM) to approximate the solution of partial differential equations.
They are specifically designed to reduce the number of nodes compared to standard
Lagrangian elements while still providing a sufficient level of accuracy for certain
11
problems. The term "serendipity" refers to the fact that these elements were
discovered somewhat unexpectedly as a means to improve computational efficiency
without significantly sacrificing accuracy.
Characteristics of Serendipity Elements
1. Reduced Nodes: Serendipity elements have fewer nodes than their Lagrangian
counterparts for the same polynomial order. For example, a quadratic Lagrangian
element in 2D typically has 9 nodes (including interior nodes), whereas a quadratic
serendipity element has only 8 nodes (excluding the centre node).
2. Edge Nodes: These elements usually place nodes on the edges and corners of
the element but may omit interior nodes, resulting in fewer degrees of freedom.
3. Shape Functions: The shape functions for serendipity elements are constructed
in a way that they interpolate the field variables exactly at the nodes located on the
edges and corners of the element. However, the shape functions are generally
more complex than those of Lagrangian elements because they need to account
for the reduced number of nodes.
4. Computational Efficiency: By reducing the number of nodes, serendipity
elements decrease the size of the element stiffness matrix, leading to lower
computational costs for matrix assembly and inversion.

The figure shows a 4-node serendipity element in 2D. The element is rectangular,
and all the degrees of freedom (displacements) are located at the corner nodes
(numbered 1 to 4).
Advantages:
 Reduced Computational Cost: Fewer nodes lead to smaller element matrices
and reduced computational effort.
 Sufficient Accuracy: For many practical problems, serendipity elements provide
sufficient accuracy, especially when higher-order continuity is not required.
Limitations:

12
  Complex Shape Functions: The shape functions can be more complex to
derive and implement compared to Lagrangian elements.
 Reduced Flexibility: They may not perform as well as Lagrangian elements in
problems requiring high precision or higher-order continuity.

Que 7. (a) Describe briefly about basic theory of plate bending with neat sketch
and derive flexural rigidity equation.
The theory of plate bending addresses the behaviour of flat, two-dimensional
structural elements that are subjected to loads perpendicular to their plane. Plates are
distinguished from beams by their ability to distribute loads in two dimensions. The
primary goal is to determine the deflections, internal forces, and moments in the plate
when subjected to various loads.
Key Assumptions
1. Thin Plate Assumption: The thickness t of the plate is much smaller than its other
dimensions (length L and width b).
2. Kirchhoff-Love Hypothesis:
 Normals to the mid-surface before deformation remain straight and normal to the
mid-surface after deformation.
 Normals do not experience elongation.
3. Small Deflections: Deflections are small compared to the thickness of the plate,
allowing for linearization of the governing equations.
Governing Equations
The governing equations of plate bending are derived from the equilibrium of
moments and forces, strain-displacement relationships, and constitutive material
behaviour.
Deflection and Moment Relationships
The primary unknown in plate bending is the deflection 𝑤(𝑥,𝑦) of the mid-surface. The
curvature-displacement relations in a thin plate are given by:

13
 Where:
 D is the flexural rigidity of the plate.
 ν is Poisson's ratio.
Flexural Rigidity The flexural rigidity 𝐷D of a plate is a measure of its resistance to
bending. It depends on the material properties (Young's modulus 𝐸E and Poisson's
ratio 𝜈ν) and the geometry (thickness 𝑡t) of the plate.
Derivation of Flexural Rigidity Equation The flexural rigidity D can be derived from
the constitutive relationship between the moments and curvatures.
Assuming a linear elastic material, the relationship between stress σ and strain ϵ is
given by Hooke's Law. For bending of plates:
1. Moment-Curvature Relationship: The bending moments in a plate element can
be derived from the stress distribution across its thickness. Considering a small
element of the plate, the internal moments are the result of the stress distribution
integrated over the thickness of the plate.
Stress Resultants: The stress resultant Mx in the x-direction is:
𝒕/𝟐
Mx = ∫ x.zdz
𝒕/𝟐

14
 𝑬𝒕𝒕𝟑
D=
𝟏𝟐(𝟏 𝒗𝟐 )

15
Que 7(b) Explain the term Mindlin's Co-continuity plate element and briefly
explain stiffness matrix formulation for such elements.
Ans Mindlin's Plate Theory
Mindlin's plate theory is an extension of classical plate theory (Kirchhoff-Love theory)
that accounts for shear deformation. In classical plate theory, it is assumed that plane
sections normal to the mid-surface remain normal after deformation, implying that
shear deformation is neglected. This assumption is valid for very thin plates but
becomes inaccurate for moderately thick plates. Mindlin's plate theory, also known as
the first-order shear deformation theory (FSDT), relaxes this assumption, allowing for
transverse shear deformation.
Mindlin's Co-continuity Plate Element
A Mindlin's co-continuity plate element is a finite element based on Mindlin's plate
theory, designed to model the bending and shear behaviour of thick plates. The term
"co-continuity" refers to the continuity of both displacements and rotations across
element boundaries, which is essential for accurately capturing the plate's behaviour.
Key Features of Mindlin's Plate Elements
1. Transverse Shear Deformation: Mindlin's theory accounts for the shear
deformation through the thickness of the plate, making it suitable for thick plate
analysis.

16
2. Displacement Field: The displacement field includes transverse displacement 𝑤w
and rotations 𝜃𝑥 and 𝜃𝑦 about the y-axis and x-axis, respectively.
3. Shear Correction Factor: A shear correction factor 𝑘k is often introduced to adjust
the shear stiffness, compensating for the assumption of constant shear stress
through the plate thickness.
Formulation of Stiffness Matrix for Mindlin's Plate Elements
The stiffness matrix formulation for Mindlin's plate elements involves integrating the
contributions of both bending and shear stiffness. Here's an outline of the process:
1. Displacement Field and Shape Functions
The displacement field for a Mindlin plate element can be expressed as:
𝑢(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧)=−𝑧𝜃𝑦(𝑥,𝑦),
𝑣(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧)=𝑧𝜃𝑥(𝑥,𝑦),
𝑤(𝑥,𝑦)=𝑤(𝑥,𝑦),
where u, v, and 𝑤w are the displacements in the x-, y-, and z-directions, respectively.
The field variables w, 𝜃𝑥, and 𝜃𝑦 are interpolated using shape functions 𝑁𝑖 (where 𝑖
represents the node number):

17
3. Constitutive Relations
The stresses are related to strains by:

𝑬𝒕𝒕𝟑
where D = is the flexural rigidity, κ is the shear correction factor, and 𝐺G is
𝟏𝟐(𝟏 𝒗𝟐 )
the shear modulus.
4. Element Stiffness Matrix
The total potential energy ΠΠ of the element includes contributions from bending and
shear:

18
Que -4 The thin plate of uniform thickness 20 mm is as shown in Figure. In
addition to the plate is subjected to a point load of 400 N at mid-depth. The
Young's modulus E = 2x 10N/mm and unit weight is p=0:8x 10'N/mm. Analyse
the plate after modelling it with two elements and find the stresses in each
element. Determine the support reactions also :

19
20
Que – 8 For the spring assemblage as shown below obtain :
(a) Global stiffness matrix.
(b) The displacement at 3 and 4 nodes.
(c) Global nodal forces.
(d) The local element forces.
𝐾=200𝑘𝑁𝑚
𝛿=20𝑚𝑚
Ans, Assume we have a system of 5 nodes and 4 springs, with each spring
connecting two nodes. The spring constant for all springs is 𝑘=200 kN/m.
 Node 1 is fixed (𝑢1=0).
 Node 5 has a known displacement ( 5=20 mm).
 Nodes 2, 3, and 4 have unknown displacements (𝑢2,𝑢3,𝑢4 ).
1. Global Stiffness Matrix
The stiffness matrix for a spring between two nodes i and j with stiffness k is:

For the given configuration, each spring contributes to the global matrix:
 Spring between nodes 1 and 2:
𝒌 −𝒌
at positions (1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (2,2)
−𝒌 𝒌

 Spring between nodes 2 and 3:

𝒌 −𝒌
at positions (2,2), (2,3), (3,2), (3,3)
−𝒌 𝒌
 Spring between nodes 3 and 4:

21
 𝒌 −𝒌
at positions (3,3), (3,4), (4,3), (4,4)
−𝒌 𝒌
 Spring between nodes 4 and 5:
𝒌 −𝒌
at positions (4,4), (4,5), (5,4), (5,5)
−𝒌 𝒌
Adding these contributions:

2. Displacements of Nodes 2-4

Using boundary conditions:
 u1=0  u5=20 mm (0.02 m)
 The reduced system of equations for nodes 2, 3, and 4 is:

4. Global Nodal Forces {F}:

{𝐹}=[𝐾]{𝑢}

22
23
Que – 9 Discuss the application of FEM and its drawbacks.
Ans Finite Element Method (FEM) is a powerful computational technique widely used
in engineering and applied sciences to analyse and solve complex physical problems.
Here's an overview of its applications and drawbacks:
Applications of FEM
1. Structural Analysis:
 Stress and Strain Analysis: FEM is used to determine the stress and strain
distribution within structures, such as buildings, bridges, and mechanical
components.
 Deformation Analysis: Helps predict how structures will deform under various
loads and conditions.
2. Thermal Analysis:
 Heat Transfer: FEM models heat conduction, convection, and radiation in solid
materials, essential for designing thermal management systems in electronics and
machinery.
 Thermal Stress: Analysis stresses induced by temperature changes, important in
aerospace and automotive industries.
3. Fluid Dynamics:
 CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics): Used to simulate fluid flow, heat transfer,
and related phenomena in liquids and gases.
 Aerodynamics: Crucial for designing efficient aircraft, vehicles, and wind turbines.
4. Electromagnetic Analysis:
 Electromagnetic Field Simulation: Helps design antennas, sensors, and
electronic devices by simulating electromagnetic fields and wave propagation.
 Magnetic Field Analysis: Used in the design of electrical machines, transformers,
and inductors.
5. Acoustics:
 Sound Propagation: Models how sound waves travel through different media,
aiding in the design of noise reduction systems and acoustic devices.
6. Biomechanics:
24
 Human Body Simulation: Analyses the mechanical behaviour of biological
tissues and organs, helping in the design of medical implants and prosthetics.
7. Geotechnical Engineering:
 Soil-Structure Interaction: Assesses the interaction between structures and the
ground, essential for designing foundations and retaining walls.
 Slope Stability: Evaluates the stability of slopes and embankments in civil
engineering projects.
Drawbacks of FEM
1. Computational Cost:
 High Resource Demand: FEM simulations, especially for large or highly detailed
models, can require significant computational resources (memory, processing
power) and time.
 Expensive Software: Professional FEM software can be costly, making it less
accessible for smaller organizations or individual users.
2. Complexity:
 Modelling Complexity: Creating accurate FEM models requires a thorough
understanding of the physical problem and expertise in mesh generation, material
properties, and boundary conditions.
 User Expertise: Effective use of FEM requires significant training and experience.
Inexperienced users may produce inaccurate results due to incorrect modelling or
interpretation.
3. Approximation and Accuracy:
 Numerical Errors: FEM solutions are approximate and can be affected by
discretization errors, convergence issues, and the quality of the mesh.
 Sensitivity to Mesh Quality: The accuracy of FEM results depends heavily on the
quality of the mesh. Poor meshing can lead to significant errors, requiring careful
attention to mesh refinement and validation.
4. Simplified Assumptions:
 Material Behaviour: FEM often requires simplifying assumptions about material
properties and behaviour, which may not always accurately represent real-world
conditions.
 Boundary Conditions: The need to define precise boundary conditions can be
challenging, and incorrect assumptions can lead to erroneous results.
5. Time-Consuming Preprocessing: Model Preparation: Setting up an FEM
analysis involves extensive preprocessing, including geometry creation, mesh
generation, and defining material properties and loads, which can be time-
consuming.
6. Post-Processing Challenges: Result Interpretation: Interpreting FEM results
requires expertise to ensure accurate and meaningful conclusions.
Misinterpretation of results can lead to incorrect design decisions.

Que 9 (b) Explain the Direct approach used in FEA.

25
The Direct Approach in Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is a straightforward method to
derive the system of equations governing the behaviour of a structure or continuum
under given loads. This approach involves directly assembling the global stiffness
matrix and force vector from the contributions of individual finite elements. Here's a
step-by-step explanation of the Direct Approach in FEA:
Steps in the Direct Approach
1. Discretization of the Domain: Divide the physical domain (structure or
continuum) into smaller, simpler parts called finite elements. Each element is
connected at points called nodes.
 The collection of these elements forms the finite element mesh.
2. Element Stiffness Matrix:
e
 For each element, derive the stiffness matrix [ k ] which relates the nodal
displacements to the nodal forces for that element. This matrix is derived from the
element's geometry, material properties, and type (e.g., rod, beam, plate).
 For a 1D bar element with two nodes, the stiffness matrix is:
𝑬𝑨 𝟏 −𝟏
[ke] =
𝑳 −𝟏 𝟏
where 𝐸E is the Young's modulus, 𝐴A is the cross-sectional area, and 𝐿L is the length
of the element.
3. Global Stiffness Matrix Assembly:
 Assemble the global stiffness matrix [K] by summing the contributions from all
element stiffness matrices. This involves placing each element's stiffness matrix
into the appropriate positions within the global matrix based on the connectivity of
the elements (which nodes they share).
 The global stiffness matrix [K] relates the global nodal displacements {d} to the
global nodal forces {F}:
[𝐾]{𝑑}={𝐹}
4. Application of Boundary Conditions:
 Apply the boundary conditions to the global system of equations. Boundary
conditions typically involve specifying certain nodal displacements (e.g., fixed
supports) or forces (e.g., applied loads).
 Modify the global stiffness matrix and force vector to account for these conditions,
ensuring the system remains solvable.
5. Solving the System of Equations:
 Solve the modified global system of equations for the unknown nodal
displacements {d}: [K]{d}={F}
 This is typically done using numerical methods suitable for solving large systems
of linear equations, such as Gaussian elimination or iterative solvers.
6. Post-Processing:
 Once the nodal displacements are known, compute other quantities of interest,
such as element stresses, strains, and reaction forces.

26
 For each element, use the nodal displacements to calculate strains using strain-
displacement relationships, and then stresses using material constitutive laws
(e.g., Hooke's Law for linear elastic materials).
Example: 1D Bar Elements
Consider a simple example of a truss structure with three nodes and two elements:
 Node 1 is fixed.
 Node 2 is free.
 Node 3 has a known displacement δ.
Step-by-Step Example
1. Discretization:
 Element 1: between nodes 1 and 2.
 Element 2: between nodes 2 and 3.
2. Element Stiffness Matrices: For simplicity, assume 𝐸𝐴/𝐿=𝑘 (constant for both
elements).
𝟏 −𝟏
[𝑘1]=𝑘
−𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 −𝟏
[𝑘2]=𝑘
−𝟏 𝟏
3.Global Stiffness Matrix Assembly: Assemble [K] using contributions from both
elements.
𝒌 −𝒌 𝟎
[𝐾]= −𝒌 𝟐𝒌 −𝒌
𝟎 −𝒌 𝒌
4.Boundary Conditions:
 Node 1 is fixed (u1=0).
 Node 3 has a known displacement u3=δ.
Modify [K] and {F}:
𝒌 −𝒌 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
−𝒌 𝟐𝒌 −𝒌 𝒖𝟐 = 𝑭𝟐
𝟎 −𝒌 𝒌 𝜹 𝟎
5.Solving the System: Solve for 𝑢2u2:
−𝑘𝑢1+2𝑘𝑢2−𝑘𝛿=𝐹2
2𝑘𝑢2−𝑘𝛿= 𝐹2
𝑢2=( 𝐹2+𝑘𝛿)/2𝑘
6.Post-Processing: Compute element forces and other quantities.
Advantages:
 Versatility: Can handle complex geometries, boundary conditions, and material
properties.
 Accuracy: Provides detailed local results, essential for stress analysis and failure
prediction.

27
 Scalability: Applicable to various fields including structural mechanics, thermal
analysis, and fluid dynamics.
Limitations:
 Computational Cost: Can be resource-intensive, especially for large or highly
detailed models.
 Complexity: Requires significant expertise in mesh generation, boundary
condition application, and result interpretation.
 Approximation: Solutions are approximate and dependent on mesh quality and
numerical methods.

Que 10 (a) What is Isoperimetric Elements ?

Ans Isoparametric elements are a key concept in finite element analysis (FEA) used
to handle complex geometries and variations in shape. The term "isoparametric"
signifies that the same shape functions used to interpolate the geometry (coordinates)
of the element are also used to interpolate the field variables (such as displacements,
temperatures, etc.). Here’s a detailed explanation of isoparametric elements:
Key Features of Isoparametric Elements
1. Same Shape Functions: Both the geometry of the element and the field variables
within the element are defined using the same shape functions. This means the
interpolation of the coordinates and the interpolation of the displacement (or other
field variables) are performed using the same mathematical functions.
2. Generalized Coordinates: Isoparametric elements use a set of local (natural or
parametric) coordinates, usually denoted by ξ, η, and ζ, which are mapped to the
global coordinates (x, y, z) of the problem domain. The transformation between the
local and global coordinate systems simplifies the mathematical formulation.
3. Flexibility: These elements can accommodate irregular shapes and can be used
to model curved boundaries effectively. They provide great flexibility in meshing
complex geometries.
4. Higher-Order Elements: Isoparametric formulation can be extended to higher-
order elements (quadratic, cubic, etc.), providing higher accuracy in approximating
the geometry and field variables.

Advantages of Isoparametric Elements

1. Consistency: Using the same shape functions for both geometry and field
variables ensures consistency in the formulation and helps maintain compatibility
between elements.
2. Accuracy: Higher order isoparametric elements can provide accurate
approximations for both the geometry and the solution, even for complex domains.
3. Versatility: Isoparametric elements are highly versatile and can model a wide
range of geometric shapes, from simple to complex.

28
 4. Ease of Implementation: The unified approach to shape functions simplifies the
implementation in FEA software and reduces potential errors in the formulation.
Applications
Isoparametric elements are used extensively in various engineering fields, including:
uctural Analysis: Modelling beams, plates, shells, and complex 3D structures.
rmal Analysis: Simulating heat transfer in irregular geometries.
d Dynamics: Handling complex boundaries in computational fluid dynamics (CFD).
ctromagnetic Analysis: Analysing fields in domains with curved boundaries.
Example of an Isoparametric Element
Consider a 2D quadrilateral element with nodes at (0,0), (2,0), (2,2), and (0,2) in the
global coordinate system. In the local coordinate system ξ,η, the element corners
correspond to (-1,-1), (1,-1), (1,1), and (-1,1).
By using the shape functions and the nodal coordinates, any point within the element
can be mapped from the local coordinates ξ,η to the global coordinates 𝑥,𝑦 allowing
the element to accurately represent both straight and curved geometries.

Que 10(b) Derivate the expression for Lagrangian interpolation function for two
dimensional elements.
Ans The Lagrangian interpolation function is a polynomial interpolation method used
in finite element analysis (FEA) to approximate the shape functions for elements. For
two-dimensional (2D) elements, such as quadrilateral or triangular elements, the
Lagrangian interpolation functions are used to interpolate the field variables within the
element. Here, we'll derive the Lagrangian interpolation functions for a 2D
quadrilateral element.
Lagrangian Interpolation Functions for a 2D Quadrilateral Element
Consider a 2D quadrilateral element with four nodes. Each node has local coordinates
(𝜉,𝜂)(ξ,η). The Lagrangian interpolation functions for a bilinear quadrilateral element
(Q4 element) are constructed such that they are equal to 1 at the corresponding node
and 0 at the other nodes.
Let's denote the local coordinates of the nodes as follows:
 Node 1: (𝜉1,𝜂1)=(−1,−1)
 Node 2: (𝜉2,𝜂2)=(1,−1)
 Node 3: (ξ3,η3)=(1,1)
 Node 4: (ξ4,η4)=(−1,1)
The Lagrangian interpolation functions Ni(ξ,η) for each node 𝑖i can be derived using
the product of linear polynomials. Each shape function is defined such that it is 1 at
its own node and 0 at the other nodes.
Derivation of Shape Functions
For a bilinear quadrilateral element, the shape functions Ni(ξ,η) are given by:

29
Verification
The shape functions must satisfy the following conditions:
 𝑁𝑖(𝜉𝑗,𝜂𝑗)=𝛿𝑖𝑗 (where 𝛿𝑖𝑗 is the Kronecker delta, which is 1 if 𝑖=𝑗 and 0 otherwise)
Let's verify the shape functions at the nodes:
 At Node 1 (𝜉=−1,𝜂=−1:

30
Que 11. (a) Compare the difference CST and LST element.
Ans Constant Strain Triangle (CST)
Definition: The CST element is a three-node triangular element where the strain is
assumed to be constant across the element.
Characteristics
1. Nodes: 3 (vertices of the triangle).
2. Shape Functions: Linear shape functions are used. These shape functions are
first-order polynomials.

31
3. Strain Distribution: The strain is constant within the element because the
displacement field is linearly varying.
4. Degrees of Freedom: Each node typically has 2 degrees of freedom (DOF) in 2D
problems (displacements in the x and y directions), resulting in a total of 6 DOF for
the element.
5. Applications: Suitable for coarse meshes and preliminary analysis. Often used in
problems where the mesh quality or computational resources are limited.
6. Accuracy: Lower accuracy compared to higher-order elements, especially in
representing bending or varying stress fields.
Linear Strain Triangle (LST)
Definition: The LST element is a six-node triangular element where the strain can
vary linearly across the element.
Characteristics
1. Nodes: 6 (3 vertices and 3 mid-side nodes).
2. Shape Functions: Quadratic shape functions are used. These shape functions
are second-order polynomials.
3. Strain Distribution: The strain varies linearly within the element, allowing for more
accurate representation of stress gradients.
4. Degrees of Freedom: Each node typically has 2 DOF in 2D problems
(displacements in the x and y directions), resulting in a total of 12 DOF for the
element.
5. Applications: Suitable for finer meshes and more detailed analysis. Often used in
problems requiring higher accuracy and where the mesh can be refined.
6. Accuracy: Higher accuracy compared to CST elements, especially in representing
bending, stress concentrations, and varying stress fields.
Comparison Summary
CST (Constant Strain
Feature Triangle) LST (Linear Strain Triangle)
Nodes 3 6
Shape Functions Linear (first order) Quadratic (second order)
Strain Distribution Constant Linearly varying
Degrees of
Freedom (DOF) 6 (2 per node) 12 (2 per node)
Lower accuracy, suitable for Higher accuracy, suitable for finer
Accuracy coarse meshes meshes
Requires finer meshing for optimal
Mesh Requirement Larger elements acceptable results
Detailed analysis, refined
Preliminary analysis, coarse meshing, stress concentration
Applications meshing analysis
32
 CST (Constant Strain
Feature Triangle) LST (Linear Strain Triangle)
Computational Lower computational cost, Higher computational cost, more
Cost simpler implementation complex implementation

Que -12 Explain Gaussian and Newton- Cotes quadrature.

Ans Numerical integration is a crucial tool in many fields, including finite element
analysis (FEA), to evaluate integrals that are difficult or impossible to solve
analytically. Two common numerical integration methods are Gaussian quadrature
and Newton-Cotes quadrature. Here's an explanation of each, including their
derivation and key characteristics:
Newton-Cotes Quadrature
Newton-Cotes quadrature is a family of formulas for numerical integration based on
evaluating the integrand at equally spaced points. The simplest and most common
Newton-Cotes formulas include the trapezoidal rule and Simpson's rule.

33
  Here, 𝑥𝑖 are equally spaced points, and 𝑤𝑖 are weights derived based on the
integration interval and the degree of polynomial used.
Characteristics
 Ease of Use: Simple to implement since points are equally spaced.
 Accuracy: Accuracy improves with higher-order rules but can suffer from Runge's
phenomenon (large oscillations) for high 𝑛n.
 Error Estimation: Error can be estimated for simpler rules; for example, the error
in the trapezoidal rule is proportional to the second derivative of the integrand.
Gaussian Quadrature
Gaussian quadrature is a more sophisticated numerical integration technique that
chooses both the evaluation points (nodes) and the weights to maximize accuracy.
The points are chosen as the roots of orthogonal polynomials.

Characteristics
 Accuracy: Extremely high for polynomials up to degree 2𝑛−12n−1 with 𝑛n points.
Efficient for smooth integrands.
 Efficiency: Fewer points required for a given accuracy compared to Newton-Cotes
rules.
 Complexity: More complex to implement because nodes and weights depend on
the specific orthogonal polynomials and need to be computed or tabulated.

34
Que 13(a) list various weighted residual methods.
Ans Weighted residual methods are numerical techniques used to approximate
solutions to differential equations by transforming them into algebraic equations that
can be solved numerically. These methods involve defining residual functions and
applying certain weight functions to minimize the error between the differential
equation and its approximation. Here are various weighted residual methods
commonly used in engineering and scientific computations:
1. Finite Difference Method (FDM):
 Approximates derivatives using finite differences.
 Discretizes the domain into a grid and approximates the differential equation at
discrete points.
2. Finite Element Method (FEM):
 Approximates the solution over the domain using piecewise polynomial basis
functions.
 Minimizes the residual error over the domain using weighted residual methods like
Galerkin, collocation, least squares, etc.
3. Finite Volume Method (FVM):
 Divides the domain into control volumes and integrates the differential equation
over each volume.
 Expresses the conservation equations in integral form over each control volume.
4. Method of Weighted Residuals (MWR):
 A general framework that encompasses various methods like FEM, FDM, and
FVM.
 Minimizes the error between the differential equation and its approximation using
weighted residual functions.
5. Galerkin Method:
 A specific form of weighted residual method where the weight functions are chosen
to be the same as the basis functions.
 The residual is orthogonal to the subspace spanned by the basis functions, leading
to a minimized error.
6. Least Squares Method:
 Minimizes the 𝐿2L2 norm of the residual function over the domain.
 Uses a weighted sum of squared residuals to find the best-fit solution.
7. Collocation Method:
 Chooses specific points (collocation points) within the domain and enforces the
differential equation at these points.
 Solves for unknown coefficients by satisfying the differential equation at the
collocation points.
8. Boundary Element Method (BEM):
 Converts the differential equation into an integral equation over the boundary of
the domain.
 Applies a weighted residual method to solve the integral equation.

35
Que -13 (b) Lists out the advantages of finite element method over other
numerical analysis method.
Ans The Finite Element Method (FEM) offers several advantages over other
numerical analysis methods in various engineering and scientific applications. Here
are some of the key advantages:
1. Flexibility in Geometry: FEM can handle complex geometries with ease,
including irregular shapes, voids, and curved boundaries. This flexibility allows for
more realistic modelling of structures and systems.
2. Adaptability to Mesh Refinement: FEM allows for local mesh refinement in
regions of interest, providing higher accuracy where needed without significantly
increasing computational cost. This adaptability is particularly useful for capturing
localized phenomena or stress concentrations.
3. Variable Material Properties: FEM can accommodate materials with spatially
varying properties, allowing for accurate modelling of heterogeneous materials,
composites, and materials with nonlinear behaviour.
4. Higher Order Approximations: FEM can employ higher-order elements, allowing
for more accurate representation of complex physical phenomena, such as
bending, stress concentrations, and fluid flow around obstacles.
5. Automatic Boundary Treatment: FEM automatically satisfies boundary
conditions through the discretization process, simplifying the implementation of
boundary conditions compared to methods like finite differences.
6. Efficient Handling of Large Systems: FEM efficiently handles large-scale
problems by partitioning the system into smaller, manageable elements, which can
be solved independently and then assembled into a global system.
7. Versatility: FEM is versatile and applicable to a wide range of problems in various
fields, including structural mechanics, heat transfer, fluid dynamics,
electromagnetics, and coupled-field problems.
8. Interpolation Accuracy: FEM uses interpolation functions to approximate the
solution within each element, providing accurate results even with relatively coarse
meshes.
9. Error Estimation and Adaptivity: FEM allows for error estimation techniques,
such as a posteriori error estimation, which can guide mesh refinement and
adaptive strategies to improve solution accuracy.
10. Commercial Software Availability: There is a wide range of commercial FEM
software packages available with user-friendly interfaces, extensive libraries of
pre-defined elements, and robust solvers, making FEM accessible to engineers
and researchers.

Que 14(a) Write down the expression for the stress - strain relationship matrix
for a CST element.
ANS The Constant Strain Triangle (CST) element is a simple triangular finite element
used for analysing two-dimensional structures. To derive the stress-strain relationship
36
matrix for a CST element, we first need to define the element's shape functions and
displacement field.
For a CST element, the displacement field can be expressed in terms of the nodal
displacements and shape functions as follows:
𝑢(𝑥,𝑦)=𝑁1𝑢1 + 𝑁2𝑢2 + 𝑁3𝑢3
𝑣(𝑥,𝑦)=𝑁1𝑣1 + 𝑁2𝑣2 + 𝑁3𝑣3
where 𝑢𝑖ui and 𝑣𝑖vi are the displacements in the x and y directions at the ith node,
and Ni are the linear shape functions associated with each node.
The strain-displacement matrix B for a CST element can be written as:

The stress-strain relationship for a linear elastic material is given by Hooke's law:
𝜎=𝐸𝜖
where σ is the stress, E is the Young's modulus, and ϵ is the strain. For a plane stress
problem, the strain matrix ϵ can be written as:

Substituting Hooke's law and the strain-displacement matrix into this equation, we
can express the stress-strain relationship matrix for a CST element as:

where D is the stress-strain relationship matrix and is given by:

Here, ν is the Poisson's ratio of the material. The components of the stress-strain
matrix D are derived based on the plane stress assumption and the material
properties of the element.
In summary, the stress-strain relationship matrix for a CST element can be obtained
by combining Hooke's law, the strain-displacement matrix, and the material properties
of the element.

37
Que -14 (b) Derive the stress - strain relationship matrix for plane stress and
plane strain by using above expression.
To derive the stress-strain relationship matrix for plane stress and plane strain using
the expression provided earlier, we need to consider the different assumptions and
material properties for each case.
Plane Stress:
In plane stress analysis, it is assumed that the stress in one direction (usually the z-
direction) is negligible compared to the stresses in the other two directions. Therefore,
the stress-strain relationship matrix D for plane stress can be derived using Hooke's
law and considering the plane stress assumption.
Hooke's Law for Plane Stress:

By substituting the strain-displacement relationship into Hooke's law, we get the

stress-strain relationship matrix D for plane stress.
Plane Strain:
In plane strain analysis, it is assumed that there is no strain in one direction (usually
the z-direction) due to lateral constraints. Therefore, the stress-strain relationship
matrix D for plane strain can also be derived using Hooke's law, but with a different
strain-displacement relationship.

38
Hooke's Law for Plane Strain:

For a CST element, the strain-displacement matrix B remains the same as in the case
of plane stress.
By substituting the strain-displacement relationship into Hooke's law, we get the
stress-strain relationship matrix D for plane strain.
Conclusion:
The stress-strain relationship matrix D for plane stress and plane strain can be derived
by combining Hooke's law with the appropriate strain-displacement relationship for
each case. The main difference lies in the assumptions made regarding the strain
components and the resulting expressions for the stress-strain matrix.

Que-15 (a) Write short note on: Bending of plates.

Ans Bending of Plates: Bending of plates refers to the deflection of a thin plate
perpendicular to its plane due to applied forces or moments. Plates are structural
elements with a length and width significantly larger than their thickness.
Understanding plate bending behaviour is crucial in various engineering applications,
from designing aircraft wings to analysing bridge decks.
Key Concepts:
 Deflection: The primary concern in plate bending is the amount of deflection the
plate undergoes under load. This deflection is typically measured perpendicular to
the undeformed plate surface.
 Loading: Plates can be subjected to various types of loading, including transverse
loads (acting perpendicular to the plate), in-plane loads (acting within the plane of
the plate), and moments (causing rotation).
 Material Properties: The material properties of the plate, such as Young's
modulus and Poisson's ratio, influence its stiffness and resistance to bending.
 Boundary Conditions: The way the plate is supported at its edges (e.g., clamped,
simply supported) significantly affects its bending behaviours.
Analytical vs. Numerical Methods:

39
 Analytical Solutions: For simple geometries and loading conditions, closed-form
solutions for plate deflection can be obtained using advanced mathematical
techniques.
 Numerical Methods: Finite Element Method (FEM) is a popular and powerful tool
for analysing complex plate bending problems. It allows for modelling real-world
geometries, loading scenarios, and material properties.
Applications:
The analysis of plate bending plays a vital role in the design and analysis of various
structures, including:
 Beams and floor slabs in buildings and bridges
 Ship hulls and airplane wings.
 Pressure vessels and storage tanks.
 Electronic circuit boards

Que -15(b) Write short note on: concept of 3D modeling.

Ans 3D modeling is the process of creating a digital representation of a three-
dimensional object. Imagine sculpting a shape in clay, but instead of using physical
materials, you're using specialized software. These models can be simple geometric
shapes or intricate characters, buildings, or even entire landscapes.
Core Concepts:
 Points, Lines, and Polygons: 3D models are built from basic geometric elements
like points, lines, and polygons (usually triangles or squares). These elements are
manipulated and connected to form the desired shape.
 Meshes: The collection of points, lines, and polygons forms a mesh, which serves
as the underlying structure of the 3D model. The complexity of the mesh (number
of elements) determines the level of detail in the final model.
 Textures and Materials: While the mesh defines the shape, textures and
materials add realism to the model. Textures are essentially images applied to the
model's surface to create details like color, patterns, or surface roughness. Material
properties define how light interacts with the surface, influencing its appearance.
 Animation and Rendering: 3D models can be animated to simulate movement
or used for creating realistic still images (rendering). Animation software allows you
to define the object's motion over time, while rendering software translates the
model's data into a visually appealing image or video.
Applications of 3D Modeling:
3D modeling has a vast range of applications across various industries:
 Product Design: Engineers and designers use 3D models to prototype and
visualize products before physical manufacturing.
 Architecture and Construction: 3D models are used for creating building
designs, walkthroughs, and planning construction projects.
 Video Games and Animation: The 3D characters, environments, and objects in
video games and animations are all created using 3D modeling software.
40
 Medical Imaging: 3D models can be generated from medical scans (MRI, CT
scans) to visualize organs, bones, and other anatomical structures for diagnosis
and surgery planning.
 Scientific Visualization: Scientists can use 3D models to represent complex data
sets and molecules, aiding in research and communication.
Benefits of 3D Modeling:
 Improved Design and Development: 3D models allow for rapid iteration and
visualization of ideas, leading to better product design and development cycles.
 Enhanced Communication: 3D models provide a clear and universal way to
communicate complex design ideas to clients, colleagues, and stakeholders.
 Realistic Prototyping: 3D models can be used for creating physical prototypes
through 3D printing, allowing for testing and refinement before mass production.
 Broad Applications: The versatility of 3D modeling makes it a valuable tool
across diverse fields, fostering innovation and creativity.

Que -15 (c) Write short note on: Strain displacement relations.
Strain-displacement relations are fundamental in solid mechanics and structural
analysis, describing the relationship between the strains (deformations) in a material
and the displacements (movement) of its particles or points. These relations are
crucial for understanding the behaviour of materials under load and are used
extensively in the analysis and design of structures.
Key Concepts:
1. Linear Elasticity: In linear elasticity, the strain at a point in a material is assumed
to be linearly related to the displacement gradient (rate of change of displacement)
at that point. This relationship is often expressed using a strain-displacement
matrix.
2. Deformation Gradient: The deformation gradient tensor describes the local
deformation of a material and is used to relate the displacement gradient to the
strain tensor.
3. Strain Tensor: The strain tensor is a mathematical representation of the
deformation of a material and includes components such as normal strains (e.g.,
εxx, εyy, εzz) and shear strains (e.g., εxy, εxz, εyz).
4. Displacement Field: The displacement field describes the movement of points in
a material and is typically represented by displacement vectors or functions of
spatial coordinates.
5. Compatibility Equations: Compatibility equations ensure that the strain field is
consistent with the displacement field and are used to derive relationships between
the components of the displacement gradient.

41
6. Linear Strain-Displacement Relations: For small deformations, the strain-
displacement relations are linear and can be expressed as:

Where u, v, and 𝑤w are the displacements in the x, y, and z directions, respectively.

7. Material Properties: The strain-displacement relations are influenced by the
material properties of the material, such as its elasticity, anisotropy, and
nonlinearity.
8. Applications: Strain-displacement relations are used in various engineering
disciplines, including structural engineering, solid mechanics, geomechanics, and
biomechanics, to analyse and design structures subjected to mechanical loads.

Que -15(d) Write short note on: Triangular elements and quadrilateral elements.
Ans Triangular and quadrilateral elements are fundamental building blocks in finite
element analysis (FEA), a numerical method used to approximate solutions to partial
differential equations governing physical phenomena. These elements are widely
used in structural, mechanical, civil, aerospace, and other engineering disciplines for
analysing the behaviours of complex systems. Here's a short note on each:
Triangular Elements:
1. Geometry: Triangular elements are simple geometric shapes consisting of three
vertices connected by edges to form a triangle. They are the most basic and widely
used type of finite element due to their simplicity and versatility.
2. Advantages:
 Simple Geometry: Triangular elements are easy to generate and mesh, making
them suitable for complex geometries and irregular shapes.
 Good for Curved Boundaries: They naturally accommodate curved boundaries and
provide accurate results near corners and edges.
 Efficient Solver Performance: Triangular elements typically lead to sparser
matrices and faster computational times compared to quadrilateral elements.
3. Disadvantages:
 Interpolation Errors: Triangular elements may introduce interpolation errors,
especially for functions with high gradients or sharp changes in behavior.
 Less Stable: They can be less stable than quadrilateral elements, particularly for
thin or highly elongated elements.

Quadrilateral Elements:

42
1. Geometry: Quadrilateral elements are four-sided polygons with four vertices and
edges. They are more complex than triangular elements but offer certain
advantages in specific applications.
2. Advantages:
 Higher Order Accuracy: Quadrilateral elements can provide higher accuracy for
smooth functions and complex geometries, particularly when using higher-order
elements.
 Reduced Mesh Distortion: They are less prone to mesh distortion and element
distortion, making them suitable for structured grids and regular meshes.
 Improved Stiffness: Quadrilateral elements often exhibit improved stiffness
properties compared to triangular elements, especially for thin structures.
3. Disadvantages:
 Difficult Mesh Generation: Generating quadrilateral meshes for complex
geometries can be challenging and time-consuming, especially for irregular
shapes and domains.
 Poor Adaptability: Quadrilateral elements may not adapt well to curved boundaries
or regions with varying material properties.
Applications:
 Triangular Elements: Commonly used in structural analysis, heat transfer, fluid
dynamics, and electromagnetic simulations. They are preferred for modeling
irregular shapes, surface meshes, and domains with curved boundaries.
 Quadrilateral Elements: Widely used in solid mechanics, heat conduction,
computational fluid dynamics (CFD), and geomechanics. They are suitable for
structured grids, regular meshes, and domains with uniform material properties.

UNIT – 1
Que - Finite element stability analysis
Ans Finite element (FE) stability analysis is a technique used to assess the stability
or resistance to failure of a structure or system modelled using the finite element
method (FEM). It helps engineers understand the load-carrying capacity of a structure
and predict its behaviours at the onset of failure.
Here's a breakdown of the key concepts:
Types of Stability Problems:
 Geometric Instability (Buckling): This occurs when a structure undergoes a
sudden, large deformation under increasing load, even though the material itself
may not have reached its failure point.
 Material Instability: This refers to the actual failure of the material itself due to
exceeding its stress or strain limits.
FE Techniques for Stability Analysis:
Several approaches can be used for FE stability analysis:
 Eigenvalue Analysis: This method calculates the natural frequencies and mode
shapes of the structure. The lowest eigenvalue (critical buckling load) corresponds
43
 to the buckling mode, providing an indication of the load at which the structure
becomes unstable.
 Non-linear Analysis: This approach considers the non-linear behavior of
materials and geometric nonlinearities (large displacements) that may occur near
the point of failure. It provides a more detailed picture of the structure's behavior
leading up to collapse.
 Strength Reduction Method (SRM): This technique involves progressively
reducing the material properties (strength) of the model in the FE software until a
critical point is reached where the solution diverges or becomes unrealistic. This
critical point corresponds to the estimated failure load.
Benefits of FE Stability Analysis:
 Predicting Failure Loads: FE stability analysis helps engineers estimate the load
at which a structure might buckle or fail, allowing for design optimization to ensure
safety.
 Understanding Failure Modes: The analysis can reveal the specific buckling
mode or failure mechanism, providing valuable insights for design improvements.
 Analysing Complex Geometries: FEA can handle complex geometries that may
be difficult to analyse using traditional analytical methods.
 Versatility: The method can be applied to various materials and loading scenarios.
Challenges and Limitations:
 Accuracy: The accuracy of the stability analysis depends on several factors, such
as the choice of elements, material models, and boundary conditions. Careful
model creation and validation are crucial.
 Computational Cost: Non-linear analysis can be computationally expensive,
especially for complex models.
 Expertise Required: Successful FE stability analysis requires a good
understanding of both FEM and the specific stability problem being investigated.

Que- Element stiffness matrix

Ans The element stiffness matrix is a key component in finite element analysis (FEA)
used to represent the stiffness characteristics of an individual finite element. It relates
the nodal displacements to the internal forces or stresses within the element. The
stiffness matrix is essential for solving the system of equations governing the
behaviour of the entire structure under external loads. Here's an overview of the
element stiffness matrix:
Definition: Mathematical Representation: The element stiffness matrix, denoted as
𝐾𝑒, is a square matrix that relates the nodal displacements (𝑢u) to the internal forces
(𝑓) within the element using the equation 𝑓=𝐾𝑒.𝑢
1. Dimension: The dimension of the element stiffness matrix depends on the number
of degrees of freedom (DOFs) associated with the element. For a 2D element with
𝑛n nodes and 𝑚m DOFs per node, the size of the stiffness matrix is 2𝑛×2𝑛.

44
2. Construction: The stiffness matrix is constructed based on the material
properties, geometry, and shape functions of the element. It typically incorporates
contributions from the element's stiffness due to axial, bending, shear, and
membrane effects, depending on the type of element and the physical behaviour
being modelled.
3. Symmetry: In many cases, the element stiffness matrix is symmetric due to the
symmetry of the underlying physical problem. This symmetry can be exploited to
reduce computational effort and storage requirements.
Calculation:
1. Local Stiffness Matrix: The local or elemental stiffness matrix is derived based
on the constitutive equations and equilibrium conditions governing the behaviour
of the element. It is typically expressed in terms of the element's material
properties, geometry, and nodal coordinates.
2. Transformation: If the element is subjected to coordinate transformations (e.g.,
due to element orientation or mesh distortion), the local stiffness matrix may need
to be transformed to the global coordinate system using transformation matrices.
3. Assembly: The element stiffness matrices of all elements in the structure are
assembled into the global stiffness matrix (K) by considering the connectivity of
nodes and degrees of freedom. The global stiffness matrix represents the stiffness
characteristics of the entire structure.
Importance:
 System Solution: The stiffness matrix is a fundamental component in solving
the system of equations governing the behaviour of the entire structure under
external loads.
 Analysis Accuracy: Accurate computation of the stiffness matrix is crucial for
obtaining reliable results in finite element analysis, including stress analysis,
vibration analysis, heat transfer analysis, and fluid flow analysis.
 Numerical Efficiency: Efficient computation and storage of the stiffness matrix
are essential for large-scale finite element simulations involving complex
structures with numerous elements and degrees of freedom.

Que - Geometric stiffness matrix.

Ans The geometric stiffness matrix is a term commonly encountered in the analysis
of structures subjected to large displacements and/or rotations, where the effects of
changes in geometry (such as changes in member length or orientation) are
significant. It captures the stiffness contributions arising from changes in the geometry
of the structure and is often included alongside the traditional material stiffness matrix
in finite element analysis (FEA). Here's an overview of the geometric stiffness matrix:
Definition:
1. Physical Significance: The geometric stiffness matrix accounts for the stiffness
contributions resulting from changes in the structure's geometry due to large

45
 displacements and rotations. It arises from the nonlinear relationship between
applied loads and displacements in structures experiencing large deformations.
2. Complementary to Material Stiffness: While the material stiffness matrix
primarily captures the stiffness due to material properties (such as Young's
modulus and Poisson's ratio), the geometric stiffness matrix accounts for stiffness
effects arising solely from changes in geometry.
3. Stiffness Formulation: The geometric stiffness matrix captures the effects of axial
forces due to changes in member lengths (due to stretching or compression) and
moments due to changes in member orientations (due to rotations).
4. Nonlinear Effects: The geometric stiffness matrix becomes significant in nonlinear
structural analysis, where large displacements and rotations induce changes in
member lengths and orientations, resulting in nonlinearities in the structural
response.
Calculation:
1. Tangent Stiffness Matrix: The geometric stiffness matrix is typically computed as
a component of the tangent stiffness matrix (K) used in nonlinear finite element
analysis. It represents the derivative of the internal forces with respect to nodal
displacements, accounting for the geometric stiffness effects.
2. Stiffness Assembly: The geometric stiffness matrix is assembled alongside the
material stiffness matrix during the finite element analysis process to form the
complete tangent stiffness matrix, which governs the incremental structural
response to applied loads.

Que - Derivation of element stiffness matrix for a beam element.

To derive the element stiffness matrix for a beam element, we consider the Euler-
Bernoulli beam theory, which describes the behavior of slender beams subjected to
bending. In this theory, the displacement field of the beam is represented by a series
of polynomial functions, and the element stiffness matrix is derived based on the
strain-displacement relationship and the beam's constitutive equations. Here's a
derivation outline:
Assumptions:
1. Euler-Bernoulli Beam Theory: This theory assumes that the beam experiences
small deformations and rotations, with bending occurring about the axis
perpendicular to the cross-section (bending in the y-z plane for a beam oriented
along the x-axis).
2. Linear Elastic Material: The beam material obeys Hooke's law and exhibits linear
elastic behaviour.
Strain-Displacement Relationship:
The strain-displacement relationship for bending in the y-z plane can be expressed

as:
46
where R is the radius of curvature of the beam at a given point and 𝑦y is the transverse
displacement.
Beam Bending Equation:
The bending behaviour of the beam is governed by the Euler-Bernoulli beam
equation:

where:
 M is the bending moment,
 EI is the flexural rigidity (product of Young's modulus and the beam's moment of
inertia),
w(x) is the transverse displacement function,
 x is the axial coordinate along the beam's length.
Element Stiffness Matrix:
The element stiffness matrix for a beam element can be derived by considering the
virtual work principle, which states that the work done by external forces is equal to
the internal strain energy. By expressing the internal strain energy in terms of the
strain and displacement, and integrating over the element length, we can derive the
element stiffness matrix.
Derivation Steps:
1. Displacement Field: Express the transverse displacement 𝑤(𝑥)w(x) as a series of
polynomial functions (shape functions) within the element.
2. Strain-Displacement Relation: Use the strain-displacement relationship to
express the strain in terms of the displacement.
3. Constitutive Equation: Use the beam bending equation to relate the bending
moment 𝑀M to the curvature (second derivative of displacement).
4. Virtual Work Principle: Express the internal strain energy in terms of the
displacement and integrate over the element length.
5. Finite Element Formulation: Apply the finite element method to discretize the
beam element and derive the element stiffness matrix using shape functions,
integration, and numerical.

Que -Derivation of element stiffness matrix and geometric stiffness matrix for
a beam element.
To derive the geometric stiffness matrix for a beam element, we consider the effects
of large displacements and rotations on the stiffness characteristics of the beam. The
geometric stiffness matrix captures the stiffness contributions arising from changes in
geometry, such as changes in member length or orientation, and is particularly
significant in nonlinear structural analysis. Here's a derivation outline:
Assumptions:

47
1. Euler-Bernoulli Beam Theory: We use the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory to
describe the behaviour of slender beams subjected to bending. This theory
assumes small strains but allows for large displacements and rotations.
2. Linear Elastic Material: The beam material obeys Hooke's law and exhibits linear
elastic behaviour.
3. Nonlinear Deformations: We account for large displacements and rotations,
which induce changes in member lengths and orientations, leading to nonlinear
effects in the structural response.
Bending Deformation:
The bending deformation of the beam is described by the curvature 𝜅κ, which is
related to the second derivative of the displacement function 𝑤(𝑥) with respect to the
axial coordinate x:

Geometric Stiffness Contribution:

The geometric stiffness matrix arises from the virtual work done by internal forces due
to changes in the geometry of the structure. In the case of a beam element, the
geometric stiffness contribution comes from changes in member lengths and rotations
induced by large displacements and rotations.
Derivation Steps:
1. Strain-Displacement Relation: Use the strain-displacement relationship to
express the strain in terms of the displacement and curvature.
2. Geometric Stiffness Contribution: Derive the virtual work done by internal
forces due to changes in member lengths and rotations induced by large
displacements and rotations.
3. Integration: Integrate the virtual work expression over the element length to
obtain the geometric stiffness matrix.

Que- Stress-strain relations

Ans The stress-strain relationship describes the response of a material to applied
mechanical loads in terms of the resulting stress and strain. This relationship is
fundamental in understanding the mechanical behaviour of materials and is
commonly represented by constitutive equations that relate stress to strain. Here's an
overview:
Linear Elastic Material:
For linear elastic materials, the stress-strain relationship is characterized by Hooke's
Law, which states that the stress (σ) is directly proportional to the strain (ε). In one
dimension, this relationship is expressed as:
𝜎=𝐸⋅𝜀
Where:

48
 σ is the stress (force per unit area),
 ε is the strain (dimensionless deformation),
 E is the Young's modulus (modulus of elasticity) of the material.
Three-Dimensional Stress-Strain Relationship:
In three dimensions, stress and strain are tensors, and the stress-strain relationship
can be expressed using a constitutive matrix known as the stiffness matrix (D):

Where:
 𝜎𝑖𝑗 and 𝜀𝑖𝑗 are the stress and strain components in the 𝑖-th and j-th directions,
respectively.
 𝜏𝑖𝑗 and 𝛾𝑖𝑗 are the shear stress and shear strain components, respectively.
Nonlinear Material Behaviour:
For nonlinear materials like plastics, rubbers, and metals beyond their elastic limit, the
stress-strain relationship may exhibit nonlinear behaviour. This can include yielding,
strain hardening, and strain softening. The stress-strain relationship for nonlinear
materials is typically represented using empirical models or experimental data.
Viscoelastic and Anisotropic Materials:
Viscoelastic materials exhibit time-dependent behaviour, where the stress-strain
relationship depends not only on the applied load but also on the loading rate and
time. Anisotropic materials have mechanical properties that vary with direction,
leading to different stress-strain relationships in different directions.
Importance:
 The stress-strain relationship is essential for predicting the mechanical response
of materials under various loading conditions.
 It is used in the design and analysis of structures and components in engineering
applications.
 Understanding the stress-strain behaviour helps in selecting appropriate materials
for specific applications and in optimizing material properties for desired
performance.

Unit – 3
Que -Different steps involved in FEM.
Ans The Finite Element Method (FEM) is a powerful computational technique for
solving complex engineering problems. Here's a breakdown of the key steps involved
in FEM analysis:
1. Pre-processing:
49
 Define Geometry: This involves creating a digital representation of the object or
system under study. This can be done using Computer Aided Design (CAD)
software or dedicated pre-processing tools within the FEM software itself.
 Mesh Generation: The complex geometry is then discretized into a mesh of
smaller, simpler elements. These elements can be triangles, quadrilaterals,
tetrahedrons, etc., depending on the problem and software. The choice of element
type and mesh density significantly impacts the accuracy and efficiency of the
analysis.
 Material Properties: Each element in the mesh is assigned material properties
like Young's Modulus (stiffness), Poisson's Ratio, density, etc. These properties
define how the material within that element will respond to applied loads.
 Boundary Conditions: Define how the object interacts with its surroundings. This
involves specifying fixed supports (where the object is anchored), applied loads
(forces, moments, pressures) acting on the object, and other constraints that
restrict movement.
2. Problem Formulation:
 Governing Equations: Depending on the type of analysis being performed
(structural, thermal, fluid flow etc.), establish the governing equations that describe
the physical behaviour of the system. These equations typically involve
relationships between forces, displacements, stresses, strains, heat flow, etc.
 Weak Form Formulation: The principle of virtual work or minimum potential
energy is applied to convert the governing equations into a weak form suitable for
numerical solution using FEM. This weak form allows for incorporating different
boundary conditions and material properties within the elements.
3. Element Level Solution:
 Derive Element Stiffness Matrix (K): For each element type used in the mesh, a
mathematical relationship called the element stiffness matrix (K) is derived. This K
matrix relates the applied forces (loads) acting on the element's nodes (connection
points) to the resulting displacements at those nodes. The derivation considers the
element's geometry, material properties, and chosen shape functions (functions
that describe how the displacement varies within the element).
 Assemble Global Stiffness Matrix and Load Vector: The element stiffness
matrices from all elements are combined and assembled into a single, large global
stiffness matrix (K_global). This matrix represents the stiffness characteristics of
the entire discretized system. Similarly, the element load vectors are assembled
into a global load vector (F_global) representing all the applied loads on the model.
4. Solution:
 Solve the System of Equations: Use a suitable numerical solver to solve the
system of linear equations formed by the global stiffness matrix (K_global) and the
global load vector (F_global). This system of equations yields the unknown nodal
displacements (u) throughout the model. These displacements represent the
deformation of the object or system under the applied loads.
50
5. Post-processing:
 Calculate Derived Results: Once the nodal displacements are obtained, post-
processing tools are used to calculate derived results such as stresses, strains,
heat fluxes, or other relevant quantities at various points within the model. These
derived results provide a more complete picture of the object's behavior under
load.
 Visualization: The results are visualized through color plots, contours, or
animations to effectively understand the distribution of stresses, strains,
temperatures, etc., within the object or system. This helps engineers identify critical
areas and evaluate the overall performance.
 Validation and Verification: It's crucial to compare the FEM results with analytical
solutions (if available) or experimental data for validation. This ensures the model
accurately reflects the real-world behaviour. Additionally, verification checks
ensure that the chosen mesh density and solution settings provide reliable results.
6. (Optional) Design Optimization:
Based on the analysis results, the design of the object or system can be iteratively
modified to improve its performance or efficiency. This may involve adjusting the
geometry, material selection, or boundary conditions, followed by rerunning the FEM
analysis to evaluate the impact of these changes.

Que - Different approaches of FEM

Ans The primary approaches and techniques used within the FEM framework.
There are two main ways to categorize different approaches within the Finite
Element Method (FEM):
1. Variational Approaches vs. Direct Approaches: These categories differentiate
how the governing equations of the problem are formulated for the FEM solution.
2. Types of Finite Element Analyses: This categorization focuses on the specific
physical phenomena being analysed using FEM.
Here's a breakdown of both approaches:
1. Variational Approaches vs. Direct Approaches:
 Variational Approaches (Most Common):
o This is the most widely used approach in FEM.
o It utilizes principles like minimum potential energy or virtual work.
o These principles translate the governing differential equations into a weak form,
which relaxes the requirements for continuity of functions involved.
o This weak form allows for easier incorporation of different boundary conditions
and material properties within elements.
o Popular examples of variational approaches include the Galerkin method and the
mixed method.
 Direct Approaches:
o Less commonly used compared to variational approaches.

51
o Involves directly applying the governing differential equations to each element
and enforcing continuity conditions between elements.
o This method can be more complex to implement, especially for problems with
complex boundary conditions.
2. Types of Finite Element Analyses:
FEM can be applied to analyse various physical phenomena by incorporating
specific governing equations and solution techniques. Here are some common
types of FEM analyses:
 Structural Analysis: This is the most common application of FEM. It involves
analysing the stress, strain, and deformation of structures under various loading
conditions.
 Heat Transfer Analysis: FEM is used to study heat flow and temperature
distribution within objects.
 Fluid Mechanics Analysis: This type of analysis investigates fluid flow patterns,
pressures, and forces within fluids.
 Contact Mechanics: FEM can analyse the interaction between contacting
surfaces, considering factors like friction and wear.
 Electromagnetic Analysis: This analysis helps understand the behaviour of
electromagnetic fields and their interaction with materials.
 Additional Considerations:
 Non-linear Analysis: Standard FEM assumes linear material behaviour and
small displacements. Advanced approaches can handle non-linear material
behaviour and large deformations.
 Time-Dependent Analysis
For problems involving dynamic loading or transient behaviour, FEM can be
extended to time-dependent analysis. Methods include:
Explicit vs. Implicit Methods: These are solution techniques used within FEM to
solve the system of equations. Explicit methods are better suited for transient
dynamic problems, while implicit methods are more efficient for static and quasi-
static problems.
 Weighted Residuals Approach
This approach involves constructing an approximate solution to the governing
differential equations and ensuring that the residuals (errors) are minimized in an
average sense. Common methods under this approach include:
1. Galerkin Method: Uses the same shape functions for both the trial solution and
the weight functions.
2. Least Squares Method: Minimizes the square of the residuals.
3. Collocation Method: Forces the residuals to be zero at selected points.

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THE DIRECT METHOD in the Finite Element Method (FEM) is a straightforward
and intuitive approach primarily used for solving simple structural problems like
trusses, beams, and frames. This method involves formulating the system of
equations based on equilibrium and compatibility conditions directly from the
physical structure. Here’s a detailed outline of the direct method:
Steps in the Direct Method
1. Discretization of the Structure
The first step involves breaking down the entire structure into smaller, manageable
finite elements. Each element is connected at specific points called nodes. For
example, in a truss, the elements are the individual bars, and the nodes are the
joints.
2. Derivation of Element Stiffness Matrices
For each finite element, derive the element stiffness matrix (𝐾_𝑒). This matrix relates
the nodal displacements (𝑢_𝑒) to the nodal forces (𝑓_𝑒) for that element:
F_e=K_eu_e
Example for a Truss Element:
For a truss element with nodes 𝑖 and 𝑗, the stiffness matrix Ke in local coordinates

is:
where E is the Young's modulus, A is the cross-sectional area, and L is the length of
the element.
3. Assembly of Global Stiffness Matrix
Combine the individual element stiffness matrices into a global stiffness matrix (K)
that represents the entire structure. This is done by ensuring that the nodal
displacements and forces are consistent across shared nodes between elements.
Assembly Process:
1. Initialize a global stiffness matrix K of appropriate size (depending on the total
number of degrees of freedom).
2. For each element, add its stiffness matrix to the appropriate locations in the
global stiffness matrix.
4. Application of Boundary Conditions
Modify the global stiffness matrix and force vector to account for boundary
conditions. This usually involves setting the displacements for fixed nodes to zero
and adjusting the force vector accordingly.
Typical Boundary Conditions:
 Fixed Support: Zero displacement and/or rotation.
 Pinned Support: Zero displacement in certain directions.
5. Solution of the System of Equations
Solve the resulting system of linear equations:
KU=F

53
where U is the vector of unknown nodal displacements, and F is the global force
vector.
Solution Methods:
 Direct Solvers: Gaussian elimination, LU decomposition.
 Iterative Solvers: Conjugate gradient method, especially for large systems.
6. Postprocessing
Once the nodal displacements are determined, compute other quantities of interest
such as element stresses, strains, and reaction forces at supports.
Example Calculations:
 Element Stresses: Use the nodal displacements to find the axial force in each
truss element and then calculate the stress.
 Reaction Forces: Use the global stiffness matrix and the known displacements
to determine the reaction forces at the supports.
Example: Solving a Simple Truss Problem
Consider a simple truss with three nodes (A, B, C) and two elements (AB and BC).
Node A is fixed, and a load 𝑃P is applied at node C.
Step-by-Step Solution:
1. Discretization:
 Nodes: A, B, C.
 Elements: AB, BC.
2. Element Stiffness Matrices:

 For element AB:

 For element BC:
3. Assembly:
 Combine KAB and KBC into the global stiffness matrix K.
4. Boundary Conditions:
 Node A: 𝑢𝐴=0 (fixed).
 Apply load P at node C.
5. Solution:
 Solve KU=F for the unknown displacements at nodes B and C.
6. Postprocessing:
 Calculate stresses in elements AB and BC.
 Determine reaction forces at node A.

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 Energy approach
The energy approach in the Finite Element Method (FEM) is a powerful method that
uses the principles of energy to derive the system of equations for a structure. This
approach is particularly useful because it provides a unified framework for dealing
with various types of problems, including linear and non-linear, static and dynamic
analyses.
Basic Concept: Principle of Minimum Potential Energy
The principle of minimum potential energy states that for a stable equilibrium, the
potential energy of a structure is at a minimum. This principle can be used to derive
the governing equations for the structure.
Steps in the Energy Approach
1. Define the Total Potential Energy
The total potential energy (ΠΠ) of a structure is the sum of its strain energy (𝑈U)
and the potential energy of the applied external forces (𝑉V):
Π=𝑈−𝑉
Strain Energy (U):
The strain energy stored in an elastic body due to deformation is given by:

where σ is the stress vector, ϵ is the strain vector, and V is the volume of the body.

Potential Energy of External Forces (𝑉V):

The potential energy of external forces applied to the structure is:
where f is the body
force vector, T is the traction vector on the surface 𝑆S, and u is the displacement
vector.
2. Approximate Displacement Field Using Shape Functions
The displacement field within each finite element is approximated using shape
functions (N_i) and nodal displacements (u_i):

where n is the number of nodes in the element, and ξ represents the local
coordinates within the element.
3. Formulate the Potential Energy Functional
Substitute the approximated displacement field into the expressions for strain
energy and potential energy. This transforms the integrals into sums over the finite
elements:

55
 where K_e is the element stiffness matrix, u_e is the vector of
nodal displacements for element e, and f_e is the vector of equivalent nodal forces.
4. Minimize the Potential Energy Functional
The total potential energy functional ΠΠ is minimized with respect to the nodal

displacements:
This results in the system of equations for the structure. In matrix form, it can be
expressed as:
KU=F
where K is the global stiffness matrix, U is the global displacement vector, and F is
the global force vector.
5. Assemble the System of Equations
The individual element stiffness matrices and force vectors are assembled into the
global stiffness matrix and force vector. This assembly process considers the
connectivity of the elements to ensure compatibility and equilibrium at the nodes.
6. Apply Boundary Conditions and Solve the Equations
Boundary conditions are applied to the global system of equations, modifying the
stiffness matrix and force vector as necessary. For example, fixed displacements
(Dirichlet boundary conditions) are enforced by setting the corresponding entries in
the displacement vector to known values and adjusting the stiffness matrix and force
vector accordingly.
After applying the boundary conditions, the resulting system of linear equations is
solved to find the unknown nodal displacements: KU=F
Advantages of the Energy Approach:
 More efficient for complex problems: The weak form allows for easier
incorporation of different boundary conditions and material properties within
elements. This makes the energy approach more efficient for handling complex
problems with varying conditions.
 Better suited for large systems: The weak form provides a more relaxed
enforcement of continuity conditions, making it computationally efficient for
problems with a large number of elements.
 Weaker continuity requirements: The weak form allows for some variation in
the solution within elements, simplifying the solution process compared to the
direct method.

56
Disadvantages of the Energy Approach: Slightly more abstract: The energy
approach can be slightly more abstract and require a deeper understanding of the
underlying energy principles compared to the direct method.

Weighted residual Method.

The weighted residual method is a general technique used to solve various
engineering problems, including those tackled with the Finite Element Method
(FEM). It provides a foundational framework upon which FEM builds upon. Here's a
breakdown of the weighted residual method:
Concept:
The weighted residual method aims to find approximate solutions to differential
equations that govern physical phenomena. It achieves this by introducing a
weighted residual function and enforcing the condition that this residual becomes
zero in some average sense over the entire domain of the problem.
Steps involved in the Weighted Residual Method:
1. Governing Equation: Define the governing differential equation that describes
the physical behaviour of the system. This equation typically involves an
unknown variable (e.g., temperature, displacement) and its derivatives.
2. Trial Solution: Assume an approximate solution for the unknown variable. This
solution often involves a weighted sum of basic functions (shape functions) with
unknown coefficients.
3. Substitute into Governing Equation: Substitute the assumed trial solution into
the governing differential equation. This will generally result in a residual term
representing the error between the approximate solution and the true solution of
the differential equation.
4. Weighting Function: Introduce a weighting function. This function can be
chosen strategically to influence how the residual is averaged across the domain.
There are different choices for weighting functions, and the specific choice can
affect the accuracy and convergence of the solution.
5. Weighted Residual Statement: Multiply the residual by the weighting function
and integrate the resulting product over the entire domain of the problem. This
enforces the concept of minimizing the average weighted residual.
6. Discretization (Optional): For complex geometries, the domain can be
discretized into smaller elements. This step leads to a system of algebraic
equations that can be solved numerically.
Relationship to FEM:
The Finite Element Method (FEM) is a powerful application of the weighted residual
method. In FEM, the following specific choices are made:
 Trial Solution: The trial solution is typically a weighted sum of shape functions
that are chosen based on the element type (e.g., linear, quadratic) used in the
mesh.

57
 Weighting Function: In FEM, the weighting function is often chosen to be the
same as the shape functions themselves (Galerkin method). This leads to a
strong enforcement of the residual being minimized across each element.
 Discretization: The discretization step in FEM becomes crucial, dividing the
complex geometry into elements and allowing for efficient solution using
numerical methods.
Advantages of the Weighted Residual Method:
 Versatility: Applicable to a wide range of engineering problems governed by
differential equations.
 Flexibility: Different choices of trial solutions, weighting functions, and
discretization techniques can be used.
Disadvantages of the Weighted Residual Method:
 Can be abstract: Understanding the concepts behind the residual and weighting
function might require some initial effort.
 Error control: Depending on the choices made, the method may require careful
consideration to ensure accuracy and convergence of the solution.

Finite Element modelling of one- and two-dimensional problems.

Ans Finite Element Modeling (FEM) of one-dimensional (1D) and two-dimensional
(2D) problems involves creating mathematical models of physical systems using
finite elements to approximate the solution of partial differential equations. Here's a
detailed overview of the process for both 1D and 2D problems:
1D Finite Element Modeling
1D problems typically involve structures such as rods, beams, and trusses, where
the primary variable changes along a single spatial dimension.
Steps in 1D FEM:
1. Problem Definition:
 Define the physical problem (e.g., axial deformation of a rod).
 Establish the governing differential equation.
 Specify boundary conditions and material properties.
2. Discretization:
 Divide the domain into finite elements (e.g., line segments).
 Identify nodes at element boundaries.
3. Shape Functions:
 Select shape functions to interpolate the solution within each element.
 Commonly used shape functions for 1D linear elements are

x/L.
4. Formulate Element Equations:
 Derive the element stiffness matrix (K_e) and force vector (F_e) using the
governing differential equation.

58
 For a simple rod under axial load: and F_e depends on the
applied loads.
5. Assembly:
 Assemble the global stiffness matrix (K) and global force vector (F) from the
individual element matrices.
 Ensure continuity and equilibrium at the nodes.
6. Apply Boundary Conditions:
 Modify the global equations to incorporate boundary conditions (e.g., fixed or free
ends).
7. Solve the System of Equations:
 Solve the system KU=F for the nodal displacements (U).
8. Postprocessing:
 Calculate derived quantities such as stresses and strains from the nodal
displacements.
Example: Axial Deformation of a Rod
Given a rod of length L, cross-sectional area A, and Young's modulus E, subjected
to an axial force P at the free end:
1. Discretization: Divide the rod into n elements.
2. Shape Functions: Use linear shape functions for each element.
3. Element Stiffness Matrix:

4. Assembly: Assemble the global stiffness matrix and force vector.

5. Boundary Conditions: Apply 𝑢(0)=0 and P at the free end.
6. Solution: Solve for nodal displacements.
7. Postprocessing: Calculate stress 𝜎=𝐸.Δ𝑢/𝐿 .
2D Finite Element Modeling
2D problems involve structures such as plates, membranes, and shells, where
variables change along two spatial dimensions.
Steps in 2D FEM:
1. Problem Definition:
 Define the physical problem (e.g., stress analysis of a plate).
 Establish the governing differential equations (e.g., equilibrium equations in
elasticity).
 Specify boundary conditions and material properties.
2. Discretization:
 Divide the domain into finite elements (e.g., triangles, quadrilaterals).
 Identify nodes at element vertices and possibly along edges.

59
3. Shape Functions:
 Select appropriate shape functions for 2D elements (e.g., linear or quadratic).
 For a triangular element, linear shape functions are N1(ξ,η)=1−ξ−η, N2(ξ,η)=ξ,
and N3(ξ,η)=η.
4. Formulate Element Equations:
 Derive the element stiffness matrix (Ke) and force vector (Fe) using the
governing differential equations.
T
 For plane stress/strain problems, Ke=∫ΩeB DBdΩ, where B is the strain-
displacement matrix and 𝐷D is the material matrix.
5. Assembly:
 Assemble the global stiffness matrix (K) and global force vector (F) from the
individual element matrices.
 Ensure continuity and equilibrium at the nodes.
6. Apply Boundary Conditions:
 Modify the global equations to incorporate boundary conditions (e.g., fixed edges,
applied loads).
7. Solve the System of Equations:
 Solve the system KU=F for the nodal displacements (U).
8. Postprocessing:
 Calculate derived quantities such as stresses, strains, and reaction forces.
Example: Plane Stress Analysis of a Rectangular Plate
Given a rectangular plate of dimensions L×W, thickness t, Young's modulus E, and
Poisson's ratio ν, subjected to a uniform load 𝑞q on its surface:
1. Discretization: Divide the plate into triangular or quadrilateral elements.
2. Shape Functions: Use linear or quadratic shape functions for the chosen
element type.
3. Element Stiffness Matrix: Calculate using Ke=∫ΩeBTDBdΩ.
4. Assembly: Assemble the global stiffness matrix and force vector.
5. Boundary Conditions: Apply fixed or roller boundary conditions as needed.
6. Solution: Solve for nodal displacements.
7. Postprocessing: Calculate stresses and strains using the nodal displacements.

Unit – 4
Isoparametric elements
Isoparametric elements are a fundamental concept in finite element analysis (FEA)
that provide a unified approach to representing both the geometry and the field
variables (e.g., displacement) using the same set of shape functions. This technique
is highly effective for handling complex geometries and higher-order elements.
Key Concepts
1. Parametric Coordinates: Isoparametric elements use a set of local (or
parametric) coordinates, typically denoted as 𝜉,𝜂,𝜁ξ,η,ζ, which range from -1 to 1.
These coordinates simplify the integration and transformation processes.
60
2. Shape Functions: The same shape functions are used to describe both the
geometry of the element and the approximation of the field variables.
3. Mapping: The physical coordinates 𝑥,𝑦,𝑧x,y,z are mapped from the parametric
coordinates using the shape functions.
Benefits of Isoparametric Elements
 Flexibility in Element Shapes: They can represent straight-edged and curved
geometries.
 Higher-Order Continuity: Easily allows for higher-order polynomial
approximations.
 Simplified Numerical Integration: Integration over the element is performed in
the parametric coordinate system, often using Gaussian quadrature.
Types of Isoparametric Elements
Isoparametric elements can be classified based on their dimensionality and shape:
 1D Elements: Line elements.
 2D Elements: Triangular or quadrilateral elements.
 3D Elements: Tetrahedral or hexahedral elements.
Formulation of Isoparametric Elements
1. Shape Functions:
 Define shape functions 𝑁𝑖Ni in parametric coordinates.
 For a 2D quadrilateral element, typical bilinear shape functions are:

61
Jacobian Matrix: The Jacobian matrix J is used to transform derivatives from the
parametric to the physical coordinate system:

Example: 2D Quadrilateral Element

For a 2D quadrilateral element:
1. Shape Functions: same as above.
2. Geometry Mapping:

3. Jacobian Matrix:

4. Stiffness Matrix:
 Compute the element stiffness matrix by integrating the transformed
equations over the parametric domain.
In finite element analysis, four-node and eight-node elements are commonly used
for modeling 2D problems. These elements differ in the number of nodes and the
degree of polynomial used in their shape functions, affecting their ability to model
various types of problems with different levels of accuracy.

Que - Four-Node Quadrilateral Element (Q4)

The four-node quadrilateral element, often referred to as a Q4 element, is a basic
and widely used element in 2D finite element analysis. It is a linear element because
its shape functions are linear polynomials.
Shape Functions
For a four-node quadrilateral element, the shape functions N_i in the natural (or
parametric) coordinates (ξ,η) are defined as follows:

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Geometry Mapping
The physical coordinates (𝑥,𝑦) are interpolated from the natural coordinates (ξ,η)
using the shape functions and the nodal coordinates (𝑥𝑖,𝑦𝑖)

Characteristics
 Linear Variation: The displacement within the element varies linearly.
 Applications: Suitable for problems where the solution varies linearly or
approximately linearly over the element.
 Limitations: May not accurately model bending or curved boundaries without
using a finer mesh.
Eight-Node Quadrilateral Element (Q8)
The eight-node quadrilateral element, also known as a Q8 element, is a higher-
order element with quadratic shape functions. It provides more accurate results for
problems with complex geometries and varying stress distributions.
Shape Functions
For an eight-node quadrilateral element, the shape functions 𝑁𝑖Ni in the natural
coordinates (𝜉,𝜂)(ξ,η) are:

Geometry Mapping
The physical coordinates (x,y) are interpolated from the natural coordinates (ξ,η)
using the shape functions and the nodal coordinates (𝑥𝑖,𝑦𝑖):

63
Characteristics
 Quadratic Variation: The displacement within the element varies quadratically,
allowing for more accurate modeling of curved boundaries and bending.
 Applications: Suitable for problems with complex stress distributions and
geometries.
 Increased Computational Cost: Requires more computational resources
compared to four-node elements due to additional nodes and higher-order shape
functions.

Que - ORDER OF INTEGRATION

The order of integration refers to the number of integration points (also known as
Gauss points) used in numerical integration schemes such as Gauss quadrature. In
the context of finite element analysis (FEA), the order of integration is crucial for
accurately evaluating integrals over elements, particularly for the stiffness matrix
and load vector calculations.
Integration in Finite Element Analysis
In FEA, integrals are often evaluated using numerical integration techniques. The
accuracy of these techniques depends on the number of integration points. Higher-
order polynomials require higher-order integration to be accurately integrated.
Here’s how the integration order applies to different finite elements:
Gauss Quadrature
Gauss quadrature is a common numerical integration method used in FEA. It
approximates the integral of a function over an interval by a weighted sum of
function values at specified points within the interval.
For a one-dimensional integral over an interval [−1,1][−1,1]:

where:
 ξi are the Gauss points (integration points).
 wi are the weights associated with each Gauss point.
 n is the number of integration points (order of integration).
Orders of Integration for Common Elements

64
1D Elements
 Linear (2-node) Element:
 First-order (1-point): Integrates constant functions exactly.
 Second order (2-point): Integrates linear functions exactly.
 Quadratic (3-node) Element:
 Third order (3-point): Integrates quadratic functions exactly.
2D Elements
For 2D elements like triangles and quadrilaterals, the integration is performed over
the area of the element using a product of one-dimensional integrals or specialized
schemes for triangular elements.
 Four-node Quadrilateral (Q4) Element:
 First-order (1-point): Integrates linear functions over the element.
 Second order (4-point): Typically uses 2x2 integration points, integrates
quadratic functions exactly.
 Eight-node Quadrilateral (Q8) Element:
 Third order (9-point): Typically uses 3x3 integration points, integrates cubic
functions exactly.
 Three-node Triangular (T3) Element:
 First-order (1-point): Integrates linear functions exactly.
 Second order (3-point): Integrates quadratic functions exactly.
 Six-node Triangular (T6) Element:
 Third order (7-point): Integrates cubic functions exactly.

NODES
In finite element analysis (FEA), nodes and elements are fundamental concepts
used to discretize a continuous domain into smaller, manageable parts for analysis.
Here's an overview of nodes and elements in FEA:
Nodes
Nodes are points in space where the primary variables of interest (such as
displacements, temperatures, or concentrations) are defined. They serve as the
fundamental building blocks of finite element models.
Characteristics:
 Spatial Location: Nodes have specific coordinates in the physical domain.
 Degrees of Freedom (DOFs): Each node typically has associate degrees of
freedom, such as displacements in each spatial direction (translations) and
rotations (for structural analysis).
 Interpolation: The values of primary variables between nodes are interpolated
using shape functions to obtain a continuous representation of the field within the
domain.
 Connectivity: Nodes are connected to form elements, defining the connectivity
of the finite element mesh.
65
Functions:
 Supporting Structure: Nodes provide support for elements and facilitate the
application of boundary conditions.
 Solution Points: Nodal values are computed during the solution process,
forming the basis for calculating element responses and overall system
behaviour.

Primary nodes occur at the ends of one-dimensional elements or at the corners in

the two or three dimensional elements. Secondary nodes occur along the side of an
element but not at corners. Figure 4.13 shows such nodes. Internal nodes are the
one which occur inside an element. They are specific to the element selected i.e.
there will not be any other element connecting to this node. Such nodes are
selected to satisfy the requirement of geometric isotropy while choosing
interpolation functions. Figure 4.13 shows such nodes for few typical cases.

ELEMENTS
Elements are geometric shapes that connect nodes and form the basis for
discretizing the domain. They represent the physical behaviour of the system under
consideration and define how the primary variables vary spatially.
Based on the shapes elements can be classified as
1. One dimensional element
2. Two dimensional elements
3. Axi-symmetric elements
4. Three dimensional elements.

66
These elements are suitable for the analysis of one-dimensional problem and may
be called as line elements also. Figure 4.1 shows different types of one-dimensional
elements.

TWO DIMENSIONAL ELEMENTS

We need two dimensional elements to solve two dimensional problems. Common
two-dimensional problems in stress analysis are plane stress, plane strain and plate
problems. Two dimensional elements often used is three noded triangular element
shown in Fig. 4.2. It has the distinction of being the first and most used
element.These elements are known as Constant Strain Triangles (CST) or Linear
Displacement Triangle

Six noded and ten noded triangular elements (Fig. 4.3) are also used by the
analysts. Six noded triangular element is known as Linear Strain Triangle (LST) or
as Quadratic Displacement Triangle. Ten noded

(a) &' ( (b) triangular elements

are known as Quadratic Strain Triangles (QST) or Cubic Displacement
Triangles. One can think of trying the use of still higher order triangular elements
like Cubic Strain Triangles and Quartic Strain Triangles.
A simple but less used two-dimensional element is the four noded rectangular
element whose sides are parallel to the global coordinate systems (Fig. 4.5). This
67
system is easy to construct automatically but it is not well suited to approximate
inclined boundaries.
Rectangular elements of higher order also can be used. Figure 4.6 shows a family
of Lagrange rectangle in which nodes are in the form of grid points. Figure 4.7
shows the family of Serendipity rectangles which are having nodes only along the
external boundaries.

Quadrilateral Elements are also used in finite element analysis (Fig. 4.8). Initially
quadrilateral elements were developed by combining triangular elements (Fig. 4.9).
But it has taken backstage after isoparametric concept was developed.
Isoparametric concept is based on using same functions for defining geometries and
nodal unknowns. Even higher order triangular elements may be used to generate
quadrilateral elements.

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COORDINATE SYSTEMS play a crucial role in finite element analysis (FEA) as
they define the spatial reference frame for modeling and analysing structures. There
are several types of coordinate systems commonly used in FEA, each serving
specific purposes and offering unique advantages. Here are some key coordinate
systems used in FEA:
Global Coordinate System
The global coordinate system is the primary reference frame for the entire FEA
model. It is typically a Cartesian coordinate system with three orthogonal axes (X, Y,
Z) used to define the overall geometry and orientation of the structure.
 Origin: The origin of the global coordinate system is often chosen based on
convenience or the geometry of the structure.
 Orientation: The orientation of the axes is usually aligned with the physical
directions of the structure, such as the X-axis along the length of a beam or the
Z-axis pointing upward in a 2D plane.
Local Coordinate System
Each element in an FEA model can have its own local coordinate system, which is
often aligned with the element's geometry to simplify the analysis. Local coordinate
systems are useful for defining element properties and orientations relative to the
global coordinate system.
 Element Axes: The local coordinate system for an element typically has its origin
at one of the element's nodes and its axes aligned with the element's edges or
principal directions.
 Transformation: Transformations are used to convert quantities from the local
coordinate system to the global coordinate system and vice versa.
Natural Coordinate System
The natural coordinate system is a normalized coordinate system used for
integration purposes in FEA. It is defined within each element and is often denoted
by ξ (xi) and η (eta) for two-dimensional elements and ξ, η, and ζ (zeta) for three-
dimensional elements.
 Range: Natural coordinates typically range from -1 to 1 and are used to define
the shape functions and interpolate properties within an element.
 Integration: Integrals over an element are often performed in the natural
coordinate system, simplifying the integration process.

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 Global Coordinate System

Local coordinate system

Natural Coordinate system

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