Mwalusi Electrical

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Electricity is the flow of current or electrons in an electric circuit. Substances

that allow electrons to flow freely are called conductors and those that don't
are called insulators.
TYPES OF ELECTRICITY
There are two types of electric current these being static electricity and
dynamic electricity.
Static electricity: This is electricity that does not flow, it is static electricity
that causes two bodies to stick together (positively and positively charged
bodies). Static electricity is normally produced by friction and can not be taken
from one place to another.
Dynamic electricity: This is the electricity that flows in conductors. In our
study will focus much on dynamic electricity.
MATTER
Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight or mass. Matter can be
divided into three classes these being solids, liquids and gasses. Matter is
made up of molecules, which can be further divided into small blocks known
as atoms.
An atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element that can take part in
a chemical reaction. An atom consists of the following
Nucleus: this is the central part of an atom that consists of the neutrons (no
charge) and protons which are positively charged.
Electrons: these are negatively charged particles that surround the nucleus.
An atom
Electricity was defined as the flow of electrons; there is a force of attraction
that exists between the nucleus (protons which are positively charged) and
the electrons which are negatively charged. In conductors the force of
attraction between electrons and protons is weak hence electrons can easily
move while in insulators the force of attraction between the electrons and
protons is very high hence electrons can not easily move.
IONISATION
Ionisation is the process by which an atom gains or losses an electron. An
atom that has lost or gained an electron is known as an ion. A positive ion is
known as a cation (it moves towards the positively charged electrode) and a
negatively charged ion is known as a anion (it moves towards a positive
electrode).
LAW OF CHARGES
The law of charges states that like charges repel while unlike charges attract
each other.
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MAIN EFFECTS OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT

The three main effects of an electric current are
a) Magnetic effect
b) Chemical effect
c) Heating effect
Some of the practical effects of an electric current include

Magnetic effect: bells, relays, motors, generators, transformers, telephones,
car ignition and lifting magnets
Chemical effect: primary and secondary cells and electroplating
Heating effect: cookers, water heaters, electric fires, irons, furnaces, kettles
and soldering irons.
Other effects of an electric current include gas ionisation effect, special rays
effect and the shock effect.
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
For electric current to flow there has to be an electric circuit which is the path
through which current flows. The following are the components that make or
are needed in an electric circuit.
· Source of supply e.g. generators, cells etc
· Conductors e.g. cables, wires etc
· Safety devices such as fuses, circuit breakers etc
· Controlling devices such as switches, isolators etc
· Consuming devices or load e.g. lamps, cooker, radio etc
TYPES OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS

Electron current: this is a current that flows from negative to positive in a
circuit.
Conventional current: this is the current that flows from positive (live) to
negative (Neutral) in an electric circuit. In our study of power electrical current
will always refer to conventional current unless stated.
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TYPES OF ELECTRIC CIRCUIT S

Electric circuits can be divided into four classes as given below
i) Closed circuit
ii) Open circuit
iii) Short circuit
iv) Earth or leakage circuit
Closed circuit: this is a complete path through which current flows e.g. when
a lamp or radio comes on the path that current would have taken so that the
lamp comes on is known as a closed circuit.
Open circuit: This is a circuit through which current cannot flow due to an
opening in the circuit that can be caused by a conductor that is cut , the fuse
that is blown, or a switch that is open.
Short circuit: This is the circuit that is formed when the load is bypassed and
two conductors at different potentials come in contact e.g. connecting the live
and neutral together or different phases together.
Earth or Leakage circuit: This is a circuit that is formed when a live
conductor touches the metallic casing of an appliance.
DEFINITION OF ELECTRICAL TERMS

Resistance R: This is the opposition that a conductor offers to the flow of
current in an electric circuit. Resistance is measured in ohms by an instrument
known as an ohmmeter.
Electromotive force emf: this is the force that causes the flow of electrons in
a circuit. It is measured in volts by a voltmeter..
Potential difference p.d: this is the difference in potential between two points
in an electrical circuit. Potential difference is measured in volts by an
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instrument known as a voltmeter and is usually less than the emf. A potential
difference is caused by a difference in charge (electrons) between two points.
Voltage V: This is the difference in potential between any two conductors in a
circuit e.g. live and neutral, between phase conductors. Voltage is measured
by an instrument known as a voltmeter and is measured in volts.
Voltage drop: This is the voltage that is developed across a component or
conductor due to the resistance of the component or conductor. Voltage drop
is measured in volts by a voltmeter.
Terminal Voltage VT: This is the voltage at the terminals of the source of
supply. It is measured in volts by a voltmeter.
Conductance G: This is the reciprocal of resistance (G = 1/R) and is
measured in siemens. Conductance can also be defined as the property of a
which allows the flow of current. Conductors have large conductance while
insulators have small conductance.
Electric current I: This is the flow of electrons in a circuit and is measured in
amperes or amps by an instrument known as an ammeter.
Ohm Ω: This is the unit of resistance and is defined as the opposition that is
offered to a current of 1 amp in a circuit which has the potential difference of 1
volt.
Amp A: This is the unit of current and is defined as the current that flows in a
circuit of resistance of 1 ohm and a potential difference of 1 volt.
Volt V: This is a unit of voltage and is defined as the voltage that causes a
current of 1 amp to flow in a circuit of resistance 1 ohm.
OHMS LAW
Ohms law states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance
provided the temperature is kept constant.
IαV
Iα1
R
IαV
R
From which we get V = IR
EXAMPLE 1
The current flowing through a resistor is 0.8 A when a p.d. of 20 V is applied.
Determine the value of the resistance.
SOLUTION
Data
I = 0.8 A
V = 20 V
From ohms law R = V = 20 = 25 Ω

I 0.8
ELECTRICAL POWER AND ENERGY

When a direct current of I amperes is flowing in an electric circuit and the
voltage across the circuit is V volts, then
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Power in watts P = VI = I2R = V2

R
Electrical energy = power x time

= VIt joules
Although the unit of energy is the joule, when dealing with large amounts of
energy, the unit used is the kilowatt hour (KWh) where
1 KWh = 1000 watt hour
= 1000 x 3600 watt second or joules
= 3 600 000 J
QUANTITY OF ELECTRICITY
This is the measure of electricity (charge) that passes through a point in a
given time. It is measured in coulombs (C). the quantity of electricity is
denoted by the letter Q.
Quantity of electricity, Q = current, I x time in seconds, s
A coulomb is defined as the quantity of electricity which flows past a given
point in an electric circuit when a current of one ampere is maintained for one
second.
EXAMPLE 2
If a current of 5 A flows for 2 minutes, find the quantity of electricity
transferred.
SOLUTION
Data
I=5A
t = 2 min
Quantity of electricity, Q = It coulombs
= 5 x (2 x 60)
= 600 C
EXAMPLE 3
A source of e.m.f 5 V supplies a current of 3 A for 10 minutes. How much
energy is produced in this time?
SOLUTION
Data
V=5V
I=3A
t = 10 min
Electrical energy = V I t = 5 x 3 x (10 x 60) = 9 000 Ws or 9 000 J
EXAMPLE 4
An electric kettle has a resistance of 30 Ω. What current will flow when it is
connected to a 240 V supply? Find also the power rating of the kettle.
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SOLUTION
Data
R = 30 Ω
V = 240 V
Current, I = V = 240 = 8 A
R 30
Power = VI = 240 x 8 = 1920 W
Alternatively P = I2R = 82 x 30 = 1920 W or P = V2 = 2402 = 1920 W

R 30
FACTORS THAT AFFECT RESISTANCE

The following are the factors that affect resistance these being
i) The length of a conductor: the resistance of a conductor is
directly proportional to the length (R α L) i.e. the longer the length of
a conductor the higher the resistance and vice versa.
ii) Area of the conductor: Resistance of a material is inversely
proportional to the cross sectional area of a conductor i.e. the larger
a conductor the lower its resistance and vice versa. (R α 1/a)
iii) Type of material: Different materials have different values of
resistance e.g. the resistance of copper is different from that of
aluminium.
iv) Temperature: An increase in temperature increases the resistance
of a conductor and in a few materials like carbon an increase in
temperature reduces its resistance. Substances whose resistance
increases with a rise in temperature have a positive temperature
coefficient and those whose resistance reduces with a rise in
temperature have a negative temperature coefficient.
From the factors i) and ii) above the following formula is obtained that relates
area and the length of a conductor.
Resistance, R = resistivity x length = ρ L
Area a
Where ρ is the resistivity (specific resistance) which is defined as the

resistance of a unit cube of the material measured between opposite faces of
the judgement. Resistivity is measured in ohm metres.
EXAMPLE 5
The resistance of a 5 m length of wire is 600 Ω. Determine a) the resistance
of an 8 m length of the same wire, and b) the length of the same wire when
the resistance is 420 Ω.
SOLUTION
Data
L=5m
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R = 600 Ω
a) Resistance is directly proportional to length, L i.e. R α L
Hence, 600 α 5 m or 600 = (k)(5), where k is the constant of

proportionality.
Hence
k = 600 = 120
5
When the length L is 8 m, then resistance
R = kL = 120 x 8 = 960 Ω
b) When the resistance is 420 Ω, 420 = kL from which
Length L = 420 = 420 = 3.5 m

k 120
EXAMPLE 6
Calculate the resistance of a 2 km length of aluminium overhead power cable
if the cross sectional area of the cable is 100 mm2. Take the resistivity of
aluminium to be 0.03 x 10-6 Ωm.
SOLUTION
Data
L = 2000m
a = 100 mm2 (100 x 10-6 m2)
ρ = 0.03 x 10-6 Ωm
Resistance, R = ρ L = (0.03 x 10-6)(2000) = 0.03 x 2000 = 0.6 Ω

a 100 x 10-6 m2 100
EXERCISE 7
The resistance of 1.5 km of the wire of cross sectional area 0.17 mm2 is 150
Ω. Determine the resistivity of the wire.
SOLUTION
Data
R = 150 Ω
a = 0.17 mm2 (0.17 x 10-6)
L = 1 500 m
Resistance R = ρ L
a
Resistivity, ρ = R a = (150 Ω)(0.17 x 10 -6m2) = 0.017 x 10 -6 Ωm or 0.017µΩm

L (1 500 m)
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EXERCISE 8
Determine the resistance of 1200 m of copper cable having a diameter of 12
mm if the resistivity of copper is 1.7 x 10-8 Ωm
SOLUTION
Data
L= 1200 m
d = 12 mm
ρ = 1.7 x 10 -8 Ωm
Cross sectional area, a = πr2 = π x (6)2 = 36π mm2 = 36π x 10-6 m2
Resistance R = ρ L = (1.7 x 10-8 Ωm)(1200m) = 0.180 Ω

a (36π x 10-6m2)
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE (α)

The temperature coefficient of resistance is the rise in resistance of a material
per degree rise in temperature to the original resistance.
Temperature coefficient, αt = 1 .
1+t
αo
where αo is the temperature coefficient of resistance at zero degrees

t is the temperature at which the temp. coeff. Is to be determined.
Resistance at any temperature is given by R t = Ro ( 1 + αo t )
Resistance at temperature T 1 is given by R 1 = R o ( 1 + αo t1 ) …………(i)
Resistance at temperature T 2 is given by R 2 = R o ( 1 + αo t2 ) …………(ii)
Combining relationships (i) and (ii) above gives R2 = Ro ( 1 + α o t2 )

R 1 R o ( 1 + α o t1 )
From which we get R 2 = R1 (1 + αo t2)

(1 + αo t1)
R2 can also be given by R2 = R1 [1 + α1 (t2 – t1)]
EXAMPLE 9
A coil of copper wire has a resistance of 100 Ω when its temperature is 0oC.
Determine its resistance at 70 oC. If the temperature coefficient of resistance
of copper at 0oC is 0.0043/oC
SOLUTION
Data
R = 100 Ω
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t1 = 0 oC
t2 = 70oC
αo = 0.0043/oC
Resistance Rt = Ro(1 + α o t)
Hence resistance at 70oC, R 70 = 100[1 + (0.0043)(70)]
= 100[1 + 0.301]
= 100[1.301]
= 130.1 Ω
EXAMPLE 10
An aluminium cable has a resistance of 27 Ω at a temperature of 35 oC.
Determine its resistance at 0oC. Take the temperature coefficient of
resistance at 0oC to be 0.0038/oC.
SOLUTION
Data
R = 27 Ω
t = 35oC
αo = 0.0038/oC
Resistance Rt = Ro (1 + αo t)
Hence resistance at Ro = Rt = 27 .
(1 + αo t) [1 + (0.0038)(35)]
= 27 .
1.133
= 23.83 Ω
EXAMPLE 11
A carbon resistor has a resistance of 1 kΩ at 0oC. Determine its resistance at
80oC. Assume that the temperature coefficient of carbon at 0oC is –
0.0005/oC.
SOLUTION
Data
Resistance Rt = Ro (1 + αo t)
= 1000[1 + (- 0.0005)(80)
= 1000[1 – 0.040]
= 960 Ω
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EXAMPLE 12
A coil of copper wire has a resistance of 10 Ω at 20 oC. If the temperature
coefficient of resistance of copper at 20oC is 0.004/oC determine the
resistance of the coil when the temperature rises to 100 oC
SOLUTION
Data
R = 10 Ω
t1= 20 oC
t2 = 100oC
α1 = 0.004/oC
Resistance at 0oC, R = R1 [1 + α1 (t2 – t1)]
Hence resistance at 100oC, R 100 = 10 [1 + 0.004 (100 – 20)]
= 10[1 + (0.004)(80)]
= 10[1 + 0.32]
= 10(1.32)
= 13.2 Ω
EXAMPLE 13
A copper wire has a resistance of 200 Ω at 20oC. A current is passed through
the wire and the temperature rises to 90oC. Determine the resistance of the
wire at 90 oC, correct to the nearest ohm, assuming the temperature
coefficient of resistance is 0.004/oC.
SOLUTION
Data
R1 = 200 Ω
t1 = 20oC
t2 = 90oC
αo = 0.004/oC
R2 = Ro (1 + α o t2)
R1 = Ro (1 + α o t1)
From which we get R 2 = R1 (1 + αo t2)

(1 + αo t1)
R90 = 200[1 + 0.004(90)]

[1 + 0.004(20)]
= 200[1 + 0.36]
[1 + 0.08]
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= 200(1.36)
(1.08)
= 251.85 Ω
Therefore the resistance at 90oC is 252 Ω
CONNECTION OF RESISTORS
Resistors can be connected in either in series or parallel. They can also have
a series parallel combination.
RESISTORS IN SERIES
The diagram below shows two resistors connected in series and whenever
resistors are connected is series the following should be noted
i) The same current flows though the circuit
ii) The supply voltage is the sum of the individual voltage drops (V =
V1 + V2)
iii) The total resistance is the sum of the individual resistances (RT = R1
+ R2 )
R1 R2
V1 V2
I I
V
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
The diagram below shows the connection of two resistors in parallel and when
resistors are connected in parallel the following is true
I1 R1
R2
I2
I I
V
i) The same voltage acts across both resistors
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ii) The supply current is the sum of the individual branch currents (I =
I1 + I2)
iii) The total resistance is the sum of the reciprocal of the individual
resistances. OR RT = R1 x R2
R1 + R 2
EXAMPLE 14
The resistors of 4 and 12 Ω are connected in parallel and they are both
connected to a further resistor of 10 Ω, connected in series, if a dc voltage of
78 V is connected to the circuit , determine
a) The total current
b) The potential difference across the parallel resistors
c) The branch currents in the parallel circuit
d) The power consumed in the circuit
e) The total energy after a period of 5 hours
f) The cost after 65 hours of use at K 60 per Kwh.
SOLUTION
Data
R1 = 4 Ω
R2 = 12 Ω
R3 = 10 Ω
V = 78 V
R 1=4Ω
R 3=10Ω
R2=12Ω
78 V
a) Total current, I = V
RT
The total resistance, RT = R1 x R2 + R3

R1 + R 2
= 4 x 12 + 10
4 + 12
= 48 +10
16
= 3+10
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= 13 Ω
Therefore, total current, I = V = 78 = 6 A

RT 13
b) P.d. across resistors R1 and R2, V = IR = 6 x 3 = 18 V
c) The branch currents in the parallel circuit
I1 = V = 18 = 4.5 A I2 = V = 18 = 1.5 A
R1 4 R2 12
d) The power consumed, P = I2R = 6 2 x 13
= 468 W
e) Energy used after 5 hours, E = power x time
= 468 x (5 x 60 x 60)
= 8,424 000 J
f) Cost of energy after 65 hours of use at K 60 per Kwh
Energy consumed in Kwh, E = power x time
= 468 x 65
= 30 420 Kwh
Cost of energy = 30 420 x K 60
= K 1 825 200
KIRCHHOOFS LAWS
Kirchhoffs first law or the current law: states that the currents entering a
junction are equal to the currents leaving the junction or the algebraic sum of
currents entering and leaving a junction are equal to zero.
Kirchhoffs second law or the voltage law: states that the algebraic sum of
voltage drops in closed loop are equal to the supply voltage.
EXAMPLE 15
Use kirchhoffs laws to determine the currents flowing in each branch of the
network shown below.
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SOLUTION
1. Use kirchhoff’s current law and label current directions on the original
circuit diagram (if no directions are given). The directions of current
chosen are arbitrary, but it is usual as a starting point to assume the
current flowing the positive of the batteries.
2. Divide the circuit into two loops and apply kirchhoff’s voltage law to
each loop. From loop 1 of the figure and moving in a clockwise
direction as indicated (the direction chosen does not matter), gives
E1 = I1r1 + (I1 + I2) R, i.e. 4 = 2I1 + 4(I1 + I2)
i.e.6I1 + 4I2 = 4 (1)
From loop 2 in the figure above, moving in an anticlockwise direction

as indicated ( once again the choice of direction does not matter; it
does not need to be in the same direction as that chosen for the first
loop), gives
E2 = I2r2 + (I1 + I2) R, i.e. 2 = I2 + 4(I1 + I2)
i.e.4I1 + 5I2 = 2 (2)
Solving equations (1) and (2) for I1 and I2

2 x (1) gives; 12I1 + 8I2 = 8
3 x (2) gives; 12I1 + 5I2 = 6
Subtracting the two equations above gives -7I2 = 2
Hence I2 = -0.286 A
(i.e. I2 is flowing in the opposite direction to that shown in the figure above
From (1) 6I1 + 4(-0.286) = 4
6I1 = 4 + 1.144
Hence I1 = 5.144 = 0.857 A

6
Current flowing through the resistor R is
I1 + I2 = 0.857 + (-0.286) = 0.571 A
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EXERCISE
1. From the diagram given below, determine
R 2=8Ω
R5=5Ω
R1=10Ω R 3=12Ω R7=20Ω

R6=15Ω
R4=25Ω
120 V
a) the total current

b) the potential difference across the 5 and 15 Ω resistors
c) the branch currents in the three parallel resistors
d) the power consumed in the circuit
e) the total energy used after a period of 5 hours
f) the cost of electrical energy after 200 hours of use at K150 per
Kwh.
2. Explain briefly how the following factors affect resistance of a

conductor
a) cross sectional area
b) temperature
c) length of the conductor
d) type of material
3. a) The resistance of a wire is 60Ω at 25oC and 65Ω at 75oC. Find the
resistance of the wire at 10 oC and the value of temperature
coefficient at 0 oC.
b) A platinum coil has a resistance of 3.2Ω at 40 oC and 3.8Ω at 100oC.
Find the resistance at 0oC and the temperature coefficient of
resistance at 40oC
c) A coil of a relay is made of copper wire. At a temperature of 20oC, the
resistance of the coil is 400Ω. Calculate the resistance of the coil at
80oC. The temperature coefficient of copper is 0.0038/oC at 0oC.
4. Determine the total resistance in the circuit below,
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20Ω
30Ω
15Ω 17Ω
10Ω 15Ω 12Ω 4Ω
40Ω
25Ω 6Ω
8Ω 10Ω
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CELLS AND BATTERIES

Cells are the smallest unit of a battery that convert stored chemical energy to
electrical energy OR a cell is device or component/source of emf that consists
of a positive and negative electrode that converts stored chemical energy to
electrical energy.
A battery is a combination of two or more cells
FORMATION OF A CELL
A cell is formed by immersing two dissimilar metals in a fluid known as an
electrolyte. When a load or conductor is connected across the two metals
chemical action starts inside the electrolyte and a potential is thus belt up
between the two electrodes which causes current to flow to the external circuit
(load). The plate through which current leaves the cell to the external circuit is
called the positive plate or anode and the plate from which the current enters
the cell is known as the negative plate or cathode.
If the plates are of two similar metals say zinc or copper there is no e.m.f.
produced but if two different metals are used then an e.m.f. is produced
whose value is dependant upon the types of metals used.
Electrolysis is the decomposition of a liquid compound by the passage of

electric current through it. For a cell to be able to produce the required energy
electrolysis has to take place.
An electrolyte is a compound which undergoes electrolysis e.g. salt water,

copper sulphate and sulphuric acid.
CLASSIFICATION OF CELLS
Cell can be classified into two these being
1. Primary cells
2. Secondary cells
Primary cells: these are cells that can not be recharged i.e. once the stored
chemical energy is converted into electrical energy the process can not be
reversed
Types of primary cells

1. Simple voltaic cell
2. Daniel cell
3. Leclanche cell – Dry cell
- Wet cell
Secondary cells these are cells that can be recharged i.e. once the stored
chemical energy is converted into electrical energy the process can still be
reversed.
Types of Secondary cells
The following are the types of secondary cells
1. Lead acid battery
2. Alkaline batteries – Nickel iron cell or NIFE cell or Edison cell
- Nickel cadmium cell
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PRIMARY CELLS
SIMPLE VOLTAIC CELL

A simple cell consists of a glass container in which copper and zinc plates are
immersed in dilute sulphuric acid. The zinc electrode acts as the negative
electrode and the copper plate as the positive electrode.
When a load is connected across the zinc and copper electrodes the chemical
action starts taking place first in the zinc electrode which is more active than
copper in dilute sulphuric acid and current starts to flow through the
electrolyte. Due to chemical action sulphuric acid is split up into hydrogen (H+)
and sulphate (SO 4--) ions. The hydrogen ions travel in the direction of the flow
of current and cling to the surface of the copper electrode in the form of
bubbles, whereas sulphate ions go to the zinc electrode and form zinc
sulphate. The chemical action taking place is expressed in the equation
below.
Zn + H 2SO 4 → ZnSO 4 + H2
The current flows from zinc to copper inside the cell and from copper to zinc
outside the cell. The e.m.f. of the cell is about 1.1 V.
A simple cell suffers from two major drawbacks, namely polarisation and local
action.
Polarisation: This is the process by which hydrogen ions produced due to

chemical action form a thin layer around the positive electrode (copper). The
thin layer formed increases the resistance of the cell resulting in the lowering
of the e.m.f. of the cell.
Polarisation in a cell is prevented by using a chemical substance known as a

depolarizer which combines with hydrogen to produce water. Polarisation
can also be prevented in a simple cell by rubbing a positive electrode with a
wire brush.
Local action: This is when circulating currents are caused to flow within the
zinc electrode due to the formation of small cells between zinc and the
impurities within the electrode.
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Due to local action the e.m.f. (terminal voltage) of the cell is reduced. Local is
avoided in a cell by the zinc electrode is coated with a mercury amalgam in a
process is known as amalgamation.
DANIEL CELL
The Daniel cell is a two fluid cell and is a modification of the simple voltaic cell
because it is similar in chemical action. In a Daniel cell a depolarizer and
amalgamated zinc is used to prevent polarisation and local action
respectively.
This cell consists of an outer copper vessel which serves as the positive
electrode. The vessel contains a concentrated solution of copper sulphate
(CuSO4) which acts as a depolarizer. Inside the vessel is the porous pot
containing dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and an amalgamated zinc rod
(negative electrode). The copper sulphate solution is kept concentrated by
placing copper sulphate crystals in the solution.
When a load is connected across the cell to form a closed circuit, the zinc
inside the porous pot begins to dissolve in the dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
and thus hydrogen ions are liberated. The hydrogen ions pass through the
porous pot, thus forming H 2SO 4 and copper ions (Cu++) which are deposited
over the copper vessel. The chemical reaction inside the porous pot can be
represented as follows
Zn++ + H2SO 4 → ZnSO 4 + 2H++
The chemical reactions outside the porous pot
2H+ + CuSO 4 → H2SO4 + Cu++
In this manner polarisation is prevented. When the cell is not in use the cell
must be dismantled. This is because the copper sulphate solution passes
through the porous pot and is replaced by the zinc with the result that the
copper is deposited on the zinc electrode causing local action.
The e.m.f. of the cell is about 1.12 V and its internal resistance varies from 2
to 6 Ω. It is cheap and gives constant voltage and is therefore still used in
laboratories for experiments.
LECLANCHE CELL
There are two types of Leclanche cells these being the dry and wet cell.
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The depolarizing agent is used to remove hydrogen bubbles from around the
carbon rod. These bubbles, which are formed during the chemical action,
impair the performance of the cell.
APPLICATION
The dry cell has an obvious advantage over the wet cell because it is portable
and so is commonly used for appliances such as torches, door bells, etc.
EMF OF A CELL
The e.m.f. of a cell is given by E = VT + I r
Where I is the current of the cell in amperes

r is the internal resistance of the cell in ohms
VT is the voltage drop across the terminals of external resistance.
GROUPING OF CELLS
Cell can be group as follows depending on the requirements of the circuit
i) Series combination
ii) Parallel combination
iii) Series-parallel combination
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SERIES COMBINATION OF CELLS

Cells are connected in series so as to have a higher voltage than that
provided by a single cell.
E.M.F. for n cells connected in series is given by
nE = VT + (I x nr)
nE = IR + I nr (VT = IR)
nE = I(R + nr)
The current flowing will be given by
I = nE .
R + nr
n in the number of cells in series

R is the load resistance
r is the internal resistance of the cell
E is the e.m.f. of each cell
EXAMPLE 1
Twenty dry cells of emf 1.5 V and internal resistance 0.5 Ω are joined in
series. If a
5 Ω external resistance is connected across the group. Find the value of the
current flowing.
SOLUTION
Data
E = 1.5 V
r = 0.5 Ω
R=5Ω
n = 20
Current flowing, I = nE . = 20 x 1.5 .

R + nr 5 + (20 x 0.5)
= 30
15
SJM@LBTC Page 21
=2A
PARALLEL CONNECT ION OF CELLS

Cells are normally connected in parallel so as to obtain a high current. The
total emf for cells connected in parallel is equal to the emf of each cell. The
diagram below shows cells connected in parallel.
The emf for cells connected in parallel is given by E = VT + I r

n
the relationship can also be rewritten as nE = nVT + I r
nE = nIR + I r
nE = I (nR + r)
I= nE .
(nR + r)
EXAMPLE 2
Ten dry cells each having an emf of 1.5 V and an internal resistance 1Ω are
joined in parallel. If 4.9 Ω resistance is connected across the group, find the
value of the current passing through it.
SOLUTION
Data
E = 1.5 V
r=1Ω
R = 4.9 Ω
n = 10
The current flowing is given by I = nE .

(nR + r)
SJM@LBTC Page 22
I = 10 x 1.5 .
(10 x 4.9) + 1
I = 15
50
I = 0.3 A
SERIES PARALLEL COMBINAT ION

A group of cells connected in series may be joined in parallel thus making a
series parallel combination of cells. The total emf of such a combination is
equal to the total emf of one of the series group.
r r r
E E E
r r r m
E E E
r r r
E E E
R
Load
If there are m sets of cells in series – parallel combination, each set having n
cells in series and joined to a load of resistance RΩ, then:
Internal resistance of each series group = nr Ω
Internal resistance of m set of battery = nr Ω
m
Emf of the series – parallel combination = nE V
Emf of the series-parallel combination, nE = VT + I nr

m
nE = IR + I nr
m
SJM@LBTC Page 23
The relationship can also be written as mnE = mIR + I nr
mnE = I (mR + nr)
The current flowing is given by I = mnE .

(mR + nr)
The current in a series parallel combination will be maximum when the total
internal resistance of the battery is equal to the load resistance.
EXAMPLE 3
Thirty cells each having an emf 1.5 V and internal resistance 0.5 Ω are
connected ten in series per row, three rows in parallel. If a 2.5 Ω resistance is
connected across the battery, find the value of the current passing through the
external load.
SOLUTION
Data
E = 1.5 V
r = 0.5 Ω
R = 2.5 Ω
n = 10
m=3
The current flowing is given by I = mnE . = 3 x 10 x 1.5 .

(mR + nr) (3 x 2.5) + (10 x 0.5)
= 45
12.5
= 3.6 A
SECONDARY CELLS
Secondary cells are cells that can be recharged i.e. once the stored chemical
energy is converted into electrical energy the process can still be reversed.
Types of Secondary cells

The following are the types of secondary cells
3. Lead acid battery
4. Alkaline batteries – Nickel iron cell or NIFE cell or Edison cell
- Nickel cadmium cell
LEAD ACID CELL OR BATTERY

This cell consists of a positive and negative plate plates made of lead and an
electrolyte of sulphuric acid; all placed in an acid resistant container.
The electrodes are made of several plates, the positive and negative being
insulated from each other by separators of insulating material such as wood
or ebonite.
SJM@LBTC Page 24
The construction of plates is of considerable importance and is discussed

below.
FORMED PLATES
Larger cells consist of formed plates where the negative plate is spongy lead
and the positive plate is lead peroxide. After repeated charging and
discharging of a cell formed plates are formed i.e. the lead plates are covered
with lead compounds.
PASTED PLATES
These plates are manufactured in form of a grid, into which compounds of
sulphuric acid and red lead is pressed; only a small initial charge is needed for
the cell to be ready for use. These plates, however, disintegrate more easily
than formed plates.
A combination of formed and plated plates is used in large capacity cells; the
positive plate is formed and the negative plate is pasted.
When current is drawn from the cell the active chemicals on the positive plate
expand and the plates tends to distort, especially under heavy loads. Some
measure of protection against distortion or buckling is achieved by arranging
for each positive plate to be placed adjacent to two negative plates.
ACTION OF LEAD ACID CELL

When an external load is connected to the terminals of the cell, the electrical
energy is delivered to the load. During this discharge period, a chemical
reaction between the plate and the electrolyte takes place and a layer of lead
sulphate is deposited on the plates. However this process successively
weakens the electrolyte until the cell is unable to deliver any more electrical
energy.
SJM@LBTC Page 25
If a d.c. supply is then connected to the cell terminals, and a current is passed
through it, the lead sulphate is converted back into sulphuric acid and restores
the cell back to its original position. This process is known as charging.
CARE AND MAINTENANCE O F LEAD ACID CELLS

Provided the lead acid cell is maintained regularly and is cared for, it should
last for an indefinite period of time. A weekly check on its condition is
recommended.
GENERAL MAINTENANCE PROCEDURE

1. When preparing an electrolyte add acid to water, never water to acid
2. Ensure that any maintenance or charging is carried out in a well
ventilated room
3. Do not use any naked flame near the cell
4. Cells that are to be taken out of commission for any time should be
fully charged, the electrolyte left in, and a periodic charge be given to
keep the cell healthy until needed again.
5. Never leave a cell in an uncharged state, as a layer of whitish sulphate
will be formed on plates, which will increase the internal resistance and
reduce the capacity of the cell. This process is known as sulphation of
the plates.
6. Terminals should be coated with petroleum jelly to prevent corrosion.
ELECTROLYTE LEVEL
The level of the electrolyte should never be allowed to fall below the tops of
the plates. Any loss of electrolyte due to evaporation may be made up by the
adding of distilled water.
TERMINAL VOLTAGE
After a cell is fully charged it voltage should be measured with a high
resistance voltmeter. The reading obtained should not be below 1.85 V. A fully
charged cell should have a voltage of about 2.2 V
PLATE COLOUR
The colour of the plates indicates the state of charge. In a healthy cell or fully
charged cell the positive plate is chocolate brown and the negative plate is
slate grey.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF THE ELECTROLYTE
As a cell discharges, the electrolyte becomes weaker and its specific gravity
falls, until the cell can no longer deliver energy. The state of a cell can
therefore be measured by its specific gravity of the electrolyte. An instrument
known as a hydrometer is used to determine the specific gravity of the
electrolyte.
A hydrometer consists of a glass containing a weighted and graduated float.
The syringe has a rubber nozzle for insertion into the electrolyte, and a rubber
bulb at the upper en for sucking the liquid into the syringe.
The nozzle is inserted in the electrolyte and a sample is drawn up into the
syringe by squeezing the rubber bulb. The level of the liquid in relation to the
SJM@LBTC Page 26
position of the float gives a direct reading of the specific gravity of the
electrolyte. The higher the float the higher the specific gravity; the lower the
float the lower the specific gravity.
APPLICATION OF LEAD ACID CELL

The most common use for a lead acid cell is in car batteries. Other
applications include standby supplies, alarm and control circuits. The
electrolyte of a lead acid cell has a negative temperature coefficient and
hence a drop in temperature causes a rise in its resistance, so less current
will be delivered. Thus the cause for starting problems with vehicles in very
cold weather.
THE NICKEL ALKALINE CELLS

There are two types of nickel alkaline cells, the nickel – iron and the nickel
cadmium.
THE NICKEL IRON CELL

Here the positive plate is made of nickel hydroxide and the negative plate of
iron oxide and the electrolyte is potassium hydroxide.
THE NICKEL CADMIUM CELL

In this cell both the positive plate (nickel hydroxide) and the electrolyte
(potassium hydroxide) are the same as for the nickel-iron cell, however the
negative plate is cadmium mixed with a small amount of iron.
The active chemicals in the plates are enclosed in thin nickel steel grids
insulated from one another by ebonite rods. The whole assembly is housed in
a welded steel container.
CARE AND MAINTENANCE O F NICKEL – ALKALINE CELL

Unlike the alkaline cells the nickel iron cell needs minimal attention.
The open type only needs periodic topping up to compensate for the
electrolyte lost by evaporation. The totally enclosed type needs no
maintenance.
APPLICATION
It has limited use owing to its cost and is mainly used in situations where a
robust construction is needed, that is marine work.
CAPACITY OF A CELL
The capacity of a cell given in ampere hours (Ah), that is the rating of a cell
gives how much current can be delivered in a period of time (hours). If a cell
delivers, say, 10 A for a period of 10 h, it is said to have a capacity of 100
ampere hours (Ah) at the 10 h rate; taking any more current than 10 A will
discharge the cell in less than 10 h.
EFFICIENCY OF A CELL
The efficiency of any system is the ratio of the output to the input. The
efficiency of a cell is given in two forms; ampere hour efficiency or quantity
efficiency and watt hour efficiency or energy efficiency.
SJM@LBTC Page 27
Ampere hour efficiency is the ratio of the ampere hours on discharge to the
ampere hours on charge expressed as a percentage..
The ampere hour efficiency, ηAh = discharge ampere x time x 100

charging amperes x time
= Id x t d x 100
Ic x tc
Watt hour efficiency is the ratio of the watt hours on discharge to the watt
hours on charge expressed as a percentage.
The watt hour efficiency, ηWh = discharge VA x time x 100

charging VA x time
= Vd x Id x td x 100
Vc x Ic x tc
EXAMPLE 4
A battery has taken a charging current of 5.2 A for 24 hours at a voltage of
2.25 V, while discharging it gave a current of 4.5 A for 24 hours at an average
voltage of 1.85 V. Calculate the quantity efficiency and the energy efficiency
of the battery.
SOLUTION
Data
Ic = 5.2 A
tc = 24 hrs
Vc = 2.25 V
Id = 4.5 A
td = 24 hrs
Vd = 1.85 V
The quantity efficiency, ηAh = discharge ampere x time x 100

charging amperes x time
= Id x td x 100
Ic x t c
= 4.5 x 24 x 100
5.2 x 24
= 86.54 %
The energy efficiency, ηW h = discharge VA x time x 100

charging VA x time
= Vd x Id x td x 100
Vc x Ic x tc
SJM@LBTC Page 28
= 1.85 x 4.5 x 24 x 100

2.25 x 5.2 x 24
= 71.15 %
EXAMPLE 5
Thirty five lead acid cells each of discharge capacity 120 Ah at 12 hours rate
are to be fully charged at a constant current for 10 hours. The d.c supply is
125 V, the ampere hour efficiency is 80% and the e.m.f. of each cell at start
and at the end of the charge is 1.9 V and 2.6 V respectively. Calculate the
maximum and minimum values of external resistance necessary. Neglect
internal resistance of the cell.
SOLUTION
Data
Discharge capacity = 120 Ah
td = 12 hrs
tc = 10 hrs
Vc = 125 V
ηAh = 80%
Ampere hour input per cell = discharge per cell = 120 = 150 Ah
ηAh 0.8
Charging current, I c = input in Ah = 150 = 15 A

tc 10
Combined emf of 35 cells connected in series at the start of charge,
Eb1 = 35 x 1.9 = 66.5 V
Combined emf of 35 cells connected in series at the end of charge,
Eb1 = 35 x 2.6 = 91 V
The resistance necessary to be added in the circuit to maintain charging

current constant at 15 A will be maximum at the start of charge when back
emf will be minimum and will be given by the expression
Rmax = V1 – Eb1 = 125 – 66.5 = 3.9 Ω

Ic 15
The resistance necessary to be added in the circuit to maintain charging

current constant at 15 A will be minimum at the end of the charge when back
emf will be maximum and will be given by
Rmin = V1 – Eb2 = 125 – 91 = 2.267 Ω

Ic 15
SJM@LBTC Page 29
EXAMPLE 6
A discharged battery is put to charge at 5 A for 3.5 hours at a mean charging
voltage of 13.5 V. It is then discharged in 6 hours in 6 hours at a constant
voltage of 12 V through a resistance of R ohms. Determine
1. The value of R for an ampere hour of 85 %
2. Watt hour efficiency of the battery.
SOLUTION
Data
Ic = 5 A
tc = 3.5 hrs
Vc = 13.5 V
td = 6 hrs
Vd = 12 V
ηAh = 85 % = 0.85
ηAh = Id x td x 100
Ic x t c
Discharging current, Id = Ic x tc x ηAh = 5 x 3.5 x 0.85 = 2.48 A

td 6
Discharging resistance, R = Vd = 12 = 4.84 Ω
Id 2.48
Watt hour efficiency, ηW h = ηAh x Vd = 85 x 12 = 75.55 %

Vc 13.5
COMPARISON OF CELL CHARACTERISTIC
Lead- Acid Alkaline

SG charged 1.28 1.2
SG discharged 1.18 1.2
P.d. charge 2.1 V 1.3
P.d. discharge 1.85 V 1.0
Ampere hour capacity

The ampere hour obtained from the alkaline cell is higher is than that of the
lead acid cell. This is because the SG of the electrolyte does not change
during discharge.
Advantages Disadvantages
Lead acid cell Inexpensive Fragile
High discharge voltage Self discharges when not in use
Uses plentiful material Requires regular maintenance
Alkaline cell Very robust Very expensive
Retains its charge when not in use Low discharge voltage
Needs little or no maintenance
SJM@LBTC Page 30
BATTERY CHARGING
Cells and batteries are charged y connecting them to a controlled d.c. source.
This source may be obtained in several ways:
1. Rectified a.c.
2. Motor generator set
3. Rotary converter
4. D.c. mains supply
The most commonly used method is rectified a.c. and ther are two ways in
which this system is used
1. The constant voltage method
2. The constant current method
Constant voltage charging

In this method the d.c. charging voltage is kept constant at a value just above
that of the final value of the battery e.m.f. the charging current is initially high,
decreases as the e.m.f. of the battery approaches that of the supply.
Constant - current charging

In constant current charging the charging current is kept constant by varying
the d.c. voltage as the battery e.m.f. increases.
The most popular method, for everyday use, is the constant voltage method.
Cell, batteries and their associated charging equipment are frequently used in
installation work such as indicators and call systems in hospitals and hotels,
fire alarm and burglar alarm systems, and emergency lighting installations.
SJM@LBTC Page 31
OTHER METHODS OF BATTERY CHARGI NG

Other methods of battery charging include trickle charging, boost charging,
float charging
Trickle charging: this is the charging of a battery/cell using a very small
current so as to keep the battery in a good working condition. This method of
charging is used to keep batteries used in standby supplies in a good working
condition (when they are not in use).
Boost charging: this is the method that is used to charge batteries at a high
rate using about twice the normal charging current.
Float charging: this is the kind of charging employed in auto mobiles

(vehicles)
SJM@LBTC Page 32
MAGNETISM
Magnetism deals with the study of magnets their effects, properties,
construction and application.
A magnet is a piece of ferromagnetic substance which has the property of

attracting ferrous substances (iron, nickel and cobalt) and when freely
suspended points in the north south direction.
CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETS
Magnets can be divided into two groups these being
· Natural magnets
· Artificial magnets
Natural magnets: These are magnets that occur naturally in nature and
where first discovered in a province Magnetia a province of Asia.
Artificial magnets: These are magnets made by man and are of two types
these being Permanent magnets and temporary magnets.
· Permanent magnets are magnets that retain their magnetism even
after the magnetising force is removed i.e. they remain magnets.
Materials used to make permanent magnets are cobalt, steel and
tungsten steel. Permanent magnets are used in moving coil
instruments, energy meters (used for braking), loud speakers,
microphones e.t.c.
· Temporary magnets are magnets that retain their magnetism for short
periods of time i.e. once the magnetising force is removed they cease
to be magnets e.g. soft iron and silicon steel. Temporary magnets are
known as electromagnets and are employed in electric bells, electric
fans, transformers, motors and generators e.t.c.
CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC SUBSTANCES

Materials that are affected by magnets can be classified into three groups
these being
· Ferromagnetic substances
· Paramagnetic substances
· Diamagnetic substances
Ferromagnetic substances: These are substances that are strongly

attracted by a magnet e.g. iron, nickle, cobalt, steel and their alloys.
Paramagnetic substances: These are substances that are slightly attracted

by a magnet of common strength e.g. aluminium, manganese, platinum,
copper e.t.c.
Diamagnetic substances: These are substances that are slightly repelled by
a strong magnet e.g. bismuth, sulphur, graphite, graphite, glass, paper, wood
e.t.c. with wood being the strongest diamagnetic substance.
SJM@LBTC Page 33
MOLECULAR THEORY OF MAGNETISM

The molecular theory of magnetism states that each molecule in a magnet is
itself a magnet. When the molecules in a magnetic substance are arranged in
an orderly manner then the substance becomes a magnet.
S N
S
S
S
S
N
METHODS OF MAGNETISING SUBSTANCES

The following are some of the methods that are used to make magnets
· Using the stroke touch method (single touch, double touch, and divided
touch)
· Using an electric current
· Using the induction method
PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS
i) Attractive property – a magnetic attracts magnetic substances and it
greatest power of attraction is at the poles.
ii) Directive property – when a magnet is freely suspended it points in the
north – south direction
iii) Induction property – a magnet induces magnetism in a nearby
magnetic substance.
iv) Pole existing property – a single pole can not exist in a magnet even if
it is broken down into molecules.
v) Property of strength – The N and S poles have equal pole strengths.
vi) Saturation property – If a magnet is continued to be magnetised
increasing the magnetising force each time it will reach a point a
saturation where increasing the magnetising force wont increase the
strength of the magnet.
vii) Property of attraction and repulsion – Unlike poles attract each other
and like poles repel each other.
PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC FIELD LINES

i) Magnetic field lines move from north to south outside a magnet and
from south to north inside a magnet
ii) Magnetic field lines always complete their magnetic circuits
iii) Magnetic field lines do not cross each other.
iv) Magnetic field lined have a repulsive force between them hence they
do not cross
v) Magnetic lines of force prefer to complete their circuits through
magnetic substances
vi) Magnetic lines of force magnetise magnetic substances in their path
SJM@LBTC Page 34
vii) There in no known insulator for magnetic lines of force.

viii) Magnetic field lines behave as elastic bands
CARE AND MAINTENANCE O F PERMANENT MAGNETS

i) Do not throw them
ii) They should not be hammered
iii) They should not be heated
iv) Bar magnets should be stored in keepers
v) Bar magnets should not be placed side by side with their ends facing
opposite polarity.
vi) The poles N and S should be kept in the direction of S and N of the
earth.
DEFINITION OF MAGNETIC TERMS
Magnetic field: This is the space around a magnet where there are magnetic
field lines
Magnetic flux: These are lines of force that are found in a magnetic field.
Magnetic flux is measured in webers (Wb)
Magnetomotive force, mmf: This is the force that drives magnetic flux
through a magnetic circuit. Magnetomotive force is measured in ampere turns
(AT) or amperes and is given by
Magnetomotive force, mmf = flux, Φ x reluctance, S

mmf = ΦS
Note: the expression above is the equivalent of ohms law in a magnetic circuit
where mmf = V, Φ = I, S = R
Magnetomotive force mmf = Current, I x Number of turns, N
mmf = IN = HL
Reluctance, S: This is the opposition that a magnetic circuit offers to the build
up of magnetic flux in it. Reluctance is measured in ampere turns per weber
(AT/wb). Reluctance is also known as magnetic resistance.
Reluctance, S = NI = HL = L = L .
Φ BA (B/H) A μ 0μrA
Permeance: This is the reciprocal of reluctance and is the property that helps
the easy build up of magnetic flux. Permeance is similar to conductance in an
electric circuit. Permeance is measured in Wb/ampere turns GeHenry and is
given by 1/S.
Permeability, μ: this is the easiness with which magnetic flux is able to pass
through a material or it is the conducting power for the lines of force that
materials have compared with air. It can also be defined as the ratio of flux
SJM@LBTC Page 35
density to the magnetising force. The harder a substance the less its
permeability.
Permeability μ = flux density, B .

Magnetising force, H
Absolute permeability, μ = μ0 μr = B (μ = μ0μ r)

H
The permeability of air (free space), μ 0 or any non magnetic medium is a

constant which is equal to 4π x 10-7 H/m. This constant is known as the
magnetic space constant.
The relative permeability μr of a vacuum is 1
Where μ0 is the permeability of free space, (4π x 10 -7 H/m).

μr is the relative permeability
μ is the absolute permeability
Flux density, B: This is the quantity of magnetic flux lines per square metre
of a magnetic core. Flux density is measured in tesla or webers per metre
square (wb/m2).
Flux density B = Total flux, Φ .

Area of the core, A
Flux density is also equal to B = μ H = μ0 μr H = μ0μ r IN

L
Magnetic field strength, H: This is the quantity of mmf per metre length of a
magnetic circuit. Magnetic field strength is measured in ampere turn per metre
(AT/m).
Magnetic field strength, H = magnetomotive force, mmf

Length of coil in metres
= IN (ampere turns)
length in m
= IN
L
Magnetic fringing: This is the outward expansion of magnetic flux as it

passes through the air gap from one pole to another (N to S).
SJM@LBTC Page 36
Magnetic screening: This is the space which is void of magnetic field lines
due to an iron ring placed between the poles where magnetic field lines pass.
The space which does not have magnetic flux is said to be magnetically
screen and this is what is used to protect instrument or devices from the
magnetic effect.
Magnetic saturation: This is when all the molecules in a magnetic substance

are aligned in the magnetic position such that further magnetisation does not
increase the magnetism in the core i.e. a magnet is said to be saturated when
it can not be further magnetised.
EXAMPLE 1
A magnetic pole face has a rectangular section having dimensions 200 mm by
100 mm. If the total flux emerging from the pole is 150µWb, calculate the flux
density.
SOLUTION
Data
Φ = 150 µWb
A = 200 x 100 = 20 000 mm 2 = 20 000 x 10-6 m2
Flux density B = Total flux, Φ . = 150 x 10-6

Area of the core, A 20 000 x 10-6
= 0.0075 T or 7.5 mT
EXAMPLE 2
The maximum working flux density of a lifting electromagnet is 1.8 T and the
effective area of a pole face is circular in cross section. If the total magnetic
flux produced is 353 mWb, determine the radius of the pole face.
SOLUTION
Data
B = 1.8 T
Φ = 353 mWb
SJM@LBTC Page 37
Since B = Φ, cross sectional area A = Φ = 353 x 10-3 m2

A B 1.8
= 0.1961 m2
The pole face is circular, hence area , where r is the radius
r2 = 0.1961 and radius r = √ (0.1961/3.142) = 0.250 m

π
i.e. the radius of the pole face is 250 mm
EXAMPLE 3
A flux density of 1.2 T is produced in a piece of cast steel by a magnetising
force of 1250 A/m. Find the relative permeability of the steel under these
conditions.
SOLUTION
Data
B = 1.2 T
H = 1250 A/m
For a magnetic material: B = μ0 μr H
μr = B . = 1.2 = 764
μ 0 H 4π x 10-7 (1250)
EXAMPLE 4
Determine the magnetic filed strength and the mmf required to produce a flux
density of 0.25 T in an air gap of length 12 mm.
SOLUTION
Data
B = 0.25 T
L = 12 mm
For air: B = μ0 H (since μr = 1)
Magnetic field strength H = B = 0.25 = 198 940 A/m

μ0 4π x 10-7
mmf = HL = 198 940 x 12 x 10-3 = 2387 A
EXAMPLE 5
Determine the reluctance of a piece of mumetal of length 150 mm and cross
sectional area 1800 mm2 when the relative permeability is 4000. Find the
relative permeability of the mumetal.
SJM@LBTC Page 38
SOLUTION
Data
L = 150 mm
A = 1800 mm2
μ0 = 4π x 10 -7
μr = 200
Reluctance S = L .= 150 x 10 -3 .
μ0μrA (4π x 10-7)(4000)(1800 x 10 -6)
= 16 580 /H
Absolute permeability, μ = μ0 μr = (4π x 10-7)(4000)
= 5.027 x 10-3 H/m
EXAMPLE 6
A coil of 30 turns is wound uniformly on a ring of non-magnetic material. The
ring has a mean circumference of 40 cm and a uniform cross sectional area of
4 cm2. If the current in the coil is 5 A, calculate
a) The magnetic field strength
b) The flux density
c) The total magnetic flux in the ring
SOLUTION
Data
N = 30
L = 40cm (40 x 10-2)
A = 4 cm2 (4 x 10-4)
I=5A
a) Magnetic field strength H = NI = 300 x 5 = 3750 A/m.

L 40 x 10-2
b) For a non-magnetic material μr = 1, thus the flux density B = μ 0 H
B = 4π x 10-7 x 3750 = 4.712 mT
c) Flux Φ = BA = (4.712 x 10 -3)(4 x 10 -4) = 1.885 µWb
EXAMPLE 7
A mild steel ring has a radius of 50 mm and a cross sectional area of 400
mm2. A current of 0.5 A flows in a coil wound uniformly around the ring and
the flux produced is 0.1 mWb. If the relative permeability at this value of
current is 200. Find
a) The reluctance of the mild steel
b) The turns on the coil
SJM@LBTC Page 39
SOLUTION
Data
r = 50 mm (50 x 10-3m)
A = 400 mm (400 x 10-6 m2)
I = 0.5 A
Φ = 0.1 x 10-3 Wb
µr = 200
L = 2πr = 2π x 50 x 10-3
2π x 50 x 10 -3
a) Reluctance S = L . = 2π x 50 x 10 -3 .
μ0μ rA (4π x 10-7)(200)(4000)
= 3.125 x 106/H
b) S = mmf i.e. mmf = ΦS

Φ
So that NI = SΦ
Hence N = SΦ = 3.125 x 10 6 x 0.1 x 10-3 = 625 turns

I 0.5
DETERMINING THE DIRECT ION OF A MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A

CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR
Whenever a conductor is carrying current there is a magnetic field that is
formed around it whose direction can be determined by the following two
rules.
· Cork screw rule
· Right hand thumb rule
When two current carrying conductors in the same directions are brought
together there is a force of attraction between them.
When two current carrying conductors in different directions are brought
together there is a force of repulsion between them.
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field it experiences

a mechanical force which is given by
F = BLI Sin θ
EXAMPLE 8
A conductor carries a current of 20 A and is at right angles to a magnetic field
having a flux density of 0.9 T. If the length of the conductor in the field is 30
cm, calculate the force acting on the conductor. Determine also the value of
the force if the conductor is inclined at an angle of 30o to the direction of the
field.
SJM@LBTC Page 40
SOLUTION
Data
B = 0.9 T
I = 20 A
L = 30 cm (0.30 m)
a) In the first instance the conductor is at 90o to the flux
F = BLI Sin θ = (0.9)(20)(0.30)(sin 90o) = 5.4 N
b) When the conductor is inclined at 30o to the field
F = BLI Sin θ = (0.9)(20)(0.30) Sin 30o = 2.7 N
DETERMINING THE POLARITY OF A SOLENOID

Whenever a solenoid is connected to a of supply or when a current flows
through it a magnetic field is formed around it whose polarity can be
determined by
· Clock rule
· End rule
· Right hand grip rule
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Electromagnetic induction is the tendency where a current is caused to flow in
a conductor due to an emf that is induced in it as it is moved in a magnetic
field.
FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Faraday’s first law states that an emf is induced in a conductor whenever the
conductor cuts or is cut by the magnetic field OR an emf is induced in a
conductor whenever the flux linking the conductor changes.
Faraday’s second law states that the magnitude of the induced emf is
proportional to the rate of change in flux linking the circuit.
Emf can be induced in two main ways in a conductor these being

· Statically induced emf; this is the emf that is induced in a coil that is
stationary while the flux linking the coil is changing or the magnetic flux
cuts the stationary coil. The flux cuts the conductors
· Dynamically induced emf; this is the emf that is induced in a
conductor when a conductor cuts stationary flux. i.e. the conductor is
moving while the flux is stationary (Not changing). The conductor cuts
the flux
LENZ’S LAW
Lenz’s law states that the induced emf opposes that which causes it OR the
magnitude of the induced emf is always such that it tends to set up a current
opposing the motion or the change of flux responsible for inducing that emf.
FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE (GENERATOR RULE)
SJM@LBTC Page 41
Fleming’s right hand rule states that when the thumb, the first finger and
second finger of the right hand are placed at 90o to each other the thumb
represents motion of the conductor, the first finger points in the direction of the
magnetic field and the second finger points in the direction of the induced emf.
First finger – Field

ThuMb – Motion
SEcond finger – E.m.f.
The emf induced in the conductor is given by E = Blv
Where B is the flux density, l is the length of the conductor in meters and v is
the velocity of the conductor in meters per second.
If the conductor moves at an angle θ to the magnetic field instead of 90o then
the induced emf is given by
E = Blv Sin θ
EXAMPLE 9
A conductor moves with a velocity of 15m/s at an angle of a) 90o b) 60 o and c)
30o to a magnetic field produced between two square faced poles of side
length 2cm. If the flux leaving a pole face is 5μWb, find the magnitude of the
induced emf in each case.
SOLUTION
Data
v = 15m/s
Φ = 5 x 10-6 Wb
θ = 90o, 60o, 30o
l = 2 cm (0.02 m)
A = 0.02 x 0.02 = 4 x 10 -4 m2
a) E90 = Blv Sin 90 = θ lv Sin 90 = (5 x 10 -6)(0.02)(15)(1)

A (4 x 10-4)
= 3.75 mV
b) E60 = E 90 Sin 60 = 3.75 Sin 60 = 3.25 mV
c) E30 = E90 Sin 30 = 3.75 Sin 30 = 1.875 mV
FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE

Fleming’s left hand rule states that when the thumb, first finger and second
finger of the left hand are placed at 90o to each other, the thumb represents
motion, the first finger represents the direction of flux or field and the second
finger represents direction of current.
SJM@LBTC Page 42
INDUCTANCE
Inductance is the property that a circuit has that enables an emf to be induced
in it due to a change in flux produced by a change in current. Inductance is
measured in henry, H. Inductance can be divided into two these being
· Self inductance
· Mutual inductance
Self inductance, L; this is when an emf is induced in the same coil due to the
change in flux linking the same coil.
Mutual inductance, M: this is when an emf is induced in a second coil due to

the change in flux in the first coil i.e. flux from coil A links coil B and induces
an emf in B. Emf induced in B is known as mutually induced emf e.g. in
transformers coil A being the primary winding and coil B being the secondary
winding.
Induced emf in a coil of N turns is given by
E = - N Change in flux, dΦ = - N dΦ
Change in time, dt dt
The negative (minus) sign reminds us of its direction (Lenz’s law).
EXAMPLE 10
Determine the emf induced in a coil of 200 turns when there is a change of
flux of 25 mWb linking with it in 50 ms.
SOLUTION
Data
N = 200
Φ = 25 x 10 -3
t = 50 x 10-3
E = - N Change in flux, dΦ = - N dΦ = - 200 x 25 x 10 -3

Change in time, dt dt 50 x 10-3
= - 100 V
EXAMPLE 11
A flux of 400 μWb passing through a 150 turn coil is reversed in 40 ms. Find
the average emf induced.
SOLUTION
Data
N = 150
Φ = 400 x 10-6
t = 40 x 10-3
Since the flux reverses, the flux changes from +400 μWb to - 400 μWb, a total
change in flux of 800 μWb
SJM@LBTC Page 43
E = - N Change in flux, dΦ = - N dΦ = - 150 (800 x 10-6)

=-3V
Induced emf in a coil of inductance L henrys is given by
E = - L change in current, dI = - L dI
EXAMPLE 12
Calculate the emf induced in a coil of inductance 12 H by a current changing
at the rate of 4 A/s
SOLUTION
Data
L = 12 H
dI/dt = 4 A/s
E = - L change in current, dI = -L dI = - 12 x 4 = - 48 V
EXAMPLE 13
An emf of 1.5 KV is induced in a coil when a current of 4 A collapses uniformly
to zero in 8 ms. Determine the inductance of the coil.
SOLUTION
Data
E = 1.5 KV
I=4A
t = 8 x 10-3
E = - L change in current, dI = -L dI = - L (4 – 0)
1500 = - L x 4
8 x 10-3
Therefore, L = 1500
500
=3H
The inductance of a coil is given by L = NΦ

I
SJM@LBTC Page 44
EXAMPLE 14
Calculate the inductance of the coil when a current of 4 A in a coil of 800 turns
produces a flux of 5 mWb linking with the coil.
SOLUTION
Data
N = 800
Φ = 5 x 10-3
I=4A
The inductance of a coil is given by L = NΦ = 800 x (5 x 10 -3) = 1 H

I 4
Inductance in a circuit is produced by coil of a wire known as an inductor.

When a current flows through an inductor a magnetic field is formed around it
which stores some energy. The energy stored in the magnetic field of al
inductor is given by
Energy stored in an inductor, W = ½ LI2 Joules
EXAMPLE 15
A flux of 25 mWb links with a 1500 turn coil when a current of 3 A passes
through the coil. Calculate the
a) The inductance of the coil
b) The energy stored in the magnetic field
c) The average emf induced if the current falls to zero in 150 ms.
SOLUTION
Data
N = 1500
Φ = 25 x 10 -3
I=3A
t = 150 x 10 -3
a) Inductance, L = NΦ = 1500 x (25 x 10-3) = 12.5 H

I 3
b) Energy stored, W = ½ LI 2 Joules
= ½ (12.5)(3)2
= 56.25 J
c) Induced emf, E = - L dI = - (12.5)(3 – 0)

dt 150 x 10-3
= - 250 V
SJM@LBTC Page 45
Mutually induced emf in the second coil is given by,
E2 = - M change in current, dI
Change in time, dt
EXAMPLE 16
Calculate the mutual inductance between two coils when a current changing
at 200A/s in one coil induces an emf of 1.5 V in the other coil.
SOLUTION
Data
dI/dt = 200 A/s
E = 1.5 V
Mutually induced emf, E2 = - M change in current, dI

Change in time, dt
1.5 = - M (200)
Thus mutual inductance, M = 1.5 = 0.0075 or 7.5 mH

200
COMPARISON BETWEEN ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC QUANTITIES
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

e.m.f. E (V) mmf Fm (A)
Current I (A) Flux Φ (Wb)
Resistance R (Ω) Reluctance S (/H)
I=E Φ = mmf
R S
R = pL S= L .
A μ 0μ r A
SJM@LBTC Page 46
A.C THEORY
Alternating current is a current that changes periodically in magnitude and
direction.
PRODUCTION OF ALTERNATING CURRENT

An alternating current is produced whenever a coil (rotor) is rotated in a
magnetic field or when the magnetic field cuts a coil (rotor) an emf is induced
in the coil in accordance with faraday’s first law of electromagnetic induction.
The emf induced in the coil is alternating or sinusoidal in shape.
Magnet
Magnetic
Flux
Direction of
S rotation
Coil
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Waveform: A waveform is a complete cycle or oscillation of an alternating
quantity or it is a complete set of positive and negative values of an
alternating quantity.
Frequency: This is the number of cycles completed in a second, it is

measured in cycles per second or Hertz.
Cycle: This is a complete oscillation or a complete set of positive and

negative alternations in a waveform.
Alternation: This is a complete set of positive or negative values of an

alternating quantity.
SJM@LBTC Page 47
Periodic time: This is the time taken to complete one cycle.
Periodic time, T = 1/ frequency
Instantaneous value: These are values of alternating current at any

particular instant. Instantaneous values are represented by small letters, i, v, e
etc.
Maximum value: This is the maximum displacement or highest value of an
alternating quantity and usually occurs half way through a cycle. Maximum
value is also known as peak value or crest value or amplitude.
Peak to peak value: This is the difference between maximum and minimum
values in a cycle.
Root means square value or effective value: Rms value is the value of
alternating current that causes the same heating effect as an equivalent direct
current in the same time and length of a conductor.
Rms value = 0.707 x maximum value or 1/√2 x maximum value.
Whenever an alternating quantity is given, it is assumed to be an rms value

e.g. the domestic mains supply in Zambia is 230 – 240V and is assumed to be
230 – 240 V rms. Whenever alternating quantities are measured the
quantities indicated are rms value.
Average or mean value: This is the average value of an alternating quantity

measured over half a cycle. (Since over a complete cycle the average value is
zero). The average value is the value of alternating current that transfers the
same amount of charge as that transferred by direct current in the same
amount of time and conductor.
Average value = 0.637 x maximum value = 2/π x maximum value
Peak Factor: This is the ratio of the maximum value to the rms value
Peak factor = Maximum value = Maximum value = 1 =1.41

Rms value 0.707 x maximum value 0.707
SJM@LBTC Page 48
Form factor: This is the ratio of the rms value to the average value.
Form Factor = rms Value = 0.707 x maximum value = 0.707 = 1.11

Average value 0.637 x maximum value 0.637
THE EQUATION OF A SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM

In the figure shown below OA represents a vector that is free to rotate
anticlockwise about 0 at an angular velocity of ω rads/s. A rotating vector is
known as a phasor.
After time t seconds the vector OA has turned through an angle ωt. If the line
BC is constructed perpendicular to OA as shown below, then
Sin ωt = BC i.e. BC = OB Sin ωt

OB
Note; OB is equal to the maximum value of an alternating quantity
BC is the instantaneous value
θ = ωt is the angle in radians
Omega (ω) is the angular velocity in rads/s (ω = 2πf)
Thus the equation of a sinusoidal waveform is given by
Instantaneous current i = Imax Sin θ = Imax Sin ωt = Imax Sin 2πft
Instantaneous voltage, v = Vmax Sin θ = Vmax Sin ωt = Vmax Sin 2πft
The general sinusoidal voltage can be given by v = Vmax (Sin ωt ± Φ)
From the general sinusoidal voltage equation the following can be determined
i) Amplitude or peak value (maximum value) = Vmax

ii) Peak to peak value = 2Vmax
iii) Angular velocity = ω rads/s
iv) Periodic time, T = 2π/ ω seconds
v) Frequency, f = ω/2π Hz ( Since = 2πf )
vi) Φ = angle of lag or lead (compared with v = Vmax Sin ωt)
EXAMPLE 1
An alternating voltage is given by v = 282.8 sin 314t volts. Find
a) the rms voltage
b) the frequency
SJM@LBTC Page 49
c) the instantaneous value of voltage when t = 4ms.
SOLUTION
a) From the equation above the peak voltage is 282.8 V
Rms voltage = 0.707 x maximum value of voltage

= 0.707 x 282.8
= 200 V
b) From the equation angular velocity, ω = 314 rads/s i.e. 2πf = 314
Hence frequency, f = 314 = 50 Hz

2π
c) When t = 4ms, v = 282.8 sin (314 x 4 x 10 -3)

v = 282.8 sin (1.256)
v = 268.9 V
EXAMPLE 2
An alternating voltage is given by v = 75 sin (200πt – 0.25) volts. Find
a) the Amplitude
b) the peak to peak value
c) the rms value
d) the periodic time
e) the frequency
f) the phase angle in relation to 75 sin 200πt
SOLUTION
a) Amplitude or peak value = 75V
b) Peak to peak value = 2 x 75 = 150V
c) The rms value = 0.707 x maximum value = 0.707 x 75 = 53V
d) Angular velocity, ω = 200π rads/s
Hence periodic time, T = 2π = 2π = 1 = 0.01s or 10ms.

ω 200π 100
e) Frequency, f = 1 = 1 = 100 Hz
T 0.01
f) Phase angle Φ = 0.25 radians lagging 75 sin 200πt
0.25 rads = (0.25 x 180/π) o = 14.32 o = 14o19’
Hence the phase angle is 14 o19’ lagging.
PURELY RESISTIVE CIRCUIT

This is a circuit that contains resistance only. In this circuit current and voltage
are in phase, the power factor is unity (1).
SJM@LBTC Page 50
The current in the circuit is given by IR = Voltage across resistor

Resistance of resistor
Power in a purely resistive circuit is given by, P =VICos θ = VI since Cos θ = 1
PURELY INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT

A Purely inductive circuit is a circuit that contains inductance only. In a purely
inductive circuit current, IL lags the voltage, VL by 90 o (i.e. by π/2) or voltage
leads the current by 90o.
SJM@LBTC Page 51
Current in a purely inductive circuit, IL = Voltage across inductor, VL

Inductive reactance, XL
Inductive reactance, XL is the opposition that an inductor offers to the flow of

alternating current in an a.c circuit and is measured in ohms. Inductive
reactance is given by
XL = VL = 2πfL Ω where f is the frequency in hertz and L is inductance in

henry.
IL
Power in a purely inductive circuit is zero i.e. P = VICos θ Where Cos θ = 0
PURELY CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT

This is a circuit that contains capacitance only. In a purely capacitive circuit
current leads the voltage by 90 o or the voltage lags the current by 90o.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Capacitor, C
IC
VC
PHASOR DIAGRAM CURRENT AND VOLTAGE WAVEFORM

VC
IC
IC
+
0
t
90O -
VC
Current leads voltage by 90o, and the power factor of a purely capacitive circuit is Zero (Cos 90o = 0)
Current in a purely capacitive circuit, IC = Voltage across capacitor, VC

Capacitive reactance, XC
Capacitive reactance, XC is the opposition that a capacitor offers to the flow

of alternating current in an a.c circuit and is measured in ohms. Capacitive
reactance is given by
XC = V C = 1 . Ω where f is the frequency in hertz and C is capacitance in

IC 2πfC Farads
.
Power in a purely capacitive circuit is zero i.e. P = VICos θ Where Cos θ = 0
SJM@LBTC Page 52
SERIES RL CIRCUIT
This is a circuit that contains resistance and inductance in series.
In a series RL circuit the following should be noted,
Current through the resistors, IR = Voltage across resistor, VR

Resistance, R
Current through the inductor, IL = Voltage across inductor, VL

Supply current is given by, I = Supply Voltage, V

Impedance, Z
Circuit Impedance, Z = √ (R2 + XL2)
Supply voltage, V = √ (VR2 + V L2)
Power factor, Cos θ = Resistance, R

Impedance, Z
The angle θ can be found by θ = tan-1 XL = Sin -1 XL = Cos -1 R

R Z Z
EXAMPLE 3
A coil has a resistance of 4 Ω and an inductance of 9.55 mH. Calculate
a) the reactance
b) the impedance
c) the current taken from a 240V, 50Hz supply.
d) the phase angle between the supply voltage and current.
SOLUTION
Data
R=4Ω
L = 9.55 mH
F = 50Hz
V = 240V
a) Inductive reactance, XL = 2πfL = 2π(50)(9.55 x 10-3) = 3 Ω
SJM@LBTC Page 53
b) Impedance, Z = √ (R2 + XL2) = √ (42 – 32) = 5 Ω
c) Current, I = V = 240 = 48 A
Z 5
d) The phase angle tan θ = XL
R
θ = tan -1 XL = 3/4 = 36.87o lagging.
R
EXAMPLE 4
A coil takes a current of 2A from a 12V d.c supply. When connected to a
240V, 50Hz supply the current is 20A. Calculate
a) the resistance
b) the impedance
c) inductive reactance
d) inductance of the coil
SOLUTION
Data
IDC = 2A
VDC = 12V
IAC = 20A
VAC = 240V
f = 50Hz
a) Resistance, R = d.c voltage = 12 = 6 Ω

d.c current 6
b) Impedance, Z = a.c voltage = 240 = 12 Ω

a.c current 20
c) Since Z = √ (R2 + XL2), inductive reactance, XL = √(Z2 – R2)
= √(122 – 62)
= 10.39 Ω
d) Since, XL = 2πfL, inductance, L = XL = 10.39 = 33.1 mH

2πf 2π x 50
This problem indicates a simple way for finding the inductance of a coil i.e.
firstly measure the current when the coil is connected to a d.c supply of known
voltage, and then repeat the process with an a.c supply.
SJM@LBTC Page 54
SERIES RC CIRCUIT
This is a circuit containing resistance and capacitance in series.
In a series RC circuit the following should be noted

Resistance, R
Current through the capacitor, Ic = Voltage across capacitor, Vc

capacitive reactance, Xc

Impedance, Z
Circuit Impedance, Z = √ (R2 + Xc2)
Supply voltage, V = √ (VR2 + Vc2)

Impedance, Z
The angle θ can be found by θ = tan-1 XC = Sin -1

XC = Cos -1
R
R Z Z
EXAMPLE 5
A resistor of 25Ω is connected in series with a capacitor of 45μF. Calculate
a) the impedance
b) the current taken from a 240V, 50Hz supply
c) the phase angle between the supply voltage and current,
SOLUTION
Data
R = 25Ω
C = 45μF
V = 240V
F = 50Hz
SJM@LBTC Page 55
Capacitive reactance, Xc = 1/2πfC = 1/2π(50)(45 x 10-6) = 70.74 Ω
a) Circuit Impedance, Z = √ (R2 + Xc2) = √ ( 252 x 70.74 2) = 75.03 Ω
b) Current, I = V = 240 = 3.20 A

Z 75.03
c) Phase angle, θ = tan-1 XC = 70.74 = 70.54 o = 70 o32’ leading

R 25
EXAMPLE 6
A Capacitor C is connected in series with a 40 Ω resistor across a supply of
frequency 60 Hz. A current of 3 A flows and the circuit impedance is 50 Ω.
Calculate
a) the value of the capacitance
b) the supply voltage
c) the phase angle between supply voltage and current
d) the p.d. across the resistor
e) the p.d. across the capacitor.
f) draw the phasor diagram.
SOLUTION
Data
R = 40 Ω
F = 60 Hz
I=3A
Z = 50 Ω
a) Impedance, Z = √ (R2 + Xc2)
Hence, Xc = √ (Z2 - R2) =√ (50 2 - 40c2) = 30 Ω
XC = 1 hence, C = 1 = 1 F
2πfC 2πfXC 2π(60)(30)
= 88.42 μF
b) Since Z = V then V = IZ = (3)(50) = 150 V

I
c) Phase angle, θ = tan-1 XC = 30 = 36.87 o = 36o52’ leading

R 40
d) p.d. across resistor VR = IR = 3 x 40 = 120 V
e) p.d. across capacitor, Vc = IX C = 3 x 30 = 90 V
f) the phasor diagram is as below
SJM@LBTC Page 56
PHASOR DIAGRAM
VC = 90V V =150V
36o52'
I=3A
VR =120V
SERIES RLC CIRCUIT

This is a circuit containing resistance, inductance and capacitance connected
in series.
PHASOR DIAGRAM
VL VL
V
(VL – VC)
VR
θ I
I θ
VR
(VC – VL)
V
VC VC
When V L is greater When V C is greater
than V C than V L
In a series RLC circuit the following is true

Resistance, R
SJM@LBTC Page 57
Current through the inductor, IL = Voltage across inductor, VL

Current through the capacitor, Ic = Voltage across capacitor, Vc

Capacitive reactance, Xc

Impedance, Z
Circuit Impedance, Z = √ [R2 + (XL - Xc)2]
Supply voltage, V = √ [VR2 + (VL - Vc)2]

Impedance, Z
EXAMPLE 7
A coil of resistance 5 Ω and inductance 120 mH in series with a 100 μF
capacitor is connected to a 300V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate
a) the current flowing
b) the phase difference between supply voltage and current
c) the voltage across the coil
d) the voltage across the capacitor
SOLUTION
Data
The circuit diagram is shown below
XL = 2πfL = 2π(50)(120 x 10-3) = 37.70 Ω
XC = 1 = 1 = 31.87 Ω
2πfC 2π(50)(100 x 10-6)
Since XL is greater than XC the circuit is inductive. XL – XC =31.87 – 31.87
= 5.87 Ω
SJM@LBTC Page 58
Impedance, Z = √ [R2 + (XL - Xc)2] = √ [5 2 + (5.87) 2] = 7.71 Ω
a) Current, I = V = 300 = 38.91 A

Z 7.71
b) Phase angle, θ = tan-1 XL - XC = tan-1 5.87 = 49.58 o

R 5
c) Impedance of coil Zcoil = √ (R2 + X L2) = √ (52 + 37.702)
= 38.03 Ω
Voltage across coil Vcoil = IZcoil = (38.91)(38.03) = 1480 V
Phase angle of coil, θ = tan-1 XL = tan -1 37.70 = 82.45 o lagging.

R 5
d) Voltage across capacitor = VC = IXC = (38.91)(31.83) = 1239 V
SERIES RESONANCE
In a series RLC circuit a circuit is at resonance when capacitive reactance is
equal to inductive reactance (XC – XL). At resonance the following is true
a) Current and voltage are in phase i.e. the power factor is unity
b) Impedance is minimum at resonance (Z = R)
c) Current is maximum at resonance
d) Voltage across the capacitor equals to the voltage across the inductor
VC = VL
e) Since XL = Xc, then 2πfL = 1/2πfC the resonant frequency
fr = 1 .
2π√(LC)
PARALLEL RL CIRCUIT
This is a circuit containing resistance and inductance connected in parallel.
SJM@LBTC Page 59
From the phasor diagram:
Supply current, I = √(I2R + I2L) , (by Pythagoras theorem)
Current through the resistors, IR = Supply Voltage , V

Resistance, R
Current through the inductor, IL = Supply voltage, V

Inductive reactance, X L

Impedance, Z
Circuit impedance, Z = Supply voltage, V

Supply current, I
The angle θ can be found by θ = tan-1 IL = Sin -1

IL = Cos -1
IR
IR I I
Power factor, Cos θ = IR

I
EXAMPLE 8
A 20 Ω resistor is connected in parallel with an inductance of 2.387 mH across
a 60 V, 1 KHz supply. Calculate
a) the current in each branch
b) the supply current
c) the circuit phase angle
d) the circuit impedance
e) the power consumed
SOLUTION
Data
R = 20 Ω
L = 2.387 mH
V = 60 V
F = 1000 Hz
a) Current flowing in the resistor, IR = Supply Voltage , V = 60 = 3 A

Resistance, R 20
Current through the inductor, IL = Supply voltage, V = V .

Inductive reactance, XL 2πfL
= 60 .
2π(1000)(2.387 x 10-3)
=4A
SJM@LBTC Page 60
b) Supply current, I = √(I2R + I2L)
I = √(32 + 4 2)
=5A
c) Circuit phase angle, θ = tan -1 IL = 4 = 53.13o = 53 o8’ lagging

IR 3
d) Circuit impedance, Z = V = 60 = 12 Ω
I 5
e) Power consumed, P = VICos θ = (60)(5)(Cos 53o8’) = 180 W
Alternatively, P = IR2R = (3)2(20) = 180 W
PARALLEL RC CIRCUIT
This is a circuit containing resistance and capacitance connected in parallel.
Supply current, I = √(I2R + I2C) , (by Pythagoras theorem)

Resistance, R
Current through the capacitor, IC = Supply voltage, V


Impedance, Z

Supply current, I
The angle θ can be found by θ = tan-1 IC = Sin -1

IC = Cos -1
IR
IR I I
SJM@LBTC Page 61

I
EXAMPLE 9
A 30μF capacitor is connected in parallel with an 80 Ω resistor across a 240
V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate
a) the current in each branch
b) the supply current
c) the circuit phase angle
d) the circuit impedance
e) the power dissipated
f) the apparent power
SOLUTION
Data
C = 30 μF
R = 80 Ω
V = 240 V
F = 50 Hz
a) Current flowing in the resistor, IR = Supply Voltage , V = 240 = 3 A

Resistance, R 80
Current in capacitor , IC = Supply voltage, V = V .

Capacitive reactance, XC (1/2πfC)
= 2πfCV
= 2π(50)(30 x 10-6)(240)
= 2.262 A
b) Supply current, I = √(I2R + I2C) = √(32 + 2.2622)
= 3.757 A
c) Circuit phase angle θ = tan -1 IC = tan-1 2.262

IR 3
= 37 o1’ leading
d) Circuit impedance, Z = V = 240 = 63.88 Ω

I 3.757
e) True or active power developed, P = VICos θ
= 240 x 3.757 x Cos 37o1’
SJM@LBTC Page 62
= 720 W
Alternatively, P = IR2R = (3)2(80) = 720 W
f) Apparent power, S = VI = 240 x 3.757 = 901.7 VA
PARALLEL LC CIRCUIT
This is a circuit that contains inductance and capacitance in parallel. In the
figure below IL lags V by 90o and IC leads V by 90o. Theoretically there are
three possible phasor diagrams each dependent on the relative values of IL
and IC.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
IL L PHASOR DIAGRAM
IC
IC C
IL
The following should be noted in an LC circuit

i) When IL > IC ( giving a supply current, I = IL – IC lagging V by 90 o)
ii) When IC > IL ( giving a supply current, I = IC – IL leading V by 90 o)
iii) When IL = IC ( giving a supply current, I = 0)
Supply current, I = phasor difference between IL and IC



Supply current, I
EXAMPLE 10
A pure inductance of 120 mH is connected in parallel with a 25μF capacitor
and the network is connected to a 100 V, 50Hz supply. Determine
a) the branch current
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b) the supply current and its phase angle

c) the circuit impedance
d) the power consumed
SOLUTION
Data
L = 120 mH
C = 25μF
V = 100 V
f = 50 Hz
a) inductive reactance, XL = 2πfL = 2π(50)(120 x 10-3)
= 37.70 Ω
Capacitive reactance, XC = 1 = 1 = 127.3 Ω

2πfC 2π(50)(25 x 10-6)
Current through the inductor, IL = Supply voltage, V = 100 = 2.653 A

Inductive reactance, XL 37.70
Current through the capacitor, IC = Supply voltage, V = 100 = 0.786 A

Capacitive reactance, XC 127.3
b) IL and IC are in anti phase, hence supply current
I = IL - IC = 2.653 – 0.786 = 1.867 A and the current lags the supply voltage
by 90 o.
c) Circuit impedance, Z = V = 100 = 53.56 Ω

I 1.867
d) Power consumed, P = VICos θ = (100)(1.867)(Cos 90)
=0W
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PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT

This is a circuit containing resistance, inductance, and capacitance connected
in parallel.
PHASOR DIAGRAM
IC IC
I
(IC – IL)
IR
θ V
V θ
IR
(IL – IC)
I
IL IL
When I C is greater When I L is greater
than I L than I C
Supply current, I = √[I2R + (IL - IC)2] , (by Pythagoras theorem)

Resistance, R

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Impedance, Z

Supply current, I
The angle θ can be found by θ = tan-1 IL - IC = Sin -1 IL - IC = Cos -1 IR

IR I I

I
EXAMPLE 11
A resistance of 10 Ω, an inductive reactance of 8 Ω and a capacitive
reactance 15 Ω are each connected in parallel across a 120V, 60 Hz supply.
a) Show the respective currents vectorically
b) Determine from the vector diagram the total current
c) Determine the power factor of the circuit
SOLUTION
Data
R = 10 Ω
XL = 8 Ω
XC = 15 Ω
V = 120 V
f = 60 Hz.
a) Showing the respective currents vectorically
Current through the resistors, IR = Supply Voltage, V

Resistance, R
= 120
10
= 12 A which is in phase with the voltage

= 120
8
= 15 A which lags behind the voltage by 90o

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= 120
15
= 8 A which leads the supply voltage by 90o
b) Supply current, I = √[I2R + (IL - IC)2]
= √[102 + (15 - 8)2]
= 12.21 A
c) The power factor, Cos θ = IR = 10 = 0.82 lagging.

I 12.21
PARALLEL RESONANCE
Resonance in parallel occurs when the quadrature component of current ILR is
equal to IC, (ILR Sin θ = IC). At this condition the supply current, I is in phase
with the supply voltage, V. This is in a circuit where capacitance is in parallel
with resistance and inductance in series.
In parallel at resonance current is minimum and resistance is maximum.

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POWER FACTOR IMPROVE MENT

Power factor is the cosine of an angle between current and voltage in an a.c
circuit. It can also be defined as the ratio of the active power to the apparent
power or the ratio of resistance to impedance (which is true in a series circuits
only)
CAUSES OF A LOWER POWER FACTOR

A lower power factor is caused by
1. Induction motors running at no load or light loads have a low p.f. of about
0.2 – 0.3. This may rise to 0.8 or 0.9 on full load.
2. Electric discharge lamps, arc lamps and industrial heating furnaces operate
at a low lagging power factor.
3 The variation of load on the power system, being high in the morning and
evening and low at other times. During low loads, supply voltage is
increased which increases the magnetising current which results in
decreased power factor.
DISADVANTAGES OF A LOWER POWER FACTOR

1. FROM THE SUPPLIERS POINT OF VIEW
a) At a lower power factor the KVA rating of equipment needed is
higher, hence the sizes of machines like transformers,
alternators should be increased in order to deliver the same
amount of power thus the suppliers spends more on the
acquisition of larger machines.
Apparent power, KVA = Active power, KW

Power factor, Cos θ
b) More money is spent on the acquisition of larger size of

transmission and distribution cables, since at a lower power
factor the current flowing increases hence the need for larger
conductors.
Line current, IL = Power, P

√3VL Cos θ
c) There is an increase in the percentage line drops i.e. the copper

losses and voltage drops increases at a lower power factor.
d) There will be poor voltage regulation i.e. since a higher current
flows at a lower power factor the voltage drops in alternators,
transformers, transmission and distribution lines increases which
results in decreased voltage available at the supply end thus
impairing the performance of utilisation devices.
e) A lower power factor leads to a reduced handling capacity off all
the elements of the supply which is because the reactive
component of the current prevents the full utilisation of the
installed capacity.
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2. CONSUMERS POINT OF VIEW

a) The consumer pays more on his demand for electrical energy
and especially industrial and other big consumers pay more for
their demand in KVA.
b) Consumers at the end of the supply system receive a reduced
voltage due to poor voltage regulation, caused by voltage drops.
c) The power efficiency of the supply system due to large copper
losses at a low power factor may subsequently impact
negatively on the consumer as the supply company may not
effectively supply power continuously.
METHODS OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENTS

Since a lower power factor is undesirable to both the consumer and supplier,
the following methods are employed to improve the power factor;
1. Static capacitors
2. Synchronous condenser
3. phase advancer
STATIC CAPACITORS
When the capacitor is connected in parallel with the load whose power factor
is to be improved it draws a leading current that partly or completely
neutralises the reactive component of the load current thereby improving the
power factor. Static capacitors can be used to improve the power factor of
individual loads or overall system.
ADVANTAGES
i) they have low losses
ii) they require little maintenance, as they are no rotating parts
iii) they can be easily installed as they are light requiring no foundation
iv) they can work under ordinary atmospheric
DISADVANTAGES
i) they have short service life ranging from 8 to 10 years
ii) they are easily damaged if voltage exceeds the rated value
iii) once the capacitors are damaged their repair is uneconomical.
SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSER
A synchronous condenser in an overexcited synchronous motor running at no
load. The motor behaves as a capacitor when connected in parallel with the
supply it draws a leading current that neutralises the lagging reactive
component current thereby improving the power factor. A synchronous
condenser can be used to improve the power factor for individual loads or
overall systems.
ADVANTAGES
i) By varying the field excitation, the magnitude of current drawn by
the motor can be changed by any amount. This helps in achieving
stepless control of power factor.
ii) The motor windings have high thermal stability to short circuit
currents
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iii) The faults can be removed easily
DISADVANTAGES
i) there are considerable losses in the motor
ii) the maintenance cost is high
iii) it produces noise
iv) Except in sizes above 500 KVA, the cost is greater than that of
static capacitors of the same rating.
v) As a synchronous motor has no self starting torque therefore
auxiliary equipment has to be provided for this purpose.
PHASE ADVANCER
Phase advancers are used to improve the power factor of induction motors
(individual loads). A phase advancer is simply an a.c exciter. The phase
advancer is mounted on the same shaft as the main motor and is connected
in the rotor circuit of the motor. It provides exciting ampere turns to the rotor
circuit at slip frequency. By providing more ampere turns than required, the
induction motor can be made to operate on leading power factor like an
overexcited synchronous motor.
Phase advancers have two principle advantages; firstly, as exciting ampere
turns are provided at slip frequency, therefore, lagging KVA drawn by the
motor is considerably reduced.
Secondly phase advancers can be conveniently used where the use of the
synchronous motor is inadmissible. However, the major disadvantage of the
phase advancer is that they are not economical for motors below 200 Hp.
POWER TRIANGLE
Power factor correction can also be illustrated on a power triangle. A power
triangle shows the relationships between the active power, reactive power and
the apparent power. Thus referring to the figure below, the power triangle
OAB is for the power factor Cos θ 1 whereas the power triangle OAC is for the
improved power factor Cos θ2. It may be seen that the active power OS does
not change with power Factor improvement.
However, the lagging KVA of the load is reduced by the power factor
correction equipment, thus improving the power factor to Cos θ2.
VI Sin θ
The following may be noted from the power triangle

i) The apparent power in an a.c circuit has two components, the active
and the reactive power at right angles to each other.
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OB2 = OA2 + AB 2
(Apparent power)2 = (Active power)2 x (Reactive power)2
(KVA) 2 = (KW)2 + (KVAr)2
ii) Power factor, Cos θ = OA = Active power = KW

OB Apparent power KVA
iii) The lagging reactive power is responsible for a lower power factor. It is
clear from the power triangle that the smaller the reactive power of the
component the higher the power factor of the circuit.
KVAr = KVA Sin θ = KW Sin θ = KW tan θ

Cos θ
KV
A1
KV
A1
Leading KVAr supplied by the power factor correction equipment (BC)
BC = AB – AC
KVAr = KVAr1 – KVAr 2
= OA (tan θ1 – tan θ2)
= KW (tan θ 1 – tan θ 2)
Knowing the leading KVAr supplied by the power factor correction equipment,
the desired results can be obtained.
CALCULATIONS ON POWER FACTOR IMPROVEM ENT
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Consider an inductive load taking a lagging current at a power factor Cos θ1

In order to improve the power factor a capacitor is connected in parallel with
the inductive load. The capacitor draws a current IC that leads the supply
voltage by 90 o. The current IC partly neutralises the lagging reactive
component of the load current as shown in the vector diagram. The resultant
circuit current becomes I2 and its angle of lag θ2 and is more than the previous
power factor Cos θ1.
From the vector diagram, it is clear that after power factor correction, the
lagging reactive component of the load is reduced to I2 and its angle of lag θ 2
Capacitor current, IC = I1 Sin θ1 – I2 Sin θ2
Where IC is the capacitor current

I1 is the current before power factor improvement
θ 1 is the angle before power factor improvement
I2 is the current after power factor improvement
θ 2 is the angle after power factor improvement
The capacitance of the capacitor needed to improve the power factor from
Cos θ 1 to Cos θ 2 is given by
Capacitance, C = Capacitor current, IC = I1 Sin θ 1 – I2 Sin θ 2

2πfV 2πfV
Note: Voltage across the capacitor is given by
V = capacitor current, IC x capacitive reactance, XC.
V = IC x 1 . (Since XC= 1/ 2πfC)

2πfC
V= IC . = I1 Sin θ1 – I2 Sin θ2
2πfC 2πfC
EXAMPLE 12
A factory draws 8.3A at a power factor of 0.8 lagging. When connected to a
230V, 50Hz supply. Two similar capacitors are connected in parallel with each
other to form a capacitance bank. The capacitance bank is now connected in
parallel with the motor to raise the power factor to unit. Determine the
capacitance of each capacitor.
SOLUTION
Data
Current before p.f improvement, I1 = 8.3A
P.f before p.f improvement, Cos θ 1 = 0.8 lagging (θ = 36.87o)
p.f after p.f improvement, Cos θ2 = 1 (θ = 0 o)
Supply voltage, V = 230V
Frequency, f = 50Hz
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For capacitance to be found the new supply current I2 after power factor
improvement has to be found
New supply current I2 = Active power, P

V Cos θ 2
= VI1 Cos θ1
V Cos θ2
= 240 x 8.3 x 0.8

240 x 1
= 1527.2
240
= 6.36 A
Capacitance, C = Capacitor current, IC = I1 Sin θ 1 – I2 Sin θ 2

2πfV 2πfV
= 8.3 x sin 36.87 – 6.36 x sin 0

2 x 3.142 x 50 x 230
= 8.3 x 0.6 – 6.36 x 0

72 266
= 4.98
72 266
= 68.91μF
Therefore the capacitance of each capacitor = 68.91/2 = 34.46μF
EXAMPLE 13
a) A load of 25 KW is connected across a 230V, 50 Hz single phase supply
and operates at a power factor of 0.65 lagging. Calculate the current taken
by the load.
b) The supply current taken by the load in a) is reduced to 140A by means of
a capacitor connected in parallel with the load. Calculate the
i) KVAr rating of the capacitor.
ii) Capacitance of the capacitor.
SOLUTION
Data
P = 25 000
V = 230V
f = 50 Hz
Cos θ = 0.65 lagging (49.46 o)
I2 = 140 A
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a) Power taken by load, P = VICos θ, hence, Current, I1 = P .

V Cos θ
= 25 000 .
230 x 0.65
= 167.22 A
b) i) Cos θ 2 = P .
V I2
= 25 000
230 x 140
= 25 000
32 200
= 0.78 lagging (39.07o)
KVAr = KW (tan θ1 – tan θ2)
= 25 (tan 49.46 – tan 39.07)
= 25 (1.169 – 0.812)
= 25 x 0.357
= 8.925 KVAr
Therefore the KVAr rating of the capacitor is 8.925
ii) Capacitance of the capacitor, C = Capacitor current, IC = I1 Sin θ1 – I2 Sin θ2

2πfV 2πfV
= 167.22 x sin 49.46 – 140 x sin 39.07

2 x 3.142 x 50 x 230
= 167.22 x 0.76 – 140 x 0.63

72 266
= 127.09 – 88.2
72 266
= 540 μF
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TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a static a.c machine that transfers electrical energy from one
circuit to another at the same frequency through a magnetic circuit by the
principle of electromagnetic induction or it is a static a.c machine that
transforms the values of currents and voltages by the principle of
electromagnetic induction (mutual inductance).
CONSTRUCTION
A transformer principally consists of two main parts, these being
i) the core made of silicon steel or soft iron
ii) the insulated windings
POWER TRANSFORMER
Power transformers are transformers that are used in transmission and
distribution lines.
To make the transformer more efficient other auxiliary equipment and devices
are normally added to power transformers due to the high voltages and
currents they operate with. A power transformer consists of the following
devices transformer tank, transformer core, windings, terminal bushings,
conservator tank, buchholz relay, temperature gauge, oil gauge, breather,
explosion vent and tap changers e.t.c.
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A power transformer consists of a magnetic circuit linking with two windings

known as primary and secondary windings. Besides it consists of a suitable
container for the assembled transformer core and windings known as a
transformer tank. It also consists of insulating oil for insulating the core and
windings from the transformer tank.
PARTS OF A POWER TRANSFORMER

Primary winding: This is a winding that is connected to the supply and if it
operates on high voltage it is known as a high tension winding (HT) and if it
operates on low voltage it is called a low tension (LT) winding. The porcelain
bushings connected to the HT side are known as HT terminal bushings.
Secondary windings: This is a winding where the load is connected, it can
also be a LT or HT winding depending on the operating voltage.
Transformer tank: This is a metallic container in which transformer oil
(mineral oil) is filled for cooling the windings. The oil after taking the heat from
the winding gives it to the surface of the tank for cooling. For better cooling
the surface area of the tank is increased by either providing corrugated sheets
in case of small transformers around the tank or by providing round pipes or
elliptical tubes on the sides of the tank for large transformer.
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The insulating oil has three functions, it provides additional insulation, it is also
used for cooling and protects the paper insulation from dirt and moisture.
The oil used in transformers should have the following properties
· High dielectric strength
· Free from inorganic acid, alkalis and corrosive sulphur to prevent injury
to the conductor or insulation.
· Low viscosity to provide good heat transfer
· Free from sludging under normal operating conditions
Expansion tank or conservator: This is a small tank that is mounted above

the transformer and is connected to the main tank by a pipe. Its main function
is to keep the transformer tank full of oil despite expansion or contraction of oil
due to temperature changes and also to provide space for the expansion of
the oil when the temperature rises. It also prevents the transformer oil from
moisture when it breathes in. The expansion tank is usually mounted on the
low voltage side of the transformer.
Temperature gauge: It is a small temperature indicating device which is used
to indicate the temperature of the transformer oil and is fitted on the side of
the transformer tank.
Insulation: Paper (impregnated paper) insulation or melinex is used as an
insulator around the conductor or windings
Oil gauge: This is provided to indicate the level of oil and may be provided
with an alarm contacts which give an alarm to the switch board when oil level
has dropped beyond permissible limits due to oil leak or damage of the cooler.
Transformer bushings: These are used for insulating and bringing out
terminals of the windings from the container to the external circuit.
Breather: The function of the breather is to prevent the entry of moisture or
moist air in the transformer tank after it breathes out. The breather is a
cylindrical tube containing oil, silica gel or calcium chloride in different
chambers. When the pressure inside the tank due to breathing out, as it also
allows the entry of air from the surrounding it absorb any moisture and
prevents its entry into the conservator. The entering air first passes through
the oil which filters the moisture and then through the silica gel which further
dries the air.
Silica gel is blue in colour when dry and when it absorbs moisture it becomes
some what whitish or pink in colour. Silica gel in the breather is replaced at
certain intervals of time.
Buchholz Relay: This is a protection relay of the transformer. It signals the
fault as soon as it occurs and cuts the transformer out of the circuit
immediately.
The buchholz relay works on the excessive formation of the oil vapours or gas
inside the transformer tank due to any internal fault of the transformer. It is
used in power transformers above 500 KVA and is connected in between the
pipe connecting the tank and the conservator.
Tap changer: A tap changer is a device operated either manually or
automatically (through a motor) and is used for keeping the output voltage of
a transformer constant.
When the load on the transformer increases, the output voltage falls. To keep
the terminal voltage constant a tap changer is connected to the secondary
side of the transformer. Different tappings from the secondary windings are
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brought to in. With the help of a tap changer, the secondary turns can be
either increased or decreased and thus the secondary voltage can be
increased or decreased as desired.
Explosion vent: The explosion vent is safety device of the transformer and is
also known as an emergency pressure release valve. It is a projected pipe
one end is fitted to the top of the tank and the other left open to the
atmosphere through a diaphragm. When excessive high pressure is
developed inside the tank due to internal faults the pressure breaks the
diaphragm and oil goes out through the broken diaphragm.
TYPES OF TRANSFORMER CORES

There are three types of transformer cores these being
i) core type
ii) shell type
iii) Berry type
PRICIPLE OF OPERATION
When the primary of the transformer is connected to an a.c supply while the
secondary is open circuited, a small current flows which sets up a magnetic
flux in the core (if the secondary is loaded a high current flows). This
alternating flux in the core links both the primary and secondary windings
inducing e.m.f.s. E1 and E2 in them by mutual inductance.
The induced e.m.f. in the secondary and primary windings is dependent on
the number of turns.
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EMF EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER

The emf induced in the primary and secondary windings is given by
EMF induced in the primary, E 1 = 4.44fN 1Φmax
EMF induced in the secondary, E2 = 4.44fN 2Φmax
The magnitude of the emf induced in the windings depends on the number of
turns. The higher the number of turns the higher the induced emf.
In a step down transformer N1 is greater than N2 while in a step up

transformer N2 is greater than N1.
TRANSFORMATION RATIO (K)

The transformation ratio is the ratio of the secondary voltage to the primary
voltage. The transformation ratio can also be expressed in terms of current
and the number of turns as shown below.
The transformation ratio K = V2 = N2 = I1 = E2

V1 N1 I2 E1
A TRANSFORMER O N NO LOAD
A transformer on no load is a transformer whose primary is connected to the
supply while on the secondary part there is no load connected.
IO
E2 V2
V1 E1
VECTOR DIAGRAM OF A TRANSFORMER ON NO LOAD

The relationship between the no load current, Io, magnetising current, Im and
the energy component, Iw can be represented on a vector diagram as shown
below.
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V1
Io
Iw = IoCos θ
θ
Im = IoSin θ
E1
V2 = E2
It will be noted that

i. The induced emf in the primary and secondary windings, E1 and E2 lag
behind the main flux Φ by π/2, so these emfs (E1 and E2) are in phase
with each other as shown vectorically.
ii. Applied voltage to the primary winding leads the main flux by π/2 and is
in phase opposition to the induced emf, in the primary winding.
iii. Secondary voltage V2 = E2 as there is no voltage drop in the
secondary.
iv. The magnetising component Im is in phase with the flux Φ, so lags the
applied voltage V1 by π/2
v. The energy component Iw is in phase with the applied voltage V 1
As Io is very small, the no load primary copper loss is negligibly small which
means that the no load primary input is practically equal to the iron loss in the
transformer. The no load input power is given by
W o = V1IoCos θ where V1 is the primary voltage

Io is the no load current
Cos θ is the no load power factor
No load current, Io =√ (Im 2 + Iw2)
The energy component of the no load current Iw = Io Cos θ

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The magnetising component of the no load current Im = Io Sin θ
EXAMPLE 1
The no load current of a transformer is 5A at 0.2 power factor lagging when
supplied at 240V, 50Hz. The number of turns on the primary winding is 250.
Determine the core loss and the magnetising current.
SOLUTION
Data
V1 = 240 V
Io = 5A
f = 50Hz
Cos θ = 0.2
N1 = 250
The core loss = V1IoCos θ
= 240 x 5 x 0.2
= 240 W
The energy component of the no load current Iw = Io Cos θ
= 5 x 0.2
=1A
No load current, Io =√ (Im 2 + Iw2)
Magnetising current, Im =√ (Io2 - Iw2)
= √ (52 – 12)
= 4.899 A
EXAMPLE 2
A transformer takes a current of 0.8A when its primary is connected to 200V,
50Hz supply. The secondary is open circuited, the power absorbed from the
supply is 60W. Determine the iron loss current and the magnetising current.
SOLUTION
Data
V1 = 200 V
Io = 0.8 A
f = 50Hz
Iron loss = 60 W
Iron loss current Iw = Io Cos θ = V1IoCos θ = 60 = 0.3 A

V1 200
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Magnetising current, Im =√ (Io2 - Iw2)
= √ (0.82 – 0.32)
= 0.74 A
EXAMPLE 3
The no load current of a single phase transformer is 5A at 0.65 pf lagging and
is supplied from a 220V , 50 Hz supply. If the primary winding has 400 turns,
calculate
i) the maximum flux in the core
ii) the core loss
iii) the magnetising current
SOLUTION
Data
Io = 5A
Cos θ = 0.65 lag. (49.46 o)
F = 50Hz
N1 = 400 turns
i) EMF induced in the primary, E 1 = 4.44fN 1Φmax
Maximum flux Φmax = E1 .

4.44fN 1
= 220 .
4.44 x 50 x 400
= 220 .
88 800
= 2.48 x 10 -3 Wb
= 0.00248 mWb.
ii) Core losses are the same as copper losses
Core loss, Pi = V1IoCos θ
= 220 x 5 x 0.65
= 715 W
iii) magnetising current Im = Io Sin θ
= 5 x Sin 49.46
= 5 x 0.76
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= 3.8 A
TRANSFORMER LOSSES
There are two major losses that occur in transformers these being Copper
losses and Iron losses.
Copper losses: These are losses that occur in the windings of the
transformer due to the resistance that the windings have to the flow of current
which results in the generation of heat. Copper losses are given by I2R.
Iron losses are losses that occur in the core of the transformer and are of two
types these being Eddy current and Hysteresis loss.
RATING OF TRANSFORMERS
Transformers are rated in Kilovolt amperes, KVA or in Megavolt amperes,
MVA.
Transformers are normally rated in KVA because the power factor of the load
to which the transformer is to be connected is not known (transformers supply
loads operating at different power factors) and also because the losses that
occur in transformers are depended on the losses i.e. Copper losses are
dependent on current while the iron losses are dependent on voltage.
TRANSFORMER TESTS
The two transformer tests that will be considered are
i) the open circuit test or the no load test
ii) short circuit test or the impedance test
The tests above are normally carried out to help in determining the efficiency
of a transformer and also the equivalent resistance and reactance of a
transformer without actually loading the transformer..
OPEN CIRCUIT TEST OR NO LOAD TEST

This is a test that is carried out when the low or high voltage winding of the
transformer is open circuited.
Purpose; the purpose of carrying out the open circuit test is to determine the
iron losses and also the no load resistance and reactance.
Procedure; connect the wattmeter, ammeter and voltmeter as shown in the

diagram below
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In this test the secondary winding (usually high voltage winding) is left open
circuited, while the rated voltage and frequency is applied to the primary
winding of the transformer under test as shown in the figure above.
Since the transformer is open circuited the wattmeter reading gives the Iron or
the core losses, the ammeter gives the no load current, I o and the voltmeter
gives the rated voltage (Voc).
Wattmeter reading, Poc = V oc IoCos θ o
No load power factor, Cos θo = Wattmeter reading, Poc

VocIo
No load energy component, Iw = Io Cos θ = Wattmeter reading, Poc

Voc
No load magnetising component, Im =√ (Io2 - Iw2)
No load resistance, Ro = Voc = Voc 2

Iw Poc
No load reactance, Xo = Voc = Voc .

Im √ (Io2 - Iw2)
SHORT CIRCUIT TEST OR IMPEDANCE TEST

A short circuit test is a test that is carried out when one side of the transformer
is short circuited.
Purpose: The purpose of a short circuit test is to determine the copper losses
and the equivalent resistance and reactance referred to the metering side.
Procedure: Connect the ammeter, voltmeter and a wattmeter as shown in the

figure below.
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In this test the secondary is short circuited while a gradually increasing

voltage is applied to the primary until the rated current flows at that instant
take note of the reading of the wattmeter and voltmeter.
The wattmeter reading gives the total copper losses, the voltmeter gives the
short circuit voltage and the ammeter gives the rated current. The other
parameters are found as follows
The copper losses are given by PCU = ISC2R01 = wattmeter reading
Equivalent impedance referred to the primary Z01 = Short circuit voltage, Vsc
Short circuit current, Isc
Equivalent Resistance referred to the primary, R01 = Wattmeter reading, Psc

Short circuit current, Isc2
Equivalent reactance referred to the primary, X01 = √ (Z012 – R012)
TRANSFORMER EF FICIENCY
The efficiency of a transformer at a particular load and power factor is defined
as the ratio of the power output to the power input expressed as a
percentage.
Efficiency η = Power output x 100

Power input
=. power output . x 100

power output + losses
=. Power output . x 100

Power output + copper loss + Iron loss
=. V2I2 Cos θ . x 100

V2I2 Cos θ + x 2 Pcu + Pi
=. KVA Cos θ . x 100

2
KVA Cos θ + x Pcu + Pi
Where X is the load condition at full load X = 1
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At 50% of full load or half full load X = ½

At 25% of full load or quarter full load, X = ¼
Commercial efficiency: this is the ratio of the power output to the power
input in kilowatts.
All day efficiency: This is the ratio of the power output in KWh to the power
input in Kwh over a period of 24 hours (the whole day).
CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIECY

A transformer operates at maximum efficiency when the copper losses are
equal to the iron losses. (copper losses = iron losses)
EXAMPLE 4
A 11/0.24V single phase transformer has iron losses of 300W and copper loss
of 500W. If the secondary supplies a load of 20A at 0.85 power factor lagging.
Calculate
a) the full load efficiency of a transformer
b) the reactive power of the transformer
SOLUTION
V1 = 11KV
V2 = 0.24KV
I2 = 20A
Cos θ = 0.85 lagging (31.79 o)
Iron losses (Pi) = 300W
Copper losses (Pcu) = 500W
a) Efficiency η = Power output x 100

Power input


=. V2I2 Cos θ . x 100

2
V2I2 Cos θ + x Pcu + Pi
= 240 x 20 x 0.85 . x 100

240 x 20 x 0.85 + (1 2) 500 + 300
= 4080 x 100
4880
= 83.6%
Where X is the load condition at full load X = 1
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b) Reactive power, Q = V2I2Sin θ
= 240 x 20 x Sin 31.79
= 4800 x 0.53
= 2544 KVar
EXAMPLE 5
When tests where made on a 50KVA, 230/50V single phase transformer, the
following results were recorded
Open circuit test: Primary current 4.5A
Primary voltage 230V
Power factor 0.28 lagging
Short circuit test: Primary voltage 20V

Secondary current – full load
Input power 600W
Calculate the efficiency of the transformer at

a) Full load unity power factor
b) 50% of full load 0.8 power factor lagging
c) 25% of full load 0.6 power factor lagging
SOLUTION
Data
S = 50KVA
V1 = 230V
V2 = 50V
DURING O.C.T
I1 = 4.5A
V1 = 230V
Cos θ = 0.28 lagging
DURING S.CT
V1 = 20V
I2 = FULL LOAD
PCU = 600W
Iron losses are obtained from the open circuit test
Iron losses, Pi = V1I1Cos θ
= 230 x 4.5 x 0.28
= 289.8W
i) AT FULL LOAD UNITY POWER FACTOR
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Power input


=. V2I2 Cos θ . x 100


KVA Cos θ + x 2 Pcu + Pi
= 50 000 x 1 . x 100
50 000 x1 + (12) 600 + 289.8
= 50 000 x 100
50 889.8
= 98.25%
ii) AT 50% (HALF) FULL LOAD 0.8 PF LAGGING
Apparent power at half load, S = ½ x 50 000 = 25 000

Power input


=. V2I2 Cos θ . x 100


2
KVA Cos θ + x Pcu + Pi
= 25 000 x 0.8 . x 100

2
25 000 x 0.8 + (1/2) 600 + 289.8
= 20 000 x 100
20 439.8
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= 97.89%
iii) AT 25% (1/4) OF FULL LOAD 0.6 PF LAGGING
Apparent power at half load, S = 1/4 x 50 000 = 12 500 VA

Power input


=. V2I2 Cos θ . x 100


KVA Cos θ + x 2 Pcu + Pi
= 12 500 x 0.6 . x 100

12 500 x 0.6 + (1/4)2 600 + 289.8
= 7500 . x 100
7827.3
= 95.82%
VOLTAGE REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER

Voltage regulation is the change in the secondary terminal voltage from no
load to full load expressed as a percentage of the secondary no load voltage.
i.e. when the transformer is loaded its terminal voltage falls from no load to full
load.
% V.regulation = Terminal voltage on no load – terminal voltage on load x 100

Terminal voltage on no load
= Voltage drop in transformer on load x 100

No load voltage (secondary)
= E2 - V2 x 100
E2
EXAMPLE 6
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A 5 KVA, 200/400 V, single phase transformer has a secondary voltage of

387.6 V when loaded. Determine the voltage regulation of the transformer.
SOLUTION
Data
S = 5 KVA
E1 = 200 V
E2 = 400 V
V2 = 387.6 V
% Voltage regulation = E2 - V2 x 100

E2
= 400 – 387.6 x 100

400
= 3.1 %
AUTO TRANSFORMERS
An auto transformer is a transformer with only one winding that is common to
both the primary and secondary circuits.
The principle of operation of an auto transformer is similar to that of a double
wound transformer.
A STEP UP AUTO TRANSFORMER
I1 and I2 are primary and secondary currents respectively

V1 and V2 are primary and secondary voltages respectively
From the figure above the following parameters can be calculated

The transformation ratio K = V2 = N2 = I1
V1 N1 I2
Primary current, I1 = KI2
Power delivered to the load, PL = V2I2Cos θ
Power in the winding AC = (V2 – V1) I2
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Current in common winding BC, IC = I1 – I2
Power in winding BC = V 1IC = V 1 (I1 – I2)
A STEP DOWN AUTO TRANSFORMER
I1 A
C I2
V1
load V2
Power delivered to the load, PL = V2I2Cos θ
Power in the winding AC = (V1 – V2) I1
Current in common winding BC, IC = I2 – I1
Power in winding BC = V 2IC = V 2 (I2 – I1)
EXAMPLE 7
A step up auto transformer has its output connected across its full winding of
800 turns, while the 240V is connected across the lower 160 turns. If the
secondary produces an output of 20KVA, calculate the
a) output voltage
b) output current
c) input current
d) current in the common section of the winding
SOLUTION
Data
N2 = 800
V1 = 240V
S2 = 20 KVA
a) Output voltage, V2
V2 = N 2
V1 N 1
V2 = 800 x 240 V
160
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= 192 000
160
= 1200
b) Output current, I2
S = V 2I 2
I2 = S = 20 000 = 16.67A
V2 1200
c) Input current, I1
V 2 = I1
V1 I2
I1 = 1200 x 16.67 V
240
= 20 004
240
= 83.35A
d) Current in the common section, IC = I1 – I2
= 83.35 – 16.67
= 66.68 A
ADVANTAGES OF AN AUTO TRANSFORMER

1. It has a better voltage regulation
2. It has a better efficiency
3. Because of one winding it uses less copper hence it is cheaper
4. A continuously varying voltage can be obtained
DISADVANTAGES OF AN AUTO TRANSFORMER
1. If the winding that is common to both the primary and secondary
should accidentally open, the full primary voltage will appear across the
secondary terminals.
2. The primary and secondary are conductively connected
3. Since in distribution transformers, the transformation ratio is low and
auto transformers loose much of their advantage when the
transformation ratio is low, hence it is not advantageous to use auto
transformers than distribution transformers.
USES OF AUTO TRANSFORMERS

1. It is used for starting induction motors in auto transformer starters.
2. It is used to give a small boost to a distribution cable to correct for
voltage drops
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3. It is used as a furnace transformer for getting a convenient supply to

suit the furnace winding from a 230V supply.
4. It is used as an interconnecting transformer in 132/330 KV system.
5. It is used in control equipment for single phase and three phase
electrical locomotives
6. It is used as a balancer coil.
7. It is used for voltage control (auto transformer tap changing).
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
There are two types of instrument transformers; these are normally used for
metering and protection. The two types of instrument transformers that will be
considered are
· Voltage transformers, VT
· Current transformers, CT
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS (VT)

Voltage transformers are used for protection and metering and are designed
for high accuracy to produce a true representation of the measured voltage.
Voltage transformers are used in very high voltage applications e.g. 220KV;
so insulation design is a challenge. Typical output voltages are 69V or 110V.
The construction of a voltage transformer is similar to the power transformer
i.e. it has the primary and secondary windings wound on a magnetic core.
Voltage transformers are normally operated as step down transformers, the
secondary voltage being standardised at 110 V. A large number of turns are
wound on the primary and a few turns on the secondary since
VP = N P
VS N S
The voltmeter reading must be multiplied by the turns ratio to determine the
load voltage.
EXAMPLE 8
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A voltmeter is connected to 50 turns on the secondary winding of a VT. The

primary winding of 250 turns is connected to the main supply. Calculate the
supply voltage if the voltmeter reading is 83V.
Primary voltage, Vp = Np x Vs
Ns
Vp = 250T x 83 V
50T
Vp = 415V
As an alternative solution we could say the turns ratio is 250 : 50, that is 5:1,
and therefore the supply voltage is 5 x 83 = 415V.
EXAMPLE 9
An electrical contractor wishes to monitor a 660 V supply with a standard
110V voltmeter. Determine the turns ratio of this bus to determine the turns
ratio of the VT to perform that task.
VP = N P
VS N S
660 V = Np =6
110V Ns 1
The turns ratio is 6:1. This means that the number of turns of the primary side
must be six times greater than the number of turns on the secondary, which is
connected to the 110V voltmeter.
CURRENT TRANSFORMER (CT)

A CT is used for the protection of power networks as well as metering. They
are designed for high accuracy to produce a true representation of the
measured currents.
The operation of a CT is different to power transformer although the
transformer principle remains rte same.
The secondary of the CT consists of a large number of turns connected to the
ammeter or to the current coil of the wattmeter. The ammeter is usually
standardised at 1A, 5A or 10A.
The transformation ratio chosen so that 1A or 5A flows when the main circuit
carries full load current is calculated from the transformer turns ratio
VP = I S
V S IP
The primary winding is wound with only a few turns and when heavy currents
are being measured one turn ion the secondary may be sufficient. In this case
the conductor carrying the main current or the main busbar is passed through
the centre of the CT as shown below. The CT used is Known as a primary bar
CT.
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EXAMPLE 10
An ammeter having a full scale deflection of 5A is used to measure a line
current of 200A. If the primary is wound with two turns calculate the number of
secondary turns required to give full scale deflection.
N P = IS
N S IP
NS = NP x IP
IS
NS = 2T x 200 = 80 turns
5A
With a power transformer a secondary load is necessary to cause a primary

current to flow which maintains the magnetic flux in the core at a constant
value. With a CT the primary current is the main circuit current and will flow
whether the secondary is connected or not.
However, the secondary current through the ammeter is necessary to stabilise
the magnetic flux in the core, and if the ammeter is removed the voltage
across the secondary terminals could reach a dangerously high value and
cause the insulation to break down or cause excessive heating of the core.
The CT must never be operated with the secondary open circuited and
overload protection should not be provided in the secondary circuit. If the
ammeter must be removed from the CT then the terminals must first be short
circuited. This will not damage the CT and will prevent a dangerous situation
to arise. The rating of an instrument transformer is measured in volt amperes
(VA) and is called the burden. To reduce errors, the ammeter or voltmeter
connected to the CT or VT should be operated at the rated burden.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

A three phase transformer is a transformer that operates by being fed with a
three phase supply and is wound for a three phase system.
A three phase transformer has three separate windings, housed in a common
enclosure, like a single phase transformer, three [phase transformers are of
also of a core or shell type. The transformers of high output rating are usually
core type.
TYPES OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

There are four main methods of connecting transformer windings, these being
· Primary star secondary star (star - star transformer)
· Primary star secondary delta (star - delta transformer)
· Primary delta secondary delta (delta - delta transformer)
· Primary delta secondary star (delta - star transformer)
Y–Y TRANSFORMER
This is a transformer whose primary and secondary windings are star
connected.
Since the primary is star connected
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Primary line voltage, VLP = √3 x primary phase voltage, VPP
Therefore, primary phase voltage VPP = VLP

√3
If K is the transformation ratio, the secondary phase voltage VPS = VLP x K

√3
The secondary line voltage VLS = Primary line voltage, VLP x K
Δ–Δ TRANSFORMER
This is a transformer whose primary and secondary windings are delta
connected
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Since the primary is delta connected
Primary phase voltage = Primary line voltage, VLP
Secondary phase voltage = Primary line voltage, VLP x K
As the secondary is delta connected,
Therefore, Secondary line voltage VLS = VLP x K
Y–Δ TRANSFORMER
A star delta transformer is a transformer where the primary winding is star
connected while the secondary winding is delta connected.

√3
Since the secondary is delta connected V PS = VLS
The secondary phase voltage VPS = VLP x K

√3
The secondary line voltage VLS = VLP x K

√3
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Δ–Y TRANSFORMER
This is a transformer where the primary winding is delta connected and the
secondary winding is star connected.
Since the primary is delta connected
Primary phase voltage = Primary line voltage, VLP
Secondary phase voltage = Primary line voltage, VLP x K
As the secondary is star connected
Secondary line voltage, VLS = √3 VLP x K
The advantages of star connection especially on the high voltage side is that
the insulation has to bear the stress for only 1/√3 (57.7%) of the line voltage. It
also facilitates in providing a three phase four wire system of connection.
The advantage of delta connection is that if one phase is opened due to some
fault, supply to all the three phases of the load can be continued up to 57.7%
of the full output. This gives a ‘V’ or open delta.
EXAMPLE 11
A three phase 11 000/440 V, 330 KVA star connected transformer has 55
turns on the secondary side. Find
a) the number of primary turns
b) the primary line and secondary line and phase currents
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SOLUTION
Data
VLP = 11 000 V
VLS = 440 V
S = 330 KVA
N2 = 55
a) Number of primary turns, NP = Ns x VP = 55 x 11 000 = 1375 turns

VS 440
b) Apparent power S = √3VLIL = power in KVA

1000
Therefore, secondary line current
ILS = Apparent power, S x 1000

√3 VL
= 330 000 .
1.732 x 440
= 433 A
As the secondary is star connected
Therefore secondary line current = phase current = 433 A
Primary phase current, IP = VS x IS = 440 x 433 = 17.32 A

VP 11 000
EXAMPLE 12
An 11 000/440 V, 100 KVA step down three phase, 50 Hz delta star
connected transformer. Calculate the ratio between the number of turns of the
primary and secondary. Also calculate the value of line and phase currents in
both the windings.
SOLUTION
Data
VLP = 11 000 V
VLS = 440 V
S = 100 KVA
f = 50 Hz
As the primary is delta connected, line voltage = phase voltage = 11 000 V
Since the secondary is star connected
Secondary line voltage, VLS = √3 x secondary phase voltage, VPS
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Therefore, secondary phase voltage VPS = VLS = 440 . = 254.04 V

√3 1.732
Transformation ratio, K = 11 000 = 43.3

254.04
K = 43.3 : 1
Apparent power S = √3VLIL = power in KVA

1000
Therefore, secondary line current
ILS = Apparent power, S x 1000

√3 VL
= 100 000 .
1.732 x 440
= 131.2 A
In star connection line current = phase current = 131.2 A
Primary phase current, IP = VS x IS = 440 x 131.2 = 3.03 A

VP 11 000
Primary line current in delta connection, IL = √3 x IP = 3.03 x 1.732 = 5.25 A
EXAMPLE 13
Three single phase transformers with a transformation ratio of 29:1 are
connected to a 11 000V, 3 phase supply as a step down transformer.
Calculate the secondary line voltage if the transformer is connected in
a) Star – star
b) Star – delta
c) Delta – delta
d) Delta – star
SOLUTION
Data
V1 = 11 000 V
N1 = 29
N2 = 1
a) Star – star connected transformer
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√3
= 11 000
1.732
= 6 351 V
If K is the transformation ratio, the secondary phase voltage VPS = VLP x K

√3
= 6351 x 1
29
= 219 V
Secondary line voltage = √3 x VPS = 1.732 x 219 = 379.3 V
ALTERNATIVELY
The secondary line voltage VLS = Primary line voltage, VLP x K
= 11 000 x 1
29
= 379.3 V
b) In a star – delta transformer
The secondary line voltage VLS = VLP x K

√3
= 11 000 x 1 .
1.732 29
= 219 V
c) In a delta – delta transformer
Secondary line voltage VLS = VLP x K
= 11 000 x 1
29
= 379.3 V
d) In a delta – star transformer
Secondary line voltage, VLS = √3 VLP x K
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= 1.732 x 11 000 x 1
29
= 656.98 V
TRANSFORMER TYPES AND APPLICATION
Connection Application Comment

Y–Y Small, high voltage transformers Insulation requirements minimal.
With unbalanced loads, neutral
shift makes phase voltages
unequal. Linking start point to
generator star point can stabilise.
Δ–Δ Large, low voltage transformer Unbalanced loading has little
effect. Can work as open delta in
case of a fault.
Y–Δ Useful at substation end of the The phase shift means that the
transmission line where voltage transformer cannot be paralleled
is to be stepped down. with Y–Y or Δ–Δ banks
Δ–Y Useful in step up mode at the Allows a 4 wire system, from a 3
beginning of a transmission wire system.
system. Also in distribution
system where both 3 phase and
single phases are required.
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INSTRUMENTATION
Instrumentation is the study of measuring instruments, their properties,
application and use. Electrical measuring instruments can be grouped as
follows.
1. indicating instruments
2. integrating instruments
3. recording instruments
Indicating instruments: these are instruments that have a pointer and a
scale. The pointer indicates the magnitude of the current flowing in the circuit
on the scale. Indicating measuring instruments indicate the magnitude of the
actuating quantity as long as the instrument is connected in the circuit when it
is disconnected the pointer returns to zero i.e. they do not keep any record of
the reading e.g. ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter’s etc.
Integrating instrument: these are measuring instruments that keep a record
of the quantity under measurement from the time they are connected to the
supply, to the time of reading the instrument e.g. ampere hour meters and
kilowatt hour meters (energy meter).
Recording instruments: these are instruments that keep a record of the
quantity under measurement on a graph paper which is moved at a uniform
low speed. The pointer of this type of instrument is provided with a marking
device (i.e. pen or pencil) and moves over the graph paper. Recording
instrument are similar to integrating instruments the difference being that a
recording instrument keeps the record on a piece of graph paper.
ESSENTIALS OF INDICATING MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

As stated earlier indicating instruments are provided with a pointer that
deflects over the scale and consists of three essential features or torques,
these being
i) Deflecting device or deflecting torque
ii) Controlling device or controlling torque
iii) Damping device or damping torque
Deflecting device or torque: this is a device or torque that causes the
deflection of the pointer over a scale from its zero position. Deflecting torque
can be produced by either a moving iron or a moving coil as it will be seen
later.
Controlling device or torque: This is the torque that opposes the deflection
of the pointer thereby bringing the pointer to rest thus indicating the
magnitude of the quantity being measured. Controlling torque is usually
produced by a control spring or gravity control.
Damping device or torque: this is the torque that prevents the pointer from
oscillating about its final position. Damping is achieved by using any of the
following;
1. Fluid damping
2. Air damping
3. Eddy current damping
MOVING COIL INSTRUMENTS:

A moving coil instrument is an instrument where the deflection of the pointer is
caused by the movement of a coil.
Moving coil instruments can be divided into two these being
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1. Permanent magnet moving coil instrument (PMMC) – used to measure

d.c only.
2. Dynamometer type moving coil instrument – which is used to measure
both a.c and d.c
PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT

A permanent magnet moving coil instrument in which the deflection of the
pointer is caused by the movement of a coil placed in a magnetic field
produced by the permanent magnets.
Construction: A PMMC instrument consists of the following main parts
1. moving system
2. Magnet system
3. control system
4. damping system
5. pointer and scale
Core
Moving system: The moving system essentially consists of a light

rectangular or cylindrical former on which a multi turn rectangular of insulated
copper or aluminium wire is wound. Formers may be of aluminium or copper
but aluminium is usually preferred on account of weight and inertia. In some
cases formers of phosphor bronze or German silver is used in order to avoid
over damping. The former is usually lightly insulated.
Magnet system: A U-shaped permanent magnet is widely used and is made
of Alnico and has soft iron end pole pieces which are bored out cylindrically.
Between the magnetic poles is a fixed iron cylinder whose main function is to
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i) to make the field radial and uniform

ii) to reduce the reluctance of the air path between the poles and
hence increase the field strength
Control system: The controlling torque is produced by two phosphor bronze
hair springs, either helical or spiral coiled in opposite directions and are
normally equal in strength. The control spring also conduct the operating
current into and out of the moving coil.
Damping system: usually eddy current damping is employed.
Pointer and scale: the pointer is carried by the spindle and moves over the
graduated scale and indicates the angular deflection of the coil and therefore,
the current flowing through the coil. The pointer is a light aluminium tube
flattened at one end into the form of a vertical knife edge. The scale markings
are linearly or evenly spaced as the deflection torque or deflection of the
pointer is directly proportional to the current flowing through the moving coil.
In order to remove parallax error the scale is mounted on a raised platform
and a mirror is provided beneath the pointer.
Characteristics of a moving coil instrument

The following are the characteristics of a moving coil instrument,
1. It has a linear or even scale
2. it measures d.c only
3. it is more accurate
4. it is costly
5. it has a high sensitivity
6. it employs eddy current damping
7. it employs spring control.
8. it has a low power consumption
9. it is well shielded from stray magnetic fields.
MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS

A moving iron instrument is an instrument where the deflection of the pointer
is caused by the movement of an iron piece. They are two types of moving
iron instruments these being;
1. Attraction moving iron instrument
2. Repulsion moving iron instrument
ATTRACTION MOVING IRON INSTRUMENT

An attraction moving iron instrument is an instrument where the deflection of
the pointer is caused by the attraction of a moving iron.
Construction: It consists of a fixed air core coil made of insulated wire and an
oval shaped iron disc which is fitted with a spindle kept in between the coil.
The spindle is placed between the two jewel bearings. A pointer is attached to
the spindle and can freely move. The figure below shows the movement of an
attraction moving iron instrument.
For controlling torque either gravity control or spring control is used. Gravity
control is used for fixed instruments only in the figure W 1 is the weight for
balancing and W 2 is for gravity control. For damping air friction is provided.
The current that produces the deflection passes through the coil.
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Working: When the instrument is connected to the quantity under

measurement a current flows through the coil and produces a magnetic field
which drags the moving iron (disc) inside, thus causing the pointer to move
over the scale (indicating the quantity under measurement) due to the spindle
that is caused to rotate. The force of deflection exerted by the disc or moving
coil is proportional to the square of the current passing through the coil, as a
result the scale of an attraction moving iron instrument is crowded at the
starting and finishing ends.
If the direction of current in the fixed coil changes the direction of the field
produced by it also changes and therefore the magnetic field induced in the
moving coil also changes or reverses, hence the direction of the torque will
not change. An attraction moving coil instrument is therefore, used on both a.c
and d.c circuits to measure high currents.
REPULSION MOVING IRON INSTRUMENT

A repulsion moving iron instrument is an instrument where the deflection of
the pointer is caused by the repulsion of an iron piece.
Construction; a repulsion moving iron instrument consists a hollow cylindrical

fixed coil made of insulated copper wire. Inside the coil there are two strips of
iron, one strip is fixed and is known as the fixed iron while the other strip is
known as a moving iron. The moving iron is attached to the spindle which is
free to move between the two jewel bearings. For air damping a chamber and
a vane are provided. Spring or gravity control is in used in moving iron
instruments.
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Working: A repulsion moving iron instrument works on the principle that when
two soft iron strips are placed in the same magnetic field they have the same
polarity as a result they experience a force of repulsion between them which
tends to move the pointer on the scale whenever they are connected to the
quantity under measurement. The deflection force is proportional to the
square of the current as a result the scale is cramped at the beginning and it
finishing ends.
Characteristics of a moving iron instrument

The following are the characteristics of moving iron instruments whether
attraction or repulsion,
1. it has an uneven or non linear scale
2. it measures either a.c or d.c
3. it is less accurate
4. it has a low sensitivity
5. it is robust in construction
6. it uses air damping
7. the deflection force is proportional to the square of the current
8. Due to the inductance of the solenoid, readings may be affected by
variation in frequency
9. It is affected by stray magnetic fields
10. It is liable to temperature errors
11. it has Hysteresis errors in d.c circuits
AMMETER
An ammeter is an instrument of very low resistance that is used to measure
current and is usually connected in series with the load whose current is to be
measured.
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EXTENDING THE RANGE OF AN AMMETER

To enable an ammeter measure high current its range can be extended by
i. Connecting a resistor in parallel with the moving system and the
resistor connected is known as a shunt resistor.
ii. Connecting the ammeter on the secondary of a current transformer
(by using a current transformer)
The value of the shunt resistor is given by, RS = IaRa ohms

Is
Where IaR a = IsRs
A large portion of the current is diverted through a low value resistance
(diverter or shunt) connected in parallel with the meter.
VOLTMETER
A voltmeter is an instrument of high resistance that is used to measure
voltage and is connected in parallel with the load whose voltage is to be
measured.
EXTENDING THE RANGE OF A VOLTMETER

To enable a voltmeter measure high values of voltage its range can be
extended by
i. Connecting a resistor in series with the moving system and the
resistor is known as a multiplier.
ii. Connecting a voltmeter on the secondary of a voltage transformer
(by using a voltage transformer)
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The supply voltage, V = V a + V M = Ir a + IRM
The value of the multiplier is given by, RM = V – Ir a ohms

I
EXAMPLES
1. A permanent moving coil instrument has an internal resistance of 100Ω
and requires a current of 1mA to reach the full scale deflection (f.s.d.)
Determine
i) The value of the shunt resistor necessary to extend the range to 500mA
ii) The value of the multiplying resistor necessary to extend the range to
250V
SOLUTION
Data
Resistance of instrument ra= 100Ω
Current for f.s.d. Ia= 1mA
Supply voltage, V = 250V
Value of shunt resistor, RS = IaR a ohms Is = I - Ia = 500mA – 1mA

Is
= 0.499A
= 1 x 10-3 x 100
0.499
= 0.20Ω
Value of multiplier, RM = V – Ir a ohms

I
= 250 – (1 x 10-3 x 100)

1 x 10-3
= 249
0.001
= 249 000 Ω
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2. A permanent magnet moving coil meter with an internal resistance of

100Ω requires 1mA to give full scale deflection (f.s.d). Calculate the value
of the shunt resistor required to give the meter a full scale deflection range
of 10A
SOLUTION
Data
Current to be measured = 10A
Value of shunt resistor, RS = IaR a ohms Is = I - Ia = 10A – 1mA

Is
= 9.999A
= 1 x 10-3 x 100
9.999
= 0.001 Ω
3. A permanent magnet moving coil meter has an internal resistance of 200Ω

and requires a current of 2mA to give full scale deflection. Determine the
value of the multiplying resistance required to enable the meter to be used
as a voltmeter reading up to 100V at full scale deflection.
SOLUTION
Data
Supply voltage V = 100V

I
= 100 – (2 x 10-3 x 200)

2 x 10-3
= 99.6
0.002
= 49 800 Ω
4. A moving coil instrument gives a full scale deflection with 15mA and has a
moving assembly with a resistance of 5Ω. Calculate the value of the
required resistance to be connected
i) in parallel with the instrument to enable the meter read a current
of 3A
ii) in series with the instrument to enable it be used as a voltmeter
to read a voltage of 250V.
SJM@LBTC Page 110

SOLUTION
Data
Supply voltage V = 250V
Current to be measured = 3A
Value of shunt resistor, RS = IaR a ohms Is = I - Ia = 3A – 15mA

Is
= 2.985A
= 15 x 10-3 x 5
2.985
= 0.025 Ω

I
= 250 – (15 x 10 -3 x 5)
15 x 10 -3
= 249.925
0.015
= 16 661.67 Ω
OHMMETER
An ohmmeter is a dead circuit measuring instrument that is used to measure
resistance i.e. it measures resistance when the circuit is dead (when there is
no current flowing).
In an ohmmeter the current or energy needed by the instrument to operate is
provided by the battery.
CATHODE RAY OSCIL LOSCOPE (CRO)

A CRO is an instrument that is used in the observation of waveforms and for
the measurement of voltage, current, frequency, phase and periodic time.
For examining periodic waveforms the electronic beam is deflected
horizontally (i.e. in the X direction) by a sawtooth generator acting as a time
base. The signal to be examined is applied to the vertical deflection system (Y
direction) usually after amplification.
Oscilloscopes normally have a transparent grid of 10mm by 10mm in front of
the screen known as a graticule. Among the time base controls is a variable
switch which gives the sweep speed as time per centimetre. This may be in
s/cm, ms/cm or μs/cm a large number of switch positions being available. Also
on the front panel of a CRO is a Y amplifier switch marked in volts per
centimetre, with a large number of variable switch positions.
SJM@LBTC Page 111

POWER MEASUREMENT
Power is measured by an instrument known as a wattmeter.
A dynamometer wattmeter is a moving coil instrument that is used to measure
power in watts, it consists of two coils the current coil and the voltage coil
A current coil is connected in series with the lord whose power is to be
measured and it has very low resistance it is similar to an ammeter.
A voltage coil is connected in parallel with the load whose power is to be
measured and has a very high resistance just like a voltmeter. A voltage coil
is also known as a potential or pressure coil.
A correctly connected wattmeter will give an accurate measure of the power in

any a.c or d.c circuit. It is essentially a moving coil instrument in which the
main magnetic field is produced by two fixed coils. The moving coil is the
voltage coil and rotates within the fixed coils being pivoted centrally between
them and controlled by spiral hair springs.
The main magnetic field is produced by the current in the fixed coil (current
coil) and is proportional to it. The force rotating the moving coil is proportional
to its current and the magnetic field strength produced by the fixed coils. The
deflection is proportional to the product of the currents in the fixed and moving
coils. Since the mov ing coil current depends upon the voltage and the fixed
coils depend upon the current, the meter deflection is proportional to V x I =
power in watts.
Any change in the direction of the current in the circuit affects both coils and
the direction of deflection remains unchanged, allowing the instrument to be
used on both a.c and d.c circuits. On a.c circuits the deflection will be the
average value of the product of the instantaneous values of current and
voltage, meaning that the wattmeter will measure the true power or active
power in the circuit, in which the deflection is proportional to VICos θ (watts).
Damping is achieved by an air vane moving in a dash pot.
A wattmeter can be used to measure power in a single and 3-phase system.
Power measurement in a single phase circuit; power in a single phase

circuit can be measured using a single wattmeter method as shown below.
The power measured is given by
SJM@LBTC Page 112

Wattmeter reading (power) = VPIPCos θ where VP is the phase voltage

IP is the phase current
Cos θ is the power factor
Power measurement in 3-phase circuits: Power in three phase circuit can

be measured by any of the following methods
1. One wattmeter method - only used when the load is balanced.
2. Two wattmeter method - used for balanced and unbalanced loads
3. Three wattmeter method – used for balanced and unbalanced loads
Balanced loads: This is when the connected loads on the 3-phases are the
same i.e.
· the current flowing in each phase is the same
· power in each phase is the same
· the power factor in each phase is the same
· the voltage drop in all the phases is the same.
Unbalanced loads: this is where the loads connected in the 3-phases are
different. For unbalanced loads the following is true
· the current flowing in each phase is different
· the power in each phase is different
· the power factor in each phase is different
· the voltage drop in each phase is different.
Measuring power in a 3-phase system using a single wattmeter method:

Power in a 3 phase circuit can be measured using a single wattmeter as
shown below. The power indicated by the single wattmeter gives power in one
phase only since the loads are balanced the total power will be found by
multiplying the reading of one wattmeter by 3.
Wattmeter reading (power) = VPIPCos θ for one phase only.
Total power in 3-phase = 3 x VPIPCos θ
SJM@LBTC Page 113

Power measurement in a 3 phase system using a two wattmeter method

Power in a 3 phase circuit can be measured using two wattmeters as shown
below
Wattmeter reading, W 1 = VLILCos (30 - θ)
Wattmeter reading, W 2 = VLILCos (30 + θ)
The total power in the circuit is given by W 1 + W 2 = √3 x VLILCos θ
Power measurement in a 3 phase 4 wire system using a three wattmeter

method
Power in a 3 phase 4 wire system can be measured using three wattmeters
as shown in the diagram below
The total power is given by P = W 1 + W 2 + W 3 = √3 x VLILCos θ where VL and

IL are line current and voltage.
SJM@LBTC Page 114

TONG TESTER
A tong tester or clip on ammeter works on the same principle as the bar
primary current transformer. The laminated core of the transformer can be
opened and passed over the busbar or single core cable. In this way a
measurement of the current being carried can be made without disconnection
of the supply.
PHASE SEQUENCE TESTER

Phase sequence is the order in which each phase of a three phase supply
reaches its maximum value. The normal phase sequence for a three phase
supply is R – Y – B which means that red, then yellow and finally the blue
phase reaches its maximum values.
Phase sequence has an important application in the connection of
transformers and alternators as they can not be connected in parallel unless
they have the same phase sequence.
A phase sequence tester can be an indicator which is, in effect, a miniature
induction motor, with three clearly colour coded connection leads. A rotating
disc with a pointed arrow shows the normal rotation for phase sequence R-Y-
B. If the sequence is reversed the disc rotates in the opposite direction to the
arrow. However an onsite phase sequence tester can be made by connecting
four 240V by 100W lamps and a power factor correction capacitor from a
fluorescent luminaire as shown below.
R
Y
B
A B
100W x 240V
1 to 5µF lamps connected
capacitor in series
A B
AA lamps bright BB lamps dim = phase sequence R - Y – B

BB lamps bright AA lamps dim = phase sequence R – B - Y
The capacitor takes a leading current which results in a phase displacement

in the other two phases. The phasor addition of the voltage in the circuit
results in one pair of lamps illuminating brightly whilst the other pair is
SJM@LBTC Page 115

illuminated dimly. Two lamps must be connected in series as shown because

most of the line voltage will be across them during the test.
ENERGY METER
An energy meter is an integrating measuring instrument that is used to
measure the quantity of electrical energy consumed in Kwh. It consists of a
current and voltage coils are wound on the two magnets as shown below. The
current coil establishes a flux ΦI which is proportional to the current, and the
voltage coil establishes a magnetic flux ΦV.
The rotation of the aluminium disc is due to the interaction of these magnetic
fields. The magnetic flux establishes eddy currents in the disc which produce
a turning force. The force exerted is proportional to the phase angle between
the voltage and current coil fluxes; maximum force occurs when they are 90o
out of phase. This force is proportional to the true power VICos θ, Which is
equal to the speed of rotation of the disc. The number of revolutions in a given
time will give a measure of energy since energy = power x time.
The rotating disc spindle is attached through suitable gearing to a revolution
counter which is calibrated to read kilowatt hours (kWh) which is the unit of
electrical energy.
SJM@LBTC Page 116

ILLUMINATION
INTRODUCTION
Light is a prime factor in the human life as all activities of human beings
depend on light. Where there is no natural light, use of artificial light is made.
Artificial lighting produced electrically is playing an increasing important part in
modern everyday life. Apart from aesthetic and decorative aspects, good
lighting has strict utilitarian value in increasing production, reducing fatigue,
protecting their health, eyes and nervous system and reducing accidents. The
science of illumination engineering is therefore becoming of major importance.
Illumination differs from light very much, though generally these terms are
used more or less synonymously. Strictly speaking light is the cause and
illumination is the result of that light on the surface on which it falls.
TERMS USED IN ILLUMINATION

Light: Light may be defined as electromagnetic waves of certain frequencies
which can be detected by the human eye and converted into sensory
perception so that we see. It can also be defined as the radiant energy from a
hot body that produces visual sensation upon the human eye. It is denoted by
the letter Q expressed in lumen hours.
Illumination: This is the measure of the light falling on a surface or number of
lumens falling on a surface per unit area. It is symbolised by the letter E and is
measured in lumens per square meter or lux.
Luminous flux: This is the light emitted by a source or received by a surface.
It is measured in lumens and represented by the letter F or Φ.
Luminous intensity: This is the power of a source or illuminated surface to
emit light in a given direction. It is represented by the letter I and is measured
in candela.
Luminance: This is the measure of the brightness of a surface. It is
represented by the letter L and is measured in candela per square metre.
Lamp efficiency/efficacy: This is the ratio of the luminous flux emitted by a
source to the power consumes by it. It is measured in lumens per watt (lm/w)
Glare: This is the brightness within the sight of vision of such a characteristics
as to cause annoyance, discomfort and interference with vision or causes eye
fatigue. If the eye is exposed to a very bright source of light, the iris
automatically contracts in order to reduce the amount of light admitted and
prevents damage of the retina, this reduces the sensitivity, so that other
objects within the field of vision can be imperfectly seen, this effect is referred
to as glare.
Lumen: it is the SI unit of luminous flux. One lumen is the luminous flux
emitted within a unit solid angle (one steradian) by a point source having a
uniform luminous intensity of one candela. The lumen is symbolised by lm.
Candela: It is the SI unit of luminous intensity. It is one lumen per square
metre and is symbolised by c.d.
Lux: It is the SI unit of illuminance; it is equal to one lumen per square metre.
Apostilb: It is the metric unit of luminance, unit luminance is expressed in this
system as that of a uniform diffusion emitting 1 lm/m2. 1asb. = 1/π cd/m2
Room index: An index related to the dimensions of a room, and used when
calculating the utilisation factor and the characteristic of a lighting installation.
It is given by Lw/hm(L+w)
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Where L is the length, W is the width of the room and hm is the height of the
luminaries above the working plane.
LAWS OF ILLUMINATION
There are two laws of illumination these being
The Inverse square law
Lambert’s cosine law
The Inverse square law

This law states that the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance of the distance between the surface and the light
source provided that the distance between the surface and the light source is
sufficiently large so that the source can be regarded as a point source.
Illumination, E = luminous intensity, I

Distance squared, d2
NOTE: The inverse square law is used to find the illumination directly below
the lamp
Example 1
A lamp of luminous intensity 1000 candela is suspended 2 metres above a
laboratory bench. Calculate the illumination directly below the lamp.
SJM@LBTC Page 118

Solution
Data
Luminous intensity, I = 1000cd
Distance, d = 2m
Illumination, E = Luminous intensity, I

Distance, d2
= 1000cd
2x2
= 250 lux
LAMBERT’S COSINE LAW

The cosine law states the illumination at any point on a surface is proportional
to the cosine of the angle between the normal at that point and the luminous
flux.
Source with
luminous
intensity, I
Surface B Surface A
θ
Dis
Normal
tan
ce
,d
Illuminated
surface
Point where
illumination E is
to be calculated
Since the two surfaces A and B are joined together by the trigonometry of the
cosine rules, the equation is known as the cosine law.
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Very often the illuminated surface is not normal to the direction of the light, but
is inclined. The area over which the light is spread is then increased in ratio,
the expression for illumination then becomes
Illumination, E = Luminous intensity, I x cos θ

Distance squared, d 2
Example 2
A street lantern suspended a 2000cd light source 4m above the ground.
Determine the illumination directly below the lamp and 3m to one side of the
lamp base.
Solution
Data
Luminous intensity I = 2000cd
Distance = 4m
Distance of opposite = 3m
Lamp with luminous

intensity, I = 2000cd
3m
EA EB
Illumination bellow the lamp, EA = luminous intensity, I

Distance, d2
= 2000cd
42
= 125 lux
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Illumination at 3m to one side of the lantern EB:

The distance between the light source and the position on the ground at EB
can be found by Pythagoras theorem
Xm = √ [(4m)2 + (3m)2]
= √ (25m)
X = 5m
EB = Icos θ
d2
= 2000cd x 4
(5m)2 x 5
= 64 lux
Note: Cos θ = 4/5
Example 3
A discharge lamp is suspended from a ceiling 4m above a bench; the
illumination on the bench below the lamp is 300 lux. Find
Luminous intensity of the lamp
The distance along the bench where the illumination falls to 153.6 lux
Solution
Data
Distance = 4m
Illumination below the bench = 300 lux
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Illumination, EA = luminous intensity, I

Distance, d 2
Luminous intensity, I = E A x d 2
= 300 lux x 42
= 4800 cd
Illumination, EB = luminous intensity, I x Cos θ

Distance, d 2
Distance, d2 = I x Cos θ
EB
d2 = 4800 cd x 4m
d
d3 = 125
d = 3√125
d = 5m
By Pythagoras theorem, X = √ (52 – 4 2)
= 3m
Therefore, the distance along the bench where the illumination falls to 153.6
lux is 3m
Example 4
A lamp of 100cd emits light uniformly in all directions and is suspended at
1.5m above the centre of a working table that is 3m square. Calculate the
illumination
a) At the centre
b) At each corner of the table
Solution
Data
Luminous intensity, I = 100 cd
Suspension height/distance = 1.5m
Size of table = 3m2
Illumination at the centre, E = luminous intensity, I

Distance, d2
= 100 cd
1.5 2
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= 44.4 lux
MEASUREMENT OF ILLUMINATION
Illumination is measured by an instrument known as a light meter or an
illumination meter or a lux meter. It consists of a selenium photocell
connected to a very sensitive micro ammeter. When light rays fall on the cell it
causes electrons to be released, so that a small current is supplied to the
micro ammeter. The value of the current is proportional to the amount of the
light received, so the instrument scale is calibrated directly in lux.
The recommended levels of illuminance for various types of installations are

given below. These figures are usually printed on the back of the lux meter, as
given by the IES code.
TASK WORKING SITUATION ILLUMINANCE (LUX)

Casual seeing Storage rooms, stairs and 100
washing rooms
Rough assembly Workshops and garages 300
Reading, writing and Classrooms and offices 500

drawing
Fine assembly Electronic component 1000

assembly
Minute assembly Watch making 3000
THE LUMEN METHOD

When designing interior lighting schemes the method most frequently used
depends upon a determination of the total flux required to provide a given
SJM@LBTC Page 123

value of illuminance at the working plane. This method is generally known as

the lumen method.
To determine the total number of luminaries required to produce a given
illuminance by the lumen method, the following formulae is applied
Total number of lamps required = illuminance level (lux) x area (m2)

Lumen output of each lamp (lm) x U.F x M.F
Where,
The illuminance level is chosen after considering the IES code
The area is the working area to be illuminated
The lumen output of each luminaire is that given in the manufacturer’s
specification
UF is the utilisation factor
MF is the maintenance factor
UTILISATION FACTOR OR COEFFICIENT OF UTILISATION

Utilisation factor is the ratio of the total light flux reaching the working surface
to the total light flux emitted by the lamp.
The light flux usually reaching the working plane is always less than the lumen
output of the lamp since some of the light is absorbed by the luminaire and
some is directed to walls, ceilings and floors where only a small part is
reflected. The utilisation factor is given by
Utilisation factor, UF = Total light reaching the working surface

Total light flux emitted by the lamp
The utilisation factor is expressed as a number which is always less than

unity.
MAINTENANCE FACTOR
Maintenance factor is defined as the ratio of the illumination under working
conditions to the illumination when everything is perfectly clean.
The light output of a luminaire is reduced during its life because of
accumulation of dust and dirt on the lamp and fitting. Decorations also
deteriorate with time, and this results in more light flux being absorbed by the
walls and ceiling. The maintenance factor is given by
Maintenance factor = Illumination under normal working conditions

Illumination when everything is perfectly clean
A figure of about 0.8 is normally taken to account for this loss of light to the
surrounding but in very dusty, dirty or smoky atmospheres the number may be
further reduced.
Example 5
It is proposed to illuminate an electronic workshop 9m x 8m x 3m high to an
illuminance of 500 lux at the bench level. The specification calls for luminaires
having one 1500mm 65W natural tube having an output of 3400 lumens.
Determine the number of luminaires required for this installation when the UF
and MF are 0.9 and 0.8 respectively.
SJM@LBTC Page 124

Solution
Data
Workshop dimensions = 9m x 8m x 3m
Illumination = 500 lux
Luminous flux = 3400 lumens
MF = 0.9
UF = 0.8
Number of luminaires/lamps required = illumination, E x Area, A

Luminous flux x UF x MF
= 500 lux x (9m x 8m)

3400 x 0.8 x 0.9
= 14.7
Therefore, 15 luminaires will be required.
Example 6
Estimate the total flux required to provide a service value of 120 lux in a room
5m by 7m. The utilisation and maintenance factors are 0.6 and 0.8
respectively.
Solution
Data
Illumination, E = 120 lux
Room dimensions = 5m x 7m
UF = 0.6
MF = 0.8
Lamp flux (luminous flux), F = illumination, E x Area, A

UF x MF
= 120 x (5m x 7m)

0.6 x 0.8
= 8750 lumens
If the lamps and surroundings are not perfectly clean, then determining the
lumens received (luminous flux) on a working plane, the depreciation factor or
maintenance factor should be included. i.e. lumens received on the working
plane.
Lumens received = No. of lamps x wattage of each lamp x efficiency x Utilisation F

Depreciation F
Alternatively,
Lumens received = No. of lamps x wattage of each lamp x efficiency x UF x MF
SJM@LBTC Page 125

Depreciation Factor is the inverse of the maintenance factor
Total wattage required = Gross (total) lumens received

Lamp efficiency
Number of lamps = Total wattage

Wattage of each lamp
Example 7
It is required to provide an illuminance of 100 lux in a factory hall 30m x 15m.
Assume that the depreciation factor is 0.8, coefficient of utilisation is 0.4 and
efficiency of the lamp is 14 lumens per watt. Suggest the number of lamps
and their ratings. The sizes of lamps available are 100, 250, 400 and 500
watts.
Solution
Data
Illumination, E = 100 lux
Hall dimensions = 30m x 15m
Lamp efficiency = 14lm/w
DF = 0.8
MF = 0.4
Total flux given out by lamps, F = Illumination, E x Area, A
DF x UF
= 100 x (30 x 15)

0.8 x 0.4
= 140 625 lumens

Total wattage required = Total flux given out
Lamp efficiency
= 140 625
14
= 10 000 W (say)
Number of 100W lamps required = Total wattage required

Wattage of each lamp
= 10 000
100
= 100 lamps
Number of 250W lamps required = 10 000

250
= 40 lamps
SJM@LBTC Page 126


400
= 25 lamps

500
= 20 lamps
Suggested number of lamps and their ratings

40 lamps in 5 rows, each row having 8 lamps of 250W can be used giving
spacing of 3.75m in length and 3m in width.
STROBOSCOPIC EFFECT
Stroboscopic effect is the reversal of ions and electrons which takes place
when the polarity of the supply changes, (that is twice every cycle of the
supply voltage i.e. on a 50Hz supply that is 100 times every cycle) which
causes rotating machines to appear stationary or move at a lower speed, as a
result of the reversal of ions and electrons coinciding with the speed of the
revolving machine.
The following methods are used to reduce stroboscopic effect
I. Connecting lamps in different phases
II. By using of a twin tube fitting where one tube has a capacitor
connected in series with it to produce a phase shift of the current in that
tube.
TWIN TUBE
FITTING
Ballast 1 Tube 1
Shift
Ballast 2 capacitor Tube 2
Power factor
capacitor
L supply N
As a result of stroboscopic effect, moving objects such as rotating parts of

machinery, illuminated by this light may appear to be moving in disunity or
jerks or rotating more slowly than their actual speed.
SJM@LBTC Page 127

PHOTO BENCH
A photo bench is used to determine the output candela of an unknown lamp
using a known standard lamp. At balance the illumination is equal on both
sides of the matt screen.
Luminous intensity of = luminous intensity of standard lamp, S x (distance, d 2)2

2
Unknown lamp X (Distance, d1 )
TYPES OF LIGHTING SCHEMES

The interior lighting schemes may be classified as
I. Direct lighting
II. Semi direct lighting
III. Semi indirect lighting
IV. Indirect lighting
V. General lighting
Direct lighting: It is the most commonly used lighting scheme. In this lighting
scheme more than 90% of the total light flux is made to fall directly on the
working plane with the help of deep reflectors. Though it is most efficient but
causes hard shadows and glare. It is mainly used for industrial and general
outdoor lighting.
Semi direct lighting: In this lighting scheme 60 to 90% of the total light flux is
made to fall downwards directly with the help of semi direct reflectors,
remaining light is used to illuminate the ceiling and walls. Such a lighting
system is best suited in rooms with high ceiling where a high level of uniformly
distributed illumination is desirable.
Semi direct lighting: In this lighting scheme 60 to 90% of the total light flux is
thrown upwards to the ceiling for diffuse reflection and the rest reaches the
working plane directly except for some absorption by the bowl. This lighting
scheme is with soft shadows and is glare free. It is mainly used for indoor
decoration purposes.
Indirect lighting: In this lighting scheme more than 90%of the total light flux
is thrown upwards to the ceiling for diffuse reflection by using inverted or bowl
reflectors. In such a system the ceiling acts as a light source, and the glare is
reduced to maximum. The resulting illumination is soft and more diffused, the
shadows are less prominent and the appearance of the room is much
SJM@LBTC Page 128

improved than that which results from direct lighting it is used for decoration
purposes in cinemas and hotels etc. and in workshops where large machines
and the other obstructions would cause troublesome shadows if direct lighting
is employed.
General lighting: In this scheme lamps made of diffusing glass are used
which give nearly equal illumination in all directions.
DESIGN OF LIGHTING SCHEMES

The lighting schemes should be such that it may
i) Provides adequate illumination
ii) Provide light distribution all over the working plane as uniform as
possible.
iii) Provide light of suitable colour
iv) Avoid glare and hard shadows as far as possible
The factors should be considered when designing lighting schemes,
Illumination level: This is the most vital factor because a sufficient

illumination is the basic means by which we are able to see our surroundings.
Since only when objects are illuminated do they take on the necessary
brightness? It is the task of illumination to give objects a distributed
brightness. It is this differential brightness which gives essential perception of
details. For each type of work there is a range of brightness most favourable
to output i.e. which causes minimum fatigue and gives maximum output in
terms of quality and quantity. The degree of illumination to give necessary
brightness to the objects depends upon.
i) The size of the object to be seen and its distance from the observer.
The greater the distance from the observer and smaller the size of
the object, the greater will be the illumination required.
ii) Contrast between the object and background. Greater the contrast
between the colour of the object and its background, greater will be
the illumination required to distinguish the object properly. Objects
that are seen for longer periods of time require more illumination
than those for casual work. Similarly moving objects require more
illumination than those for stationary objects.
Uniformity of illumination: the human eye adjusts itself automatically to the

brightness within the field of vision. If there is lack of uniformity, the pupil or
iris of the eye has to be adjusted more frequently and thus fatigue is caused
to the eye and productivity is reduced. It has been found that visual
performance is best if the range of brightness within the field of vision is not
greater than 3:1, which can be achieved by employing general lighting in
addition to localised lighting. Apart from consideration of causing fatigue, local
lighting without using matching general lighting creates psychological feeling
of loneliness, gloom and unfriendliness.
Colour of light: The appearance of the body colour entirely depends upon
the colour of the incident light. In general the composition of the light should
be such that the colour appears natural i.e. its appearance by artificial light is
not appreciably different from that by day light. For certain applications such
SJM@LBTC Page 129

as street lighting, colour of light does not matter much if different components
have not to be distinguished from each other by their colours. Highly efficient
discharge lamps, which cause colour distortion, can be used.
Shadows: In lighting installation, formation of long and hard shadows causes
fatigue of the eyes and therefore is considered to be a short coming, complete
absence of shadows altogether again does not necessarily mean an ideal
condition of lighting installation. Contrary to popular opinion, a certain amount
of shadow is desirable in artificial lighting as it helps to give shape to the solid
objects and make them easily recognised. Objects illuminated by shadow less
light appear flat and uninteresting, contours are lost and it is difficult to for the
eye to form a correct judgement of the shape of the object. However there is
one exception to these i.e. in drawing offices where we are to see flat
surfaces, shadow less light is essential other wise shadows would hinder the
work. Hard and long shadows can be avoided by
i) Using a large number of small luminaries mounted at a height not
less than 2.5m.
ii) By using wide surface sources of light using globes over filament
lamps or by indirect lighting scheme.
Glare: It may be direct or reflected i.e. it may come directly from the light
source or it may be reflected brightness such as from a desk top, nickled
machine parts, or calendared paper. Direct glare from a source of light is
more common, and is more often a hindrance to vision. A glance at the sun
proves that an extremely bright light source causes acute eye discomfort.
Light sources of far brilliance than the sun, such as the filament lamp or the
incandescent mantle of a gas lamp, also causes discomfort by direct glare.
Reflected glare is glare which comes to the eye as glint or reflection of the
light source in some polished surfaces.
Mounting height: The mounting height will largely be governed by the type of
building and type of lighting scheme employed. In the case of direct lighting, in
rooms of large floor area, the luminaries should be mounted as close to the
ceiling as possible. Lowering them will not only make the illumination less
uniform, but will also bring them more into the field of vision, thus increasing
glare, without causing an appreciable increase in the coefficient of utilisation.
In the case of small rooms with high ceiling, there is something to be gained
by lowering the luminaires, but even here the better solution would be to use
filament lamps with focusing reflectors and to mount them high.
In the case of indirect and semi direct lighting, it would of course be desirable
to suspend the luminaires far enough down from the ceiling in order to give
reasonably uniform illumination on the ceiling.
SPACE TO MOUNTING HEIGHT RATIO

The correct mounting height of luminaires is important since glare may result
if fittings are placed in the line of vision. Excess height will result in rapid
reduction of illuminance, as demonstrated by the inverse square law, and
make lamp replacement and maintenance difficult. The correct spacing of
luminaires is important since large spacing between the fittings may result in
the fall off illumination at the working plane midway between adjacent fittings.
The illuminance between the luminaires must not be allowed to fall below 70%
SJM@LBTC Page 130

of the value directly below the fitting. For most installation the spacing to
mounting height ratio of 1:1 to 2:1 above the working plane is usually
considered adequate and the working surface is normally taken as 0.85m
above the floor level as shown below.
LAYOUT OF LUMINAIRES
To maintain an even distribution of illuminance from the luminaires, those
adjacent to the walls must be fixed at half the spacing distance. This is
because a point in the middle of the room receives luminous flux from two
adjacent luminaires, whilst a point close to the wall is illuminated mainly from
one luminaire.
Luminaires
S/2 S
Space to height ratio (S:H)
Considering the previous example of an electronic workshop requiring 15

luminaires to provide the required illuminance, if we assume the space to
mounting ratio of 1:1, the best layout may be four rows of four luminaires each
row. This would necessitate using one extra luminaire than the calculation
suggested. This is quite acceptable since the overall illuminance will be raised
by only about 6% and the resultant layout will be more symmetrical whilst
complying very closely with the space to height ratio.
The layout is shown below.
SJM@LBTC Page 131

1.12m 2.25m 2.25m 2.25m 1.12m
1m
2m
2m
8m
2m
1m
9m
The mounting height in this case is the ceiling height minus the
height of the working surface; H = 3.0 – 0.85 = 2.15m
Therefore, the space to mounting height ratio is 2.25:2.15
which is roughly 1:1
SJM@LBTC Page 132

HEATING
Heat is the energy in transit between two bodies due to their difference in
temperature; it is measured in joules or calories.
When current flows through a conductor there is friction between the electrons
and the molecules of the conductor thereby producing heat energy. The
electrical energy supplied to overcome this is known as the heating effect of
an electric current.
TEMPERATURE
Temperature is the degree of coldness or hotness of an object or body; it is
measured in degree Celsius (oC) or degree Kelvin (oK) or degree Fahrenheit
(oF) or degree Rankine (oR) by an instrument known as a thermometer.
The relationship between the Kelvin and degree Celsius scale is given by
T (K) = T ( oC) + 273
T ( oC) = T ( oK) – 273
The relationship between the Rankine and degree Fahrenheit scale is given
by
T ( oR) = T ( oF) + 460
T ( oF) = T (oR) – 460
The relationship between the degree Rankine and Kelvin is given by
T (K) = 5 T (oR)
9
T ( oR) = 9 T (K)
5
The relationship between the degree Celsius and the degree Fahrenheit is
T ( oF) = 9 T (oC) + 32
5
T ( oC) = 5 T ( oF) – 32
9
Example 1
Find the equivalent value of T = 50oC in degrees Fahrenheit, Rankine and
Kelvin.
Solution
T ( oF) = 9 T (oC) + 32 = 9 (50) + 32 = 122 oF

5 5
T ( oF) = T (oF) + 460 = 122 + 460 = 582 oF
T (K) = T ( oC) + 273 = 50 + 273 = 323K OR T (K) = 5 T (oR) = 5 (582) =323K

9 9
SJM@LBTC Page 133

METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER

Heat energy can be transferred through the following methods
i) Conduction: This is the method of heat transfer through solids.
ii) Convection: this is the method of heat transfer through liquids and
gases
iii) Radiation: this is the method of heat transfer through a vacuum.
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

This is the quantity of heat energy required to raise the mass of 1Kg of a
substance by 1oC.
The quantity of heat energy is given by, Q = Mc (t2 – t1) Joules
Where M is the mass in Kg

C is the specific heat capacity in J/kg oC
(t2 – t1) is the change in temperature.
The table below gives the specific heat capacities of some well known
substances.
Substance Specific heat capacity

Water 4190 J/Kg oC
Ice (0oC to – 20 oC) 2100 J/Kg oC
Copper 390 J/Kg oC
Iron 500 J/Kg oC
Aluminium 950 J/Kg oC
Brass 370 J/kg oC
Dry air at standard atmospheric
pressure 1015 J/Kg oC
Example 2
Calculate the quantity of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 6 kg
of a substance from 10oC to 25 oC.
Solution
Data
Mass = 6Kg
Temp. t1 = 10 oC
Temp. t2 = 25 oC
Quantity of heat energy, Q = Mc (t2 – t1)

= 4190 x 6 x (25 – 10)
= 377 000J
= 377 KJ
SJM@LBTC Page 134

Conversion from Kwh to Calories
NOTE: 1Kwh = 3 600 000 J

1 Calorie = 4.187 joules
1 Kcal. = 4187 joules
1 Kwh = 3 600 000 joules = 3 600 000 Cal.
4.187
= 860 000 Cal.
= 860 Kcal.
HEAT/THERMAL EFFICIENCY
Heat efficiency is the ratio of the useful heat (heat required or output) to the
heat generated (heat supplied or input) expressed as a percentage. Heat
efficiency gives the efficiency of an electrical appliance.
The electrical energy supplied to the electrical appliance forms the input
energy, the heat obtained from the appliance forms the output energy. The
difference between the two if any represents the energy loss.
Heat efficiency, η = heat output (useful heat)

heat supplied (heat generated)
Heat output, Q = Mc (t2 – t1) Joules or Q = M (t2 – t1) Kilocalories or Kcal.
Heat supplied is given by, H = I2 Rt Joules or H = I2 Rt Kcal.

4187
or H = VIt Joules or H = VIt Kcal.

4187
or H = Pt Joules or H = Pt Kcal
4187
or H = V2t Joules or H = V2t Kcal.

R 4187R
Where I is the current in amperes

R is the resistance in ohms
t is the time in seconds
V is the voltage in volts
P is the power in watts
4187 which is joules constant
JOULE’S LAW OF HEAT

Joule’s law states that the heat generated in a conductor by the flow of current
is proportional to the square of the current, the resistance of the conductor
and the time for which the current flows, i.e. H α I2Rt. (H=I2Rt/Joules
constant).
SJM@LBTC Page 135

EXAMPLES
1. Determine the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of
200Kg copper metal from 15 oC to 150 oC. Neglect any loss of heat and
assume the specific heat capacity of copper is 390 J/Kg oC.
Data
Mass, M = 200Kg
S.H.C. = 390 J/Kg oC
Temp. t1 = 15 oC
Temp. t2 = 150oC
Amount of heat energy, Q = Mc (t2 – t1)

= 200 x 390 (150 – 15)
= 10 260 000 J
= 10.26 MJ
2. A tank has a capacity of 100 litres. An 8 Kw, 400V immersion heater is

used to warm the water and has an efficiency of 90%. The temperature is
raised from 10oC t0 90oC. Determine
i) the time taken to heat the water to the required temperature
ii) the current drawn from the supply
iii) the cable type, size and the MCB rating to be used for the
heater
iv) If the efficiency is reduced to 80%, calculate the time it will take
in hours to reach the same temperature.
Data
Mass, M = 100Kg (1 litre = 1Kg)
Power rating = 8 Kw
Voltage, V = 400V
Temp.t1 = 10 oC
Temp. t2 = 90 oC
Efficiency, η = 90%
S.H.C. = 4190J/Kg oC
Heat required to heat the water, Q = Mc (t2 – t1)

= 100 x 4190 (90 – 10)
= 33 520 000 J
= 33.52MJ
Heat energy supplied (input) = Heat output x 100

Efficiency
= 33 520 000 x 100

90
= 37 244 444.44 J
= 37.24 MJ
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Energy in kwh required = 37 244 444.44 (Note 1Kwh = 3 600 000)

3 600 000
= 10.35 Kwh.
i) Time taken = energy required in Kwh

Power rating in Kw
= 10.35
8
= 1.29 Hours
ii) Current drawn by heater IL = Power rating

√3VL Cos θ
= 8 000
1.732 x 400 x 1
= 8 000
692.8
= 11.57A
iii) A 4 core 2.5mm2 Cable PVC insulated, MCB rating 15A triple pole.
iv) Heat energy required to heat the water remains 33 520 000 J
Heat energy supplied becomes, Q = Heat output x 100

Efficiency
= 33 520 000 x 100

80
= 41 900 000 J
Energy in Kwh = 41 900 000

3 600 000
= 11.64 Kwh
Therefore, time = energy in Kwh

Power in Kw
= 11.64
8
= 1.45 Hours
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3. Calculate the heat energy in joules required to raise the temperature of

0.028m3 of copper from 0 oC to 60oC. (Take the S.H.C. of copper to be
390J/Kg oC and its density is 8930kg/m3).
Data
Volume = 0.028m 3
Temp. t1= 0 oC
Temp. t2 = 60 oC
S.H.C. = 390 J/Kg oC
Density, D = 8930 kg/m3
Heat energy required, Q = Mc (t2 – t1) Mass = density x volume

= 250.04 x 390 x 60 = 8930 x 0.028
= 5 850 936 J = 250.04 kg
4. A tank is fitted with a 3Kw immersion heater on a 240V supply and

because of the heat loss from the tank which contains water; its efficiency
is 80%. It is required to heat 10 litres of water from 20oC to 100 oC.
Calculate
i) time taken
ii) heater current
iii) Cost of the energy if the cost is K150 per Kwh.
Data
Power rating = 3 Kw
Voltage, V = 240V
Efficiency, η = 80%
Temp. t1 = 20 oC
Temp. t2 = 100oC
S.H.C. = 4180 J/Kg oC
Mass, M = 10Kg
i) Time taken = energy input in Kwh

Power rating in Kw
Heat energy output = Mc (t2 – t1)

= 10 x 4180 x 80
= 3 344 000 J
Heat input = Heat energy output

Efficiency
= 3 344 000
0.8
= 4 180 000 J
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Energy in Kwh = 4 180 000

3 600 000
= 1.16 kWh.
Time taken = 1.16 = 0.39 Hours

3
ii) Heater current, I = 3 000

240
= 12.5A
iii) Cost of energy at K150/Kwh = K 1.16 x 150
= K 174
5. An electric heater contains 12Kg of water at 30oC. It takes 15 minutes to

boil the water. The losses of the water heater are 2000 joules. Calculate
the power rating of the heater.
Data
Mass, M = 12Kg
Temp. t1 = 30oC
Temp. t2 = 100oC
Heat loss = 2000J
S.H.C. = 4180 J/Kg oC
Time = 15 min.
Useful heat (output) Q = Mc (t2 – t1)

= 12 x 4180 x 70
= 3 511 200J
Heat input = Heat output + losses
Heat input = 3 511 200 + 2000

= 3 513 200 J
Heat input is also given by H = I2RT Joules

= Power x Time
Therefore power rating = Heat input, H

Time(s)
= 3 513 200 J
15 x 60
= 3 903.56 W or 3.9KW
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6. It is required to heat 20Kg of water from 15 oC to 100 oC in 30 minutes,

when the heater takes 10A. Calculate the resistance of the heater
element. Assume that the efficiency of the heater is 90%.
Data
Mass, M = 20Kg
Temp. t1 = 15 oC
Temp. t2 = 100oC
Current, I = 10A
Efficiency = 90%
Heat output, Q = Mc (t2 – t1)

= 20 x 4180 x 85
= 7 106 000 J
Heat input, H = Heat output x 100

Efficiency
= 7 106 000
0.9
= 7 895 555.56 J
Heat input is also given by H = I2RT
Resistance of heater element, R = Heat input, H

I2T
= 7 895 555.56
102 x 30 x 60
= 43.86 Ω
HEATIG UNITS
A resistor when used for producing heat is called a heating unit or element.
Heating elements are in three forms
i) Round wires
ii) Ribbon wires
iii) Strips
Round or ribbon wires are used in small heating units such as electric stoves,
room heaters, soldering irons, heat convectors, electric kettles, electric irons,
hot plates, water heaters and other heating appliances.
Strips are generally employed in big furnaces where the quantity of heat
required is very high.
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MATERIAL USED FOR HEATING ELEMENTS

The material that are mainly used for heating elements are either Kanthal or
nichrome wire.
Kanthal: it is an alloy of chromium, nickel, iron etc. prepared in different

percentages of combination for different purposes. It has a maximum working
temperature of 1280oC (2336oF) its specific resistance is 135μΩcm at 20oC.
Its melting point is approximately 1510oC (2750oC). It is specifically used in
big furnaces for annealing stainless steal and various types of pottery work.
Nichrome wire: It is an alloy of 80% nickel and 20% chromium, its maximum
working temperature is 1150oC (2102oF) and has a specific resistance of
110μΩcm at 20oC. It is generally used for making elements of heating
appliances for domestic purposes.
APPLICATION OF THE HEATING EFFECT

The heating effect of an electric current is used in the operation of many
electrical devices such as electric lamps, fuses, arc welding, spot welding,
electric heaters (electric stoves, room heaters, soldering irons, hot air
circulators, hair driers, electric kettle, toasters, hot plates), water heaters etc.
SJM@LBTC Page 141

BASIC ELECTRONICS
Electronics is the study of the flow of current in semiconductors, a vacuum
and in gases.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
A Diode is a two terminal semiconductor device that consists of a PN junction
that conducts easily in one direction and has a high resistance or behaves as
an insulator when conducting in the opposite direction.
Anode Anode Anode
Direction of
conventional
current when
anode is
positive
Cathode
Cathode
Cathode
Semiconductors are materials whose electrical properties lie between those of

a conductor and those of an insulators and are found in group four of the
periodic table. The two most used semiconductor materials in electronics are
silicon and germanium which are both tetravalent atoms i.e. they have four
valence electrons.
Semiconductors can be divided as follows
SEMICONDUCTOR
INTRINSIC EXTRINSIC
SEMICONDUCTOR SEMICONDUCTOR
P – TYPE N – TYPE
SEMICONDUCTOR SEMICONDUCTOR
Intrinsic semico nductors: these are semiconductor in their purest form, i.e.
pure semiconductors have a low conduction. If the temperature of a
semiconductor is increased, more bonds break and the intrinsic conduction
increases because more free electrons and holes are produced. The
resistance of a semiconductor therefore decreases as the temperature rises.
Extrinsic semiconductors: These are impure semiconductors or they are
semiconductors where impurities have been added . The addition of impurities
is known as doping. The impurities added are known as a dopant or doping
agent.
The usual doping agents or dopants are
SJM@LBTC Page 142

1. Pentavalent atoms having five valence electrons e.g. arsenic,

antimony, phosphorus etc.
2. Trivalent atom having three valence electrons e.g. gallium, indium.
aluminium, boron etc.
Valence electrons: these are electrons in the outer most shell of an electron.
Silicon and germanium have four valence electrons.
P - TYPE MATERIAL
A P – type material is formed by doping a tetravalent (silicon) atom with a
trivalent atom. The three valence electron from the trivalent atom forms
covalent bonds with the four electrons from the tetravalent atom, but one bond
is left incomplete and it gives rise to a hole. In this type of semiconductor,
conduction is by the movement of holes in the valence band. Holes form the
majority carriers and electrons constitute the minority carriers. The process of
conduction is called deficit conduction. Since the concentration of holes is
more than the concentration of electrons in the conduction band, conduction
is by means of holes at the top valence band.
Trivalent atom + tetravalent atom = P – type material.
N – TYPE MATERIAL
An N – type material is formed by doping a tetravalent atom with a
pentavalent atom. The five pentavalent electrons form covalent bonds with
four tetravalent atoms, but one electron remains without making any bond
thus forming an N – type material (Negative). In N – type materials there is an
excess of free electrons and yet it is electrically neutral.
In N – type material electrons are the majority carriers while holes are the
minority carriers.
Pentavalent atom + tetravalent atom = N – type material
THE P-N JUNCTION

When the P and N type material are fabricated in the same continuous crystal
lattice the plane dividing the two regions is known as a junction. As soon as
the junction is produced, free electrons near the junction in the n –type
material move by diffusion across the junction into the p – type material where
they fill holes. Diffusion occurs because the concentration of electrons in n-
type material is large and in the p-type material it is small. As a result the n-
type material near the junction becomes positively charged and the p-type
material negatively charged (both previously being neutral). At the same time,
holes diffuse from p-type to n-type, capturing electrons there. The exchange
of charge soon stops because the negative charge on the p-type material
opposes the further flow of electrons and the positive charge on the n-type
opposes the further flow of holes. The region on either side of the junction
becomes fairly free of charge carriers and is called the depletion (or barrier)
layer.
The situation is as though there is a battery across the junction with a small
voltage ( about 0.1V for germanium and 0.6V for silicon) called the junction
voltage, acting from n to p type.
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When the N and P type material are brought together the following happens
1. A thin depletion layer or region (also called space charge region or
transition region) is established on both sides of the junction and is so
called because it is depleted of free charge carriers. Its thickness is
about 10 -6m
2. A barrier potential or junction potential is developed across the
junction.
3. The presence of the depletion layer gives rise to junction and diffuse
capacitances.
FORWARD BI ASING A DIODE OR P-N JUNCTION

Biasing is the connection of a potential across a PN junction. Forward biasing
is the connection of a potential in such a way that the positive of the source or
battery is connected to the p type material and the negative of the source is
connected to the n-type material. When a diode is forward biased the
depletion layer narrows as the potential across the junction is increased.
When the source voltage exceeds the junction voltage, 0.1V for a germanium
diode and 0.6V for a silicon diode. The diode begins to conduct, current flows
because majority carriers are able to cross the junction, electrons move from
the n to the p side and holes in the opposite direction. The junction is said to
be forward biased and the resistance offered is very low. A diode only
conducts when forward biased.
SJM@LBTC Page 144

REVERSE BIASING A DIODE

Reverse biasing of a diode is the connection of a potential in such a way that
the positive of the source is connected to the n-type material and the negative
of the source is connected to the p-type material. When a diode is reverse
biased the electrons and holes are repelled further from the junction and the
depletion layer widens thus producing a very the resistance. A diode does not
conduct when reverse biased.
P N
A Reverse biased P-N junction
TYPES OF DIODES
There are several types of diodes, each with a feature that suit it for a
particular job. The following are some of the types of diodes,
1. the junction diode
2. the point contact diode
3. the zener diode
4. a photodiode
5. light emitting diode or LED
6. Solar cell
7. Varicap (varactor) diode
8. Gunn diode
Junction diodes: they are used as rectifiers to change a.c to d.c in power
supplies. Silicon is preferred over germanium because it has a much lower
reverse current; it has a higher breakdown voltage and can work at higher
temperatures.
Point contact diodes: they are used as signal diodes to detect radio signals
(a process similar to rectification in which radio frequency a.c is converted to
d.c) because of their low capacitance. Germanium is used for signal diodes
since it has a lower ‘turn on’ voltage than silicon (about 0.1V compared to
0.6V) and so lower signal voltages start it conducting in the forward direction.
A ZENER DIODE
A Zener diode is a heavily doped reverse biased heavily doped silicon or
germanium PN junction diode that is operated in the breakdown region where
current is limited by an external resistance and power dissipation of the diode.
SJM@LBTC Page 145

Silicon is preferred to germanium because of its higher temperature and

temperature capabilities.
Zener Biasing
For proper working of a zener diode in any circuit, it is essential that it must,
1. be reverse biased
2. Have a voltage across it greater than the zener breakdown voltage
3. be in a circuit where the current is less than the maximum zener
current
USES OF ZENER DIODES

Zener diodes find numerous applications in transistor circuitry. Some of their
common uses are;
1. as voltage regulators
2. as a fixed reference voltage in a network for biasing and comparison
purposes and for calibrating voltmeters.
3. as peak clippers or voltage limiters
4. for meter protection against damage from accidental application of
excess voltage
5. for reshaping a waveform.
Photodiode: it consists of a normal PN junction in a case with a transparent

‘window’ through which light can enter. A photodiode is operated in reverse
bias and the leakage (minority carrier) current increases in proportion to the
amount of light falling on the junction. This effect is due to the light energy
breaking the bonds in the crystal lattice of the semiconductor and producing
electrons and holes.
Photodiodes are used as fast ‘counters’ or ‘read’ holes in punched tapes and
cards when they generate a pulse of current every time a beam of light is
interrupted. They are also used in light meters to measure light intensity.
Light emitting diode, LED: it consists of a junction diode made from the
semiconducting compound gallium arsenide phosphide. It emits light when
forward biased; the colour depends on the composition and impurity content
of the compound.
A LED does not light when reverse biased and if the reverse bias is more than
5V the LED gets damaged.
An external must be connected in series with the LED to limit the forward
current unless it is a constant current type.
LEDs are used as indicator lamps, particularly in digital electronic circuits to
show whether the output is ‘high’ or ‘low’, they are also used in decimal
display e.g. electronic calculators, clocks, cash registers and measuring
instruments.
Solar cell: these are photovoltaic types; they are connected in series-parallel
on panels on artificial satellites and space vehicles and are used to power the
electronic equipment.
Photovoltaic cell when illuminated produces a voltage i.e. it is a true cell. It
consists of a p-n semiconductor junction with the p layer being thin enough to
allow the incident light to reach the junction. There it creates electron hole
pairs by breaking bonds between atoms in the depletion layer which exists at
SJM@LBTC Page 146

the junction. The junction voltage then sweeps the positive holes to the p side
and the negative electrons to the n-side. If there is an external circuit current
flows through it, with the p-side acting as the positive terminal of the cell. The
source of energy is the incident light. The voltage available depends on the
junction materials, the intensity of the light and the current taken.
Varicap diode: This is a diode designed to have a certain range of
capacitance e.g. 2 – 10pF, the value being changed by varying the reverse
voltage and therefore the width of the depletion layer. When reverse biased a
diode behaves as a capacitor because its depletion layer acts as an insulator
sandwiched between two conductors (the p- and n-type regions). The greater
the area of the junction and the thinner the depletion layer the greater is the
capacitance. Most diodes are designed to have a minimum capacitance but a
Varicap is designed to have a certain range of capacitance. Such diodes are
used to tune TV and v.h.f. radio sets in special circuits which allow the circuit
to lock automatically to the desired station. The process is called automatic
frequency control (a.f.c.).
Gunn diode: It is made from n-type gallium arsenide sandwiched between
metal electrodes and is used in microwaves oscillators.
TRANSISTORS
Transistors are three terminal semiconductor devices that consist of two PN
junctions.
The basic types of transistors are:
a) Bipolar junction transistor, BJT; its operation depends on the flow of
both the majority and minority carriers. The two types of BJTs are PNP
and NPN transistor.
b) The unipolar or field effect transistor, FET; in which the current is due
to the majority carriers only. The two types of FETs are Metal oxide
semiconductor field effect transistor, MOSFET and an insulated gate
field effect transistor, IGFET or a junction gate field effect transistor,
JUGFET.
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

A bipolar junction transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device that
consists of two p-n junctions connected back to back manufactured in a single
piece of a semiconductor crystal.
The two types of BJTs are PNP and NPN and the three transistor terminals
are emitter, base and collector. The two transistor junctions are emitter base
(E/B) junctions and the collector base (C/B) junction.
The symbols used for a PNP and NPN are shown below. The arrowhead is
always at the emitter not at the collector and in each case its direction
indicates the conventional direction of current flow. For a PNP transistor the
arrowhead points from the emitter to base meaning that the emitter is positive
SJM@LBTC Page 147

with respect to the base and collector. For an NPN transistor, it points from
base to emitter meaning the base and collector is positive with respect to the
emitter.
TRANSISTOR TERMINALS
The three transistor terminals are
1. Emitter: this is a heavily doped (more than any region) region that
emits charge carriers to the base.
2. Base: This is the smallest region of the transistor sandwiched between
the emitter and collector.
3. Collector: The collector collects majority charge carriers coming from
the emitter and passing through the base. In most transistors the
collector is the largest region because it dissipates much power.
Because of this the collector and emitter can not be interchanged.
TRANSISTOR BIASING
For normal transistor operation voltages of correct polarity must be connected
across the two transistor junctions.
1. The emitter base junction must always be forward biased.
2. The collector base junction must always be reverse biased.
SJM@LBTC Page 148

TRANSISTOR CURRENTS
The three currents that flow in a properly biased transistor are IE, IB, and I C.
For a PNP transistor connected in the common base mode, it is seen that
IE = IB + IC
A small part of emitter current (about 1 – 2%) goes to supply the base current
and the remaining part (about 98 – 99%) goes to supply collector current. By
normal convention currents that flow into a transistor are taken as positive and
those that flow out as negative.
TRANSISTOR CONFIGIURATION
There are three ways of connection transistors (called configuration), these
being
1. common base (CB) configuration
2. common emitter (CE) configuration
3. common collector (CC)configuration
The term ‘common’ is used to denote the terminal that is common to the input
and output terminals. The common electrode is normally grounded as a result
these modes of operation are frequently referred to as grounded base,
grounded collector and grounded emitter.
Common base configuration: this is a connection where the base is
common to both the emitter and collector. In this configuration the emitter
current IE is the input current and the collector current IC is the output current.
Common emitter configuration: this is a connection where the emitter is
common to both the collector and base. The input signal is applied between
the base and emitter and the output is taken out from the emitter and collector
circuit.
Common collector configuration: this is a connection where the collector is
common to both the base and emitter. The input signal is applied between the
base and collector and the output signal is taken out from the emitter collector
circuit. Conventionally speaking IB is the input current and IE is the output
current.
SJM@LBTC Page 149

APPLICATION OF TRANSISTORS
Some of the common applications of transistors are
1. it is used as a switch
2. it is used as an amplifiers
3. it is used in voltage regulators.
THYRISTORS OR SILICON CONTROLLED RECT IFERS (SCR)

A thyristor is a four layer, three terminal semiconducting device that consists
of three PN junctions connected back to back.
A thyristor is also known as a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) because it is

rectifier which can control the power supplied to a load in a way that wastes
very little energy.
When forward biased a thyristor does not conduct until a positive voltage is
applied to the gate. Conduction continues when the gate voltage is removed
and stops only when the gate voltage is switched off or reversed or the anode
current falls below a certain value.
Consider the circuit below that shows the operation of a thyristor, when S1 is
closed, the lamp L1 stays off. When S2 is closed as well, the gate current
flows and the thyristor switches on i.e. ‘fires’. The anode current is large
enough to light the lamp, which remains on even if S2 is opened.
SJM@LBTC Page 150

APPLICATION OF A THYRISTOR
The main application of a thyristor is as a power control device. When a
thyristor is ON its voltage is negligible and when OFF its current is negligible.
A thyristor never dissipates any appreciable amount of power even when
controlling substantial amounts of load power. The common applications of a
thyristor are
1. Relay control
2. regulated power supplies
3. static switches
4. motor control
5. inverters
6. battery chargers
7. heater controls
8. phase control
SJM@LBTC Page 151

GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND DIST RIBUTION
AN ELECTRIC SUPPLY SYSTEM

An electric supply system is the conveyance of electrical energy from the
generating station to the final consumer.
PARTS OF AN ELECTRIC SUPPLY SYSTEM

An electric supply system can be divided into
1. Generating station
2. Transmission
3. Distribution
The figure below shows a single line diagram of an electric supply system.
GENERATING STATION OR POWER STATION

A generating station is a special plant that generates bulk electrical energy.
Electricity generation is the process of converting energy available in different
forms (non-electrical energy) to electricity.
SJM@LBTC Page 152

Energy available in different forms such as pressure head of water, chemical

energy of fuels, nuclear energy of radioactive substances etc, can converted
into electrical energy by the use of an alternator coupled to a prime mover.
The prime mover (turbines) is driven by the energy obtained from various
sources (water, force of wind, coal). For example Chemical energy of a fuel
(e.g. coal) can be used to produce steam at high temperature and pressure.
The steam is fed to a prime mover which may be a steam engine or a steam
turbine the turbine converts heat energy of steam into mechanical energy
which is further converted into electrical energy by the alternator.
Similarly other forms of energy can be converted into electrical energy by
employing suitable machinery and equipment.
At the generating plants the electrical energy is produced at a relatively low

voltage between about 2300 volts and 30,000 volts, depending on the size of
the unit. The generator terminal voltage is then stepped up by the power
station transformer to a higher voltage (115 kV to 765 kV AC, varying by
country) for transmission over long distances.
TYPES OF GENERATION STATIONS
The following are some of the types of generating stations
1. Nuclear power station
2. Hydroelectric power station
3. Diesel power station
4. Thermal power station (uses coal, natural gas or petroleum)
5. Other forms of generation include wind, geothermal, solar, tide and
wave, use of gas and heat from waste disposal.
Methods of generating electricity

There are seven fundamental methods of directly transforming other forms of
energy into electrical energy:
Static electricity, the physical separation and transport of charge (eg.
triboelectric effect and lightning)
Electromagnetic induction (as in an electrical generator, dynamo or
alternator) transforms kinetic energy (energy of motion) into electricity
Electrochemistry (direct transformation of chemical energy into electricity, as
in a battery, fuel cell or nerve impulse.)
Photoelectric effect (transforming photon energy, as in solar cells)
Thermoelectric effect (direct thermal energy differential to electric
conversion, as in thermocouples and thermopiles)
SJM@LBTC Page 153

Piezoelectric effect (from the mechanical strain of electrically anisotropic

molecules/crystals)
Nuclear transformation, charged particle creation and acceleration (eg.
Betavoltaics or alpha particle emission)
All turbines are driven by a fluid acting as an intermediate energy carrier.
Many of the heat engines just mentioned are turbines. Other types of turbines
can be driven by wind or falling water.
Geothermal power. Either steam under pressure emerges from the ground
and drives a turbine or hot water evaporates a low boiling liquid to create
vapour to drive a turbine.
Water (hydroelectric) - Turbine blades are acted upon by flowing water,
produced by hydroelectric dams or tidal forces.
Wind - Most wind turbines generate electricity from naturally occurring wind.
Solar updraft towers use wind that is artificially produced inside the chimney
by heating it with sunlight, and are more properly seen as forms of solar
thermal energy.
Reciprocating engines
Small electricity generators are often powered by reciprocating engines
burning diesel, biogas or natural gas. Diesel engines are often used for back
up generation, usually at low voltages. Biogas is often combusted where it is
produced, such as a landfill or wastewater treatment plant, with a
reciprocating engine or a microturbine, which is a small gas turbine.
Photovoltaic panels
Photovoltaic panels convert sunlight directly to electricity. Although sunlight is
free and abundant, solar electricity is still usually more expensive to produce
than large-scale mechanically generated power due to the cost of the panels.
TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

The transmission and distribution systems are similar to man’s circulatory
system. The transmission system may be compared with arteries in the
human body and distribution system with the capillaries. They serve the same
purpose of supplying the ultimate consumers with the life giving blood of
civilization-electricity.
After the voltage has been stepped up at the generating station the process of
transmission begins. Electric power transmission is the bulk transfer of
electrical energy, a process in the delivery of electricity to consumers. A
power transmission network typically connects power plants to multiple
substations near a populated area and is usually done by a 3phase, 3-wire
system.
The transmission of electrical energy can either be done using either
1. Overhead transmission lines
2. Underground transmission.
SJM@LBTC Page 154

Fig. Overhead transmission line
REASONS FOR HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION.

Electricity is transmitted at high voltages (110 kV or above) for the following
reasons
· Reduces the volume (size) of the conductor material needed due to a
reduction in the current flowing at a high voltage. i.e. it becomes
cheaper
· Increases the transmission efficiency
· Reduces the energy lost in transmission ( percentage line drop
reduces)
LIMITATIONS OF HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION

From the discussion above it may appear advisable to use the highest
possible voltage for transmission of power in a bid to save the conductor
material. However, it must be realised that high voltage transmission results in
· The increased cost of insulating the conductors
· The increased cost of transformers, switchgear and other terminal
apparatus.
Overhead transmission
Overhead conductors are not covered by insulation. The conductor material is
nearly always an aluminium alloy, made into several strands and possibly
reinforced with steel strands. Copper was sometimes used for overhead
transmission but aluminium is lower in weight for equivalent performance, and
much lower in cost. Today, transmission-level voltages are usually considered
to be 110 kV and above. Lower voltages such as 66 kV and 33 kV are usually
considered sub-transmission voltages but are occasionally used on long lines
with light loads. Voltages less than 33 kV are usually used for distribution.
Voltages above 230 kV are considered extra high voltage and require different
designs compared to equipment used at lower voltages.
SJM@LBTC Page 155
Since overhead transmission lines are uninsulated wire, design of these lines
requires minimum clearances to be observed to maintain safety. During
adverse weather conditions of high wind and low temperatures, overhead
conductors can exhibit wind-induced oscillations which can encroach on their
designed clearances. Depending on the frequency and amplitude of
oscillation, the motion can be termed gallop or flutter.
Underground transmission
Electric power can also be transmitted by underground power cables instead
of overhead power lines. Underground transmission of power is normally used
across:
· Densely populated urban areas
· Areas where land is unavailable or planning consent is difficult
· Rivers and other natural obstacles
· Land with outstanding natural or environmental heritage
· Areas of significant or prestigious infrastructural development
· Land whose value must be maintained for future urban expansion and
rural development
Advantages of underground power cables:

· Less subject to damage from severe weather conditions (mainly wind
and freezing)
· Greatly reduced emission, into the surrounding area, of
electromagnetic fields (EMF). All electric currents generate EMF, but
the shielding provided by the earth surrounding underground cables
restricts their range and power.
· Underground cables need a narrower surrounding strip of about 1- 10
meters to install, whereas an overhead line requires a surrounding strip
of about 20- 200 meters wide to be kept permanently clear for safety,
maintenance and repair.
Some disadvantages of underground power cables:

· Undergrounding is more expensive, since the cost of burying cables at
transmission voltages is several times greater than overhead power
lines.
· The life-cycle cost of an underground power cable is two to four times
the cost of an overhead power line.
· Whereas finding and repairing overhead wire breaks can be
accomplished in hours, underground repairs can take days or weeks
and for this reason redundant lines are run.
· Operations are more difficult since the high reactive power of
underground cables produces large charging currents and so makes
voltage control more difficult.
SUBSTATION
A substation is an assembly of apparatus used to change some characteristic
(e.g. voltage, a.c to d.c, frequency, power factor etc.) of an electric supply
system.
SJM@LBTC Page 156

Classification of substation: There are several methods of classifying

substations, however the two most important ways of classifying them is
according to
1. Service requirements
2. Constructional feature.
1. According to service requirements: A substation may be used to

change voltage levels, improve the power factor or convert a.c to d.c etc.
According to service requirements substations can be classified into
· Transformer substation
· Switching substation
· Power factor correction substation
· Frequency changer substation
· Converting substation
· Industrial substation
2. According to constructional features: A substation has many
components (e.g. circuit breakers, switches, fuses, instruments etc.) which
must be housed properly to ensure continuous and reliable service.
According to construction features, the substation are classified as
· Indoor substation
· Outdoor substation
· Underground substation
· Pole- mounted substation.
Fig. substation
Control
To ensure safe and predictable operation the components of the transmission
system are controlled with generators, switches, circuit breakers and loads.
The voltage, power, frequency, load factor, and reliability capabilities of the
transmission system are designed to provide cost effective performance for
the customers.
Failure protection
Under excess load conditions, the system can be designed to fail gracefully
rather than all at once. Brownouts occur when the supply power drops below
the demand. Blackouts occur when the supply fails completely.
Rolling blackouts, or load shedding, are intentionally-engineered electrical
power outages, used to distribute insufficient power when the demand for
electricity exceeds the supply.
SJM@LBTC Page 157

Communications
Operators of long transmission lines require reliable communications for
control of the power grid and, often, associated generation and distribution
facilities. Fault-sensing protection relays at each end of the line must
communicate to monitor the flow of power into and out of the protected line
section so that faulted conductors or equipment can be quickly de-energized
and the balance of the system restored. Protection of the transmission line
from short circuits and other faults is usually so critical that common carrier
telecommunications are insufficiently reliable. In remote areas a common
carrier may not be available at all. Communication systems associated with a
transmission project may use:
· Microwaves
· Power line communication
· Optical fibers
Rarely, and for short distances, a utility will use pilot-wires strung along the
transmission line path
Transmission lines can also be used to carry data: this is called power-line
carrier, or PLC. PLC signals can be easily received with a radio for the long
wave range.
Optical fibers can be included in the stranded conductors of a transmission
line, in the overhead shield wires. These cables are known as OPGW or
Optical Ground Wire. Sometimes a standalone cable is used, ADSS or All
Dielectric Self Supporting cable, attached to the transmission line cross arms.
Health effects of electric power transmission

Some research has found that exposure to elevated levels of EMF
(electromagnetic fields), including ELF (extremely low frequency) fields, such
as those originating from electric power transmission lines, may be implicated
in a number of adverse health effects. These include, but are not limited to,
childhood leukemia, Alzheimer's, adult leukemia, breast cancer,
neurodegenerative diseases (such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis),
Miscarriage, and clinical depression. Although there seems to be a small
statistical correlation between various diseases and living near power lines,
any physical mechanism is not clear. One proposed mechanism is that the
electric fields around power lines attract aerosol pollutants.
One response to the potential dangers of overhead power lines is to place
them underground. The earth and enclosures surrounding underground
cables prevent the electric field from radiating significantly beyond the power
lines, and greatly reduce the magnetic field strength radiating from the power
lines, into the surrounding area. However, the cost of burying and maintaining
cables at transmission voltages is several times greater than overhead power
lines
DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
Electricity distribution is the final stage in the delivery (before retail) of
electricity to end users. A distribution system's network carries electricity from
the transmission system and delivers it to consumers. Typically, the network
would include medium-voltage (less than 50 kV) power lines, electrical
substations and pole-mounted transformers, low-voltage (less than 1000 V)
distribution wiring and sometimes electricity meters.
SJM@LBTC Page 158

The distribution of electrical energy can be divided into primary and secondary
distribution and is usually done by a three phase four wire system.
Secondary distribution also consists of feeders, distributors and service
mains.
AN ELECTRICAL GRID
An electrical grid is an interconnected network for delivering electricity from
suppliers to consumers. An electrical grid includes all the three parts of an
electric supply (generation, transmission and distribution) system. A network
connecting all generating stations, transmission lines and distribution lines is
known as a national grid and that connecting national grids is known as an
international grid.
The sense of grid is as a network, and should not be taken to imply a
particular physical layout, or breadth. "Grid" may be used to refer to an entire
continent's electrical network, a regional transmission network or may be used
to describe a sub network such as a local utility's transmission grid or
distribution grid.
SJM@LBTC Page 159

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
A distribution system is the part of the power system that distributes power for
local use. In general, the distribution system is the electrical system between
the substation fed by the transmission system and the consumer meters. It
generally consists of feeders, distributors and service mains.
Feeders: A feeder is a conductor which connects the substation (or localised

generating station) to the area where power is to be distributed. Generally no
tappings are taken from the feeder to supply consumers so that current in it
remains the same throughout. The main consideration in the design of the
feeder is the current carrying capacity.
Distributor: A distributor is a conductor from which tappings are taken to
supply the consumers. The current along a distributor is not constant because
tappings are taken at various places along its length. When designing a
distributor voltage drop along its length is the main consideration since the
statutory limit of voltage variation is ± 6% of the rated value at the consumer
terminals
Service mains: A service mains or cable is generally a small cable which
connects the distributor to the consumer terminals.
CLASSIFICATION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

A distribution system may be classified according to;
i) Nature of current – a.c distribution system and d.c distribution system
ii) Type of construction – Overhead system and underground system
iii) Scheme of connection – Radial system, ring main system and
interconnected system.
The a.c distribution system can be classified into
· primary distribution
· secondary distribution
Primary distribution: it is that part of a.c distribution system which operates at
voltages higher than general utilisation and handles large blocks of electrical
energy than the average low voltage the consumers uses. The voltage used
for primary distribution depends upon the amount of power to be conveyed
and the distance of the substation required to be fed. The most commonly
used distribution voltages are 11 KV, 6.6 KV and 3.3 KV. Due to economic
consideration primary distribution is carried out by a 3-phase, 3 wire system.
Secondary distribution: it is that part of a.c distribution system which includes
the range of voltages at which the ultimate consumer utilises the electrical
energy delivered to him. Secondary distribution employs 400/230 V, 415/240
V, 380/220 V 3-phase, 4-wire system.
SJM@LBTC Page 160

SJM@LBTC Page 161

SJM@LBTC Page 162

Line Voltage (VL): This is the voltage between any two phases; in the
diagram above the line voltage is 415V.
Phase voltage (VP): This is the voltage between any phase and the neutral;
in the diagram above the phase voltage is 240V.
Line voltage and phase voltage are related by the following relationship,
Line voltage, VL = √3 x phase voltage, VP
OVERHEAD VERSES UNDERGROUND SYSTEM

The distribution system can either be overhead or underground overhead
lines are usually mounted on wooden, concrete or steel poles which are
arranged to carry distribution transformers in addition to the conductors. The
underground system uses conduits, cables and manholes under the surface
of the streets and side walks. The choice between overhead and underground
system depends upon a number of factors, therefore, it is desirable to make a
comparison between the two.
Public safety; The underground system is safer than the overhead system
because all distribution wiring is placed underground and there are little
chances of any hazard.
Initial cost: the underground system is more expensive due to the high cost of
trenching, conduits, cables, manholes and other special equipment. The initial
cost of an underground system may be five to ten times more than that of an
overhead system.
Flexibility: The overhead system is much more flexible than the underground
system. In underground system the manholes, duct lines etc. are permanently
placed once installed and the load expansion can only be met by laying new
lines. However, on an overhead system, poles, wires, transformers etc. can
be easily shifted to meet the changes in load condition.
Faults: The chances of faults in underground system are very rare as the
cables are laid underground and are generally provided with better insulation.
Appearance: the general appearance of an underground system is better than
the overhead system as all the distribution lines are invisible.
Fault location and repair: In general there are little chances of faults in an
underground system. However if a fault does occur it is difficult to locate and
repair the fault in an underground system. On the other hand in an overhead
system, the conductors are visible and easily accessible so that fault location
and repair can easily be made.
Current carrying capacity and voltage drop: An overhead distribution
conductor has a higher current carrying capacity than an underground cable
of the same material and cross sectional area. On the other hand an
underground cable has a much lower inductive reactance than that of an
overhead conductor because of closer spacing of conductors.
Useful life: The useful life of the underground system is much longer than
that of an underground system. An overhead system may have a useful life of
25 years whereas an underground system may have may have a useful life of
more than 50 years.
Maintenance cost: The maintenance cost of an underground system is very
low compared to that of an overhead system because of ;less chances of
SJM@LBTC Page 163

faults and service interruptions from wind, ice, lightening as well as from
traffic hazards.
Interference with communication circuits: an overhead system causes
electromagnetic interference with telephone lines. The power line currents are
superimposed on speech currents, resulting in the potential of the
communication channel being raised to an undesirable level. However, there
is no interference with underground system.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF AN OVERHEAD LINE

An overhead line is subjected to uncertain weather conditions and other
external interference. This calls for the use of proper mechanical factors of
safety in order to ensure the continuity of operation in the line. The successful
operation of an overhead line depends to a great extent upon the mechanical
design of the line. In general the main components of an overhead line are;
1. Conductors which carry electric power from the sending end to the
receiving end. The commonly used conductor materials are aluminium,
copper, cadmium copper, and galvanised steel. The choice of a particular
material will depend upon the cost, the required electrical and mechanical
properties and the local conditions.
2. Supports which may be wooden poles, lattice steel towers, reinforced
concrete poles which keep the conductors at a suitable level above the
ground.
3. Insulators which are attached to supports and insulate the conductors from
the ground. There are several types of insulators but the commonly used
insulators are pin insulators, strain insulators, suspension insulators and
shackle insulators which can be made from porcelain, glass, steatite
4. Cross arms which provide support to insulators
5. Miscellaneous items such as phase plates, danger plates, lightening
arresters, anti-climbing wires etc.
REFERENCES
P. S Dhogal, Basic electrical engineering, Vol. 1 and 2, Indian, 2005
J.B Gupta, Electrical technology, Indian, 2002
John Bird, Electric circuit theory and technology, Newnes Oxford, 2002.
Brian Scaddan, Electrical installation work, Newnes, 2008
V. K Metha, Principles of power system, S. Chand and company New Delhi,

2005
B.L Theraja, Electrical Technology, Indian, 2005
Dr E. Chikuni, Dr O.I Okoro, Prof. M.T Khan Concise higher electrical

engineering, Juta 2008
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BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Electricity is the flow of current or electrons in an electric circuit. Substances

MAIN EFFECTS OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT

Some of the practical effects of an electric current include

TYPES OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS

TYPES OF ELECTRIC CIRCUIT S

DEFINITION OF ELECTRICAL TERMS

From ohms law R = V = 20 = 25 Ω

ELECTRICAL POWER AND ENERGY

Power in watts P = VI = I2R = V2

Electrical energy = power x time

Quantity of electricity, Q = It coulombs

Electrical energy = V I t = 5 x 3 x (10 x 60) = 9 000 Ws or 9 000 J

Power = VI = 240 x 8 = 1920 W

Alternatively P = I2R = 82 x 30 = 1920 W or P = V2 = 2402 = 1920 W

FACTORS THAT AFFECT RESISTANCE

Where ρ is the resistivity (specific resistance) which is defined as the

a) Resistance is directly proportional to length, L i.e. R α L

Hence, 600 α 5 m or 600 = (k)(5), where k is the constant of

b) When the resistance is 420 Ω, 420 = kL from which

Length L = 420 = 420 = 3.5 m

Resistance, R = ρ L = (0.03 x 10-6)(2000) = 0.03 x 2000 = 0.6 Ω

Resistivity, ρ = R a = (150 Ω)(0.17 x 10 -6m2) = 0.017 x 10 -6 Ωm or 0.017µΩm

Cross sectional area, a = πr2 = π x (6)2 = 36π mm2 = 36π x 10-6 m2

Resistance R = ρ L = (1.7 x 10-8 Ωm)(1200m) = 0.180 Ω

TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE (α)

where αo is the temperature coefficient of resistance at zero degrees

Resistance at any temperature is given by R t = Ro ( 1 + αo t )

Resistance at temperature T 1 is given by R 1 = R o ( 1 + αo t1 ) …………(i)

Resistance at temperature T 2 is given by R 2 = R o ( 1 + αo t2 ) …………(ii)

Combining relationships (i) and (ii) above gives R2 = Ro ( 1 + α o t2 )

From which we get R 2 = R1 (1 + αo t2)

R2 can also be given by R2 = R1 [1 + α1 (t2 – t1)]

Hence resistance at 70oC, R 70 = 100[1 + (0.0043)(70)]

Resistance at 0oC, R = R1 [1 + α1 (t2 – t1)]

Hence resistance at 100oC, R 100 = 10 [1 + 0.004 (100 – 20)]

From which we get R 2 = R1 (1 + αo t2)

R90 = 200[1 + 0.004(90)]

Therefore the resistance at 90oC is 252 Ω

The total resistance, RT = R1 x R2 + R3

Therefore, total current, I = V = 78 = 6 A

b) P.d. across resistors R1 and R2, V = IR = 6 x 3 = 18 V

c) The branch currents in the parallel circuit

d) The power consumed, P = I2R = 6 2 x 13

e) Energy used after 5 hours, E = power x time

f) Cost of energy after 65 hours of use at K 60 per Kwh

Energy consumed in Kwh, E = power x time

Cost of energy = 30 420 x K 60

E1 = I1r1 + (I1 + I2) R, i.e. 4 = 2I1 + 4(I1 + I2)

i.e.6I1 + 4I2 = 4 (1)

From loop 2 in the figure above, moving in an anticlockwise direction

E2 = I2r2 + (I1 + I2) R, i.e. 2 = I2 + 4(I1 + I2)

i.e.4I1 + 5I2 = 2 (2)

Solving equations (1) and (2) for I1 and I2

Hence I1 = 5.144 = 0.857 A

I1 + I2 = 0.857 + (-0.286) = 0.571 A

R1=10Ω R 3=12Ω R7=20Ω

a) the total current

2. Explain briefly how the following factors affect resistance of a

4. Determine the total resistance in the circuit below,