ADRIAN LEFTWICH A common discipline? The particular or the general?

Introduction: Argument and Issues The passage you've provided raises important
questions about the study of politics as an academic
The definition and understanding of politics is indeed a
discipline and the variation in what is taught and
complex and multifaceted matter
studied within it. Here are some key points to
1. Definition of Politics: Politics is a term that can be consider:
difficult to define precisely because it encompasses a
wide range of activities, processes, and phenomena.
Some common elements in various definitions of politics 1. **Diversity in Political Studies:** The text
include the exercise and distribution of power, decision- highlights the significant variation in the content of
making, and governance. political studies among different countries and even
within the same country, depending on the academic
2. Universal Feature or Societal Variation: One
institution and faculty's focus. For example, the study
fundamental question is whether politics is a universal
of politics in the USA may emphasize topics related
feature of all human societies or if it is confined to
to American government and democracy, while in the
specific types of societies. This leads to discussions
UK, it might include political philosophy, institutions,
about stateless societies and whether they have politics.
and comparative politics.
3. Institutional Arenas vs. Generalized Process: The
text mentions two dominant approaches to defining
politics. The first is the "arena" or "site" approach, which 2. **Variation in Teaching Approaches:** Not only is
limits politics to certain societies with states and specific there variation in subject matter, but also in teaching
institutional sites or processes. The second is the approaches. Some political science departments
"processual" approach, which sees politics as a more might emphasize quantitative and scientific analysis,
generalized and universal process present wherever while others adopt a more historical, normative, and
humans exist, taking different forms in different qualitative approach.
contexts. This raises questions about the scope and
nature of politics in stateless societies.
3. **Common Ground in the Study of Politics:** The
4. Politics in Non-Human Species: The text briefly
text raises the question of whether there is a common
touches on the idea of politics existing in non-human
terminological, conceptual, and theoretical
species, such as chimpanzees, where social manipulation
foundation that underpins the discipline of politics.
to secure influential positions is observed. This raises
In other words, are there shared elements that allow
questions about the boundaries of political behavior and
students of politics from different countries to engage
whether it's unique to humans.
in coherent discussions about politics?
5. Discipline of Politics: The text mentions the
discipline of Politics and its composition. This involves
questions about how politics is studied, understood, and 4. **Two Approaches to the Study of Politics:** The
taught as an academic field. text suggests two main approaches to the study of
politics:
6. Origins, Forms, Distribution, and Control of
Power: Despite the various definitions and approaches, - **Scientific Approach:** This approach seeks to
the text suggests that a common concern in the study of identify general principles, processes, regularities,
politics is the analysis of power, including its origins, and patterns that underlie all politics. It aims to
forms, distribution, and control. Understanding and uncover and analyze these general aspects of politics,
analyzing power dynamics is a central theme in political similar to how economists seek economic regularities.
studies. This approach is more concerned with explanation
and probabilistic analysis.
7. Explanatory Differences: While there might be some
common ground in the study of politics, the text - **Humanistic Approach:** In contrast, the
acknowledges that differences exist in how politics is humanistic approach sees the study of politics as a
explained and understood. These differences relate to more qualitative, historical, and normative exercise.
how politics happens, how it works, and how it should It focuses on understanding and evaluating specific
be analyzed and taught. processes in particular contexts. It may involve moral
judgments and is more concerned with the
The concept of politics is complex and multifaceted.
uniqueness of local and historical situations.
Different approaches exist, ranging from limiting
politics to specific institutional sites to viewing it as a
universal and generalized human process. These
definitions and approaches have implications for the 5. **Integration of Approaches:** The text also
study of politics and how power is analyzed and raises the possibility of the study of politics
understood. encompassing both scientific and humanistic
approaches. This integration would allow for a
The Need for a Definition comprehensive understanding of politics, combining
general principles with specific, context-dependent informal institutions that govern society. The focus is
analysis. on how institutions, both formal and informal, set
rules and norms for human behavior.
Methodologically, the study of politics as governing
In summary, the study of politics can vary involves examining the interplay between various
significantly in terms of content and approach, but institutional spheres and their impact on governance.
the fundamental question is whether there are
common elements or a shared theoretical framework
that unites the discipline. The distinction between a Each of these conceptions directs attention to
scientific and humanistic approach to the study of different aspects of political analysis and offers
politics reflects the ongoing debate within the field distinct explanations for political events. However,
about its nature and purpose. Students of politics there are areas of overlap and potential for
may need to consider which approach aligns with complementary analysis among these conceptions.
their goals and interests within the discipline. The key takeaway is that one's definition of politics
and the accompanying methodology will influence the
Definitions shape interpretations
questions asked and the explanations offered in the
This passage emphasizes the important connection study of politics. Therefore, it is essential to be self-
between one's definition or conception of politics and aware about the chosen approach and its
the methodology one employs to study political implications for research and analysis.
phenomena. The choice of how to define politics
Thinking clearly, thinking politically
significantly shapes the research questions asked, the
types of evidence considered, and the approach to The third reason highlighted in the passage
analysis. The passage provides three illustrative underscores the importance of addressing the
conceptions of politics and how they lead to different question "What is Politics?" for the purpose of
methodologies and explanatory focuses: developing consistency and clarity of thought and
judgment in political analysis and discussions. Here's
a breakdown of this point:
1. **Rational Choice Conception of Politics:** This
conception views politics as a marketplace in which
rational actors pursue their self-interests to maximize 1. **Consistency and Clarity of Thought:** The
benefits and minimize costs. In this approach, the process of defining and clarifying the meaning of
focus is on the rational calculations made by politics, as undertaken by political philosophy and
individuals or groups, considering changing costs and other fields, helps in achieving consistency and clarity
benefits of different actions or policies. in thinking about political matters. By explicitly
Methodologically, it requires identifying the interests specifying meanings, making distinctions, and
at stake and measuring evidence of changing enhancing understanding, individuals can navigate
balances of costs and benefits to the parties involved. complex political issues with more precision.
The key to explaining political outcomes lies in the
accommodations and compromises that different
interests make to achieve the best possible deal. 2. **Implications for Analysis:** As discussed earlier
in the passage, different conceptions of politics lead
to varying methodologies and conclusions. Clarity in
2. **Marxist Conception of Politics:** According to the definition of politics enables individuals to choose
this view, politics is fundamentally a class struggle, appropriate methods of analysis and align their
and the existence of classes is a prerequisite for approach with their underlying assumptions and
politics. It emphasizes class interests and relative meanings. It helps avoid conceptual confusion and
class power in analyzing political events. In the inconsistency in analytical processes.
context of South Africa, for example, a Marxist
approach would examine the role of economic growth
in strengthening the black working class, which 3. **Active Listening:** The process of clarification
eventually demanded social justice and equality. is not only about analytical or explanatory activity
Methodologically, this approach looks at the relative but also about actively listening to political
power and interests of different classes in shaping discussions. Active listening involves recognizing the
political outcomes. conception of politics being employed in a
conversation, understanding the arguments that
follow, and assessing their consistency and adherence
3. **Governing Conception of Politics:** This to underlying assumptions. This kind of active
conception expands the scope of politics to include engagement is valuable in comprehending the
governance, where institutions play a pivotal role in nuances of political debates.
shaping behavior and interaction in society. Politics,
in this sense, is not limited to government institutions
but encompasses the broader web of formal and
4. **Enhancing Understanding:** A clear and - **Applicability to Stateless Societies:** This
consistent understanding of the concept of politics approach acknowledges that politics can be found not
equips individuals to comprehend political only within formal state institutions but also in non-
discussions more effectively. When engaged in state or stateless societies, where power dynamics
political discourse, readers or participants who have exist among different groups based on various
a well-defined conception of politics can better grasp criteria.
what is being said and engage in more meaningful
- **Broad Application:** Neil Carter's argument
and informed arguments.
extends the concept of politics to the interaction
between humans and nature, indicating a
comprehensive and all-encompassing view of politics.
In summary, the clarification of the concept of
politics contributes to consistency and clarity in
political thought, supports effective analysis, aids
The passage raises a critical question regarding the
active listening in political discussions, and enhances
process approach: If politics is defined so broadly
overall understanding of political matters. This
and includes virtually all human interactions, what
understanding enables individuals to engage in
remains distinctive about it? This question highlights
political debates with greater insight and coherence.
the challenge of finding a balance between a
A Simple Classification of Meanings of Politics comprehensive understanding of politics and a
meaningful distinction that captures its unique
Process or arena?
aspects.
The passage discusses two primary ways in which
theorists conceive of politics: as a process or as a site
or arena. Each approach has different implications In summary, the passage illustrates the tension
for how politics is defined and understood. Here's an between a narrower, institution-focused view of
analysis of these two approaches: politics and a broader, all-encompassing process-
oriented perspective, emphasizing that how politics is
defined significantly influences the scope and
1. **The Arena Approach:** boundaries of its application.

- **Focus on Specific Sites:** The arena approach Extensive or limited?

defines politics in terms of specific institutional sites
The passage discusses a further distinction within the
or arenas where binding decisions for a whole society
arena/site and process approaches to defining
are made. These sites often include the state,
politics. It delves into whether these approaches are
government, local government, and similar
extensive or limited in their scope. Here's an analysis
institutions.
of this additional distinction:
- **Key Feature:** The central idea here is that
only governments, state institutions, and official
bodies have the authority to define policies, make 1. **Limited Arena/Site-Based Approach:**
binding decisions, and establish rules that apply to
- **Scope of Politics:** Some scholars who adopt
the entire society.
the arena/site-based institutional approach define
- **Emphasis on Binding Decisions:** Politics, politics as limited to formal and public governmental
from the perspective of the arena approach, decision-making. This includes matters like tax
primarily concerns the activities and processes policy, welfare provision, law reform, education, or
leading up to binding decisions, as well as the local government functions.
institutions responsible for making those decisions.
- **Exclusions:** Within this limited scope, debates
and disputes within private institutions or non-
governmental organizations, such as corporations,
2. **The Process Approach:**
football clubs, or television stations, are not
- **Wider and Generalized Perspective:** In considered politics. These scholars argue that an
contrast, the process approach conceives of politics as issue becomes "political" only when governments
a broader and more generalized phenomenon in intervene or establish rules regarding those disputes.
human societies. It encompasses a wide range of
activities and interactions that go beyond specific
institutional arenas. 2. **Extensive Arena/Site-Based Approach:**
- **Inclusive View:** Proponents of the process - **Wider Scope of Politics:** Other
approach argue that politics occurs pervasively institutionalists take a broader view, encompassing
across various institutions, groups, and activities, not all formal institutions as sites of politics. They regard
limited to state or government contexts. It includes politics as present within all institutions, not just
power dynamics, control, decision-making, and government. Christopher Hill's study of horse-racing
resource allocation in any human interaction.
institutions is cited as an example of this broad - **Methodological Tools:** It has been
perspective. strengthened by adopting mathematical and
statistical techniques, often developed in economics
- **Governance Perspective:** Some proponents of
and political economy. These tools are used for
governance consider politics as integral to all
quantitative measurement and analysis.
interactions within and between public and private
institutions, both formal and informal. This includes - **Examples:** This approach involves identifying
government, courts, banks, chambers of commerce, and measuring factors that influence political
trade unions, professional associations, as well as phenomena, such as good governance and state
cultural norms, ideologies, and societal structures. capture (i.e., the undue influence of private interests
on the state). Researchers may differentiate various
- **International and Non-Public Institutions:**
forms and methods of influence, such as corruption,
The most extensive view even considers the influence
policy shaping, legal decisions, and political
of foreign, international, and inter-governmental
contributions.
institutions, both public and private, on local and
national politics. - **Assumption:** This approach assumes that
general patterns exist below the surface of political
events, which can be revealed through comparative
3. **Processual Approach:** quantitative research, highlighting the variables that
shape these patterns as reflected in statistical
- **Definition of Politics:** Processual approaches regularities.
focus on defining politics as a distinctive process
involving activities of conflict, negotiation, and
cooperation over the use and distribution of
2. **Emphasis on Uniqueness and Contingency:**
resources, regardless of whether these activities occur
within formal institutions or not. - **Historical and Philosophical Roots:** This
approach traces its origins to the study of history,
- **Scope of Processual Politics:** The extent of
constitutional history, and political philosophy. It
inclusivity can vary. Some, like Bernard Crick,
places a strong emphasis on the unique and
emphasize reasoned debate and compromise over
historically specific aspects of political events.
public policy as the essence of politics. They exclude
war, civil violence, or revolutionary practices from - **Methodological Tools:** It relies on historical
the definition of politics. context, qualitative evaluation, empathetic
understanding, and judgment. Max Weber's concept
- **Crick's Perspective:** Bernard Crick
of "Verstehen" (understanding) is influential in this
specifically defines politics as the way in which free
approach.
societies are governed. He states that politics is
distinct from other forms of rule, making a clear - **View on General Patterns:** This approach
demarcation between politics and non-political forms rejects the idea that deeper general patterns are
of governance. universal in politics. Instead, it emphasizes
understanding the particular history, culture,
intentions, and meanings of participants in specific
The passage highlights that both the arena/site-based political contexts.
and processual approaches can have extensive or
limited scopes, depending on how scholars define
politics. This distinction is essential because it The passage acknowledges that there are positions in
influences what scholars consider as political and between these two extremes, and many political
shapes their understanding of the political process. analyses attempt to combine both approaches. It
raises the key question of whether the study of
Science or interpretation?
politics should primarily be a scientific and
This passage discusses the distinction between two quantitative endeavor or whether the complex nature
fundamental approaches to the study of politics: one of politics requires a more qualitative approach. This
focused on uncovering deeper patterns, regularities, question is essential in shaping one's understanding
and general "laws" underlying political events, and of what politics is and how to analyze it.
the other emphasizing the unique, contingent, and
historically specific aspects of political episodes.
Here's an analysis of these approaches: In summary, the understanding of politics can be
mapped based on the approach's focus on
institutional sites or processes, the range of
1. **Search for Deeper Patterns and Regularities:** institutions or processes considered, and whether the
approach assumes the existence of general patterns
- **Roots:** This approach has its roots in the or focuses on particular stories and contexts. The
behavioral tradition, particularly in the United States passage also notes that it's possible to integrate
during the 1930s. different approaches and levels of analysis to develop
comprehensive explanations for political phenomena, 1. **Political Processes in Defining Politics:**
as seen in the example of the collapse of apartheid in
- Defining politics and specifying the content of the
South Africa.
discipline of Politics are themselves political
DISCIPLINES processes.
This passage discusses the concept of disciplines and - These definitions arise from the interplay of
the nature of the discipline of Politics. Here are the different ideas, interests, institutions, and power
key points from the passage: dynamics.
- There are no universally "official" definitions of
politics or the discipline of Politics. In some cases,
1. **Disciplines as Organized Fields of Study:**
efforts have been made to provide a general
- A discipline is defined as an organized field of description, but these descriptions also evolve
study or a subject. through complex political processes involving
academics and institutions.
- Disciplines are not fixed or universally defined;
they are shaped by human beings, evolve over time,
and interact with their environment and with other
2. **Common Concern of Political Analysts:**
disciplines.
- Political analysts share a common concern with
the study of political power, encompassing its
2. **Defining Characteristics of Disciplines:** sources, forms, distribution, use, control,
consequences, and analysis.
- Disciplines are primarily distinguished by the
types of problems they address, the questions they - What differentiates political analysts are the
ask about those problems, and the theoretical and specific foci, levels of analysis, and analytical
analytical frameworks they use to ask and answer frameworks they use.
those questions.
- Disciplines are also defined by conventions and
3. **Role of Concepts and Theories:**
the collective practices of the people who work within
them. - Concepts and theories (analytical frameworks)
are essential for making explanatory sense of the
"facts" of politics.
3. **Is Politics a Discipline?**
- Debates within the discipline of Politics often
- Despite the diverse understandings and revolve around which concepts and theories best
approaches within the field of politics, the answer to explain political phenomena.
whether Politics can be considered a discipline is yes.
- The central concern of those who study politics is
The passage emphasizes that thinking politically
power, particularly political power and its effects.
involves more than just participating in public
- Different theorists and schools of thought debates or making moral judgments about political
approach the question of power in various ways, such issues. It entails curiosity about explaining how and
as focusing on the sources of power, micro-politics, or why things are the way they are, understanding their
macro-politics. consequences, predicting future developments, and
considering what might be necessary for change. The
- Politics is at the crossroads where various social discipline of Politics offers various explanatory
science disciplines intersect because the analysis and approaches to understanding the uses and abuses of
understanding of power are crucial for political power, allowing individuals to begin
understanding how any society functions. thinking politically by exploring and combining these
approaches.

The passage underscores the dynamic and evolving

nature of academic disciplines, including Politics, and
emphasizes that the study of politics is fundamentally
concerned with the analysis and explanation of the
dynamics of power.
CONCLUSION: THINKING POLITICALLY
This passage addresses three key points regarding
the nature of the discipline of Politics: