Memory Circuits

Memory is the most essential element of a computing system because without it computer can’t
perform simple tasks. Both types of memory (RAM and ROM) are important for the computer,
but they serve different purposes. RAM is used to store data that the computer is currently
using, while ROM is used to store data that the computer needs to boot and operate. RAM is
faster than ROM, as the data stored in it can be accessed and modified in any order, while data
stored in ROM can only be read.
Computer memory is of two basic types:
1. Primary memory (RAM and ROM)
2. Secondary memory (Hard Drive, CD, etc).

What is RAM?
Random Access Memory, is a type of computer memory that allows data to be read and written
randomly, meaning that the computer can access any location in the memory directly rather
than having to read the data in a specific order. This makes RAM an essential component of a
computer system, as it enables the CPU to access data quickly and efficiently.
RAM is volatile in nature, which means if the power goes off, the stored information is lost.
RAM is used to store the data that is currently processed by the CPU. Most of the programs
and data that are modifiable are stored in RAM.

RAM Block Diagram

Types of RAM?
Mainly RAM have 2types
• SRAM (Static RAM)
• DRAM (Dynamic RAM
What is SRAM?
The SRAM memories consist of circuits capable of retaining the stored information as long as
the power is applied. That means this type of memory requires constant power. SRAM
memories are used to build Cache Memory.
SRAM Memory Cell
Static memories(SRAM) are memories that consist of circuits capable of retaining their state
as long as power is on. Thus this type of memory is called volatile memory. The below figure
shows a cell diagram of SRAM. A latch is formed by two inverters connected as shown in the
figure. Two transistors T1 and T2 are used for connecting the latch with two-bit lines. The
purpose of these transistors is to act as switches that can be opened or closed under the control
of the word line, which is controlled by the address decoder. When the word line is at 0-level,
the transistors are turned off and the latch remains its information. SRAM does not require
refresh time. For example, the cell is at state 1 if the logic value at point A is 1 and at point, B
is 0. This state is retained as long as the word line is not activated.

SRAM Memory Cell

For the Read operation, the word line is activated by the address input to the address decoder.
The activated word line closes both the transistors (switches) T1 and T2. Then the bit values at
points A and B can transmit to their respective bit lines. The sense/write circuit at the end of
the bit lines sends the output to the processor.
For the Write operation, the address provided to the decoder activates the word line to close
both switches. Then the bit value that is to be written into the cell is provided through the
sense/write circuit and the signals in bit lines are then stored in the cell.
What is DRAM?
DRAM stores the binary information in the form of electric charges applied to capacitors. The
stored information on the capacitors tends to lose over a period of time and thus the capacitors
must be periodically recharged to retain their usage. DRAM requires refresh time. The main
memory is generally made up of DRAM chips.
DRAM Memory Cell
Though SRAM is very fast, it is expensive because of its every cell requires several transistors.
Relatively less expensive RAM is DRAM, due to the use of one transistor and one capacitor in
each cell, as shown in the below figure., where C is the capacitor and T is the transistor.
Information is stored in a DRAM cell in the form of a charge on a capacitor and this charge
needs to be periodically recharged.
For storing information in this cell, transistor T is turned on and an appropriate voltage is
applied to the bit line. This causes a known amount of charge to be stored in the capacitor. After
the transistor is turned off, due to the property of the capacitor, it starts to discharge. Hence, the
information stored in the cell can be read correctly only if it is read before the charge on the
capacitors drops below some threshold value.

DRAM cell

Difference Between SRAM and DRAM

The below table lists some of the differences between SRAM and DRAM
.
SRAM DRAM

SRAM stands for Static Random Access DRAM stands for Dynamic Random
Memory. Access Memory.

Uses a capacitor and a transistor to store

Uses a flip-flop circuit to store data
data
SRAM DRAM

SRAM has a lower access time, so it is faster DRAM has a higher access time, so it is
compared to DRAM. slower than SRAM.

SRAM has long data life. DRAM has short data life.

DRAM, which is often found in tablets

SRAM has a storage capacity of 1 MB to 16
and smartphones, has a capacity of 1 GB
MB in most cases.
to 2 GB

SRAM is costlier than DRAM. DRAM costs less compared to SRAM.

SRAM provides faster speed of data DRAM provides slower speed of data
read/write. read/write.

SRAM requires a constant power supply, DRAM offers reduced power

which means this type of memory consumes consumption due to the fact that the
more power. information is stored in the capacitor.

Good choice for applications that may be

Not suitable for such applications.
exposed to extreme temperatures.

Due to complex internal circuitry, less Due to the small internal circuitry in the
storage is available compared to the same one-bit memory cell of DRAM, a large
physical size of a DRAM memory chip. storage capacity is available.

SRAM has low packaging capacity. DRAM has a high packaging density.

SRAM is used in cache memories. DRAM is used in main memories.

SRAM does not require refresh time. DRAM requires periodic refresh time.

SRAMs are used as cache memory in DRAMs are used as main memory in
computer and other computing devices. computer systems.

Application:
Random access memory (RAM) is a computer's short-term memory that's used for many
applications, including:
 • Multitasking: RAM allows you to run multiple applications at once without your
computer slowing down.
• Loading applications: RAM helps your computer load applications quickly.
• File handling: RAM helps you edit and process large files, like videos or images, more
smoothly.
• Web browsing: RAM allows you to open more browser tabs at once without your
computer slowing down.
• Gaming: Modern games often require a lot of RAM to run well.

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

Read Only Memory (ROM) is a type of computer memory that is used to permanently store
data that does not need to be modified. ROM is non-volatile memory, which means that the
data stored in it is retained even when the power is turned off. ROM is typically used to store
the computer’s BIOS (basic input/output system), which contains the instructions for booting
the computer, as well as firmware for other hardware devices.
• Stores crucial information essential to operate the system, like the program essential to
boot the computer.
• It is non-volatile.
• Always retains its data.
• Used in embedded systems or where the programming needs no change.
• Used in calculators and peripheral devices.
• ROM is further classified into four types- M ROM , PROM , EPROM , and EEPROM .

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

Types of Read-Only Memory (ROM)
 1. PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory)
2. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
3. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
4. MROM (Mask Read Only Memory)
1. PROM (Programmable read-only memory): It can be programmed by the user. Once
programmed, the data and instructions in it cannot be changed.
2. EPROM (Erasable Programmable read-only memory): It can be reprogrammed. To erase
data from it, expose it to ultraviolet light. To reprogram it, erase all the previous data.
3. EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory): The data can be
erased by applying an electric field, with no need for ultraviolet light. We can erase only
portions of the chip.
4. MROM(Mask ROM): Mask ROM is a kind of read-only memory, that is masked off at the
time of production. Like other types of ROM, mask ROM cannot enable the user to change the
data stored in it. If it can, the process would be difficult or slow.
Advantages of Read Only Memory (ROM)
• Non-volatility: ROM is non-volatile memory, which means that the data stored in it is
retained even when the power is turned off. This makes it ideal for storing data that
does not need to be modified, such as the BIOS or firmware for other hardware devices.
• Reliability: Because the data stored in ROM is not easily modified, it is less prone to
corruption or errors than other types of memory.
• Power Management: ROM consumes less power compared to other types of memory,
which makes it an ideal memory for portable devices.
Disadvantages of Read Only Memory (ROM)
• Limited Flexibility: ROM is read-only memory, which means that the data stored in it
cannot be modified. This can be a problem for applications or firmware that need to be
updated or modified.
• Limited Capacity: The capacity of ROM is typically limited, and upgrading it can be
difficult or expensive.
• Cost: ROM can be relatively expensive compared to other types of memory, such as
hard drives or solid-state drives, which can make upgrading the memory of a computer
or device more costly.

Application:
Read-Only Memory (ROM) has many applications, including:
• Computers: ROM stores the BIOS and other low-level software that's needed to boot
up the computer, such as hardware initialization routines and self-test procedures.
 • Smartphones: ROM is used to start up the system on modern smartphones.
• Video games: ROM is used in gaming consoles and games for systems that use
cartridges.
• Other devices: ROM is used in many other devices, including digital watches, video
cassette recorders (VCRs), digital versatile discs (DVDs), graphing calculators, digital
speed meters, smart TVs, washing machines, microwaves, induction stoves, and TV
remote controls.
• Firmware: ROM stores firmware for self-contained devices like hard disk drives,
solid-state drives, optical disc drives, and TFT screens.

Difference Between RAM and ROM

Parameter RAM ROM

Storage Type Temporary Storage. Permanent Storage.

Storage Capacity Store data in MBs. Store data in GBs.

Data Volatility Volatile. Non-volatile.

Usage Used in normal operations. Used for startup process of computer.

Data Writing Speed Writing data is faster. Writing data is slower.

 Programmable Logic Devices

Programmable Logic Array (PLA)

PLA is a programmable logic device. PLA consist of two level AND-OR configuration. The
input are applied to the AND matrix through input buffer and output buffer of AND matrix is
applied to the OR matrix. The input of two or more PLA devices should be connected
individually in parallel, then this connection the Number of input and the number of product
terms will remain unchanged but the Number of output lines is increased
. The size of PLA specified as I*P*O
. I= denotes the number of input. P = corresponds to the no of product terms. O= denotes the
number of output.
Key components of a PLA:
• Input Buffer:
Provides the input signals to the AND array in both true and complemented forms.
• AND Array:
A matrix of programmable AND gates where each row represents a product term (combination
of input variables) that can be selected by connecting specific input lines.
• OR Array:
A matrix of OR gates where the outputs from the AND array are connected to create the final
output based on the selected product terms.
Combinational Logic Design using PLA
In the field of digital electronics, the PLAs are extensively used for designing combinational
logic circuits. The greatest advantage of designing combinational circuits using PLAs is that
PLA consist of programmable AND and OR arrays which allows to implement custom desired
logic functions.
The step-by-step procedure to design a combinational logic circuit using PLAs is explained
below −
Step 1 − Develop a PLA program table that shows the inputs, product terms, and outputs.
Step 2 − Design the AND matrix that can generate the desired product terms.
Step 3 − Design the OR matrix that can generate the desired output.
Step 4 − Design the invert/non-invert matrix to set the active-low or active-high output.
Step 5 − Finally, program the PLA by utilizing the PLA program table.
Example :Design a full-adder circuit using programmable logic array (PLA).
A full-adder consists of three-inputs and two outputs. Since it has 3 inputs, thus there are total
8 product terms which are given in the following truth table of the full adder −

Inputs Outputs

A B Cin S Cout

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 1 0

0 1 0 1 0

0 1 1 0 1

1 0 0 1 0

1 0 1 0 1

1 1 0 0 1

1 1 1 1 1
From this truth table, the output sum (S) and the output carry (Cout) are given by,

From these two Boolean expressions, we can see that there are seven product terms and two
sum terms. The PLA program table for this full-adder circuit is shown below –

In this PLA program table, "1" stands for the connection and "-" stands for the absence of the
product term in the output. "T" stands for true and it represents the active-high output.
The PLA circuit diagram of the full adder is shown in the following figure.

This example illustrates the complete step-by-step procedure to implement a combinational

logic circuit using PLA.

Applications of PLAs in combinational logic:

• Custom logic design:
PLAs are particularly useful when implementing complex logic functions that cannot be easily
realized with standard logic gates, allowing for tailored designs for specific applications.
• Code conversion:
Encoding and decoding circuits can be designed using PLAs to convert data between different
formats.
• Arithmetic operations:
Logic circuits for addition, subtraction, and other arithmetic operations can be implemented
with PLAs.
• Control logic:
PLAs can be used to generate control signals for complex systems based on multiple input
conditions.
• Data processing:
Data manipulation functions like bit manipulation or data selection can be achieved using
PLAs.
Advantages of using PLAs:
 • Flexibility:
The programmable nature allows for easy modification of logic functions by changing the
connections within the AND and OR arrays.
• Compact design:
Compared to implementing complex logic with individual gates, PLAs can offer a more space-
efficient solution.
• Efficient implementation of SOP logic:
PLAs naturally represent logic functions in SOP form, which simplifies the design process.
Limitations of PLAs:
• Complexity for large functions:
When dealing with a high number of inputs and complex logic functions, the PLA design can
become intricate and difficult to manage.
• Potential for high power consumption:
Depending on the implementation, a large PLA may consume more power compared to a
custom-designed logic circuit.