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My t h Sci e n ce
Is it true . . .
• That the field of psychology focuses primarily on treating
people with psychological problems and disorders?
• That Sigmund Freud was the first psychologist?
• That when two behaviors are “linked,” “related,” or tend
to occur together, it’s safe to assume that one behavior
caused the other?
(bkgrd) David Engelhardt/age fotostock
(inset) wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock
• That reading something over and over is the most

effective way to prepare for a test?
• That psychologists are not allowed to trick you into
taking part in a study?
• That brain scans can pinpoint the exact, single part of the
brain that causes a complex behavior?
The First Exam noticed a lot of you had trouble with

the difference between independent
“I made flashcards,” Latisha said.
“But it didn’t seem to help that much.
Prologue and dependent variables. Maybe we I only got a B-, and I thought I really
should talk about that again before we knew this stuff.”
You don’t need to be a psychol- go on to Chapter 2.” “Flashcards can be a great technique,”
ogist to notice that the classroom Jacob frowned. “I can’t understand Sandy said, “if you use them correctly.”
atmosphere can be a little tense the why I did so badly,” he said. “I mean, Latisha looked puzzled. “What do
day after the first exam. As we handed I read the chapter! Look.” He held up you mean? I used them the way
back the test results, several faces fell. his textbook. The pages were heavily everybody uses flashcards. I tested
Many of the students were freshmen underlined and covered with high- myself and if I knew the answer, I
and not yet accustomed to the self- light colors—yellow, blue, and green. set the card aside. I kept running
paced learning required in a college It isn’t unusual for students to have through the ones I missed until they
course. But there were also several trouble with their first real exam in were all gone and I knew them all.”
older adults, including two military college. Knowing that, we usually “Well, believe it or not,” Sandy
vets, one recently returned from take some time to talk about study said, “psychologists have done a lot
Afghanistan. skills after exams are returned. “How of research on learning new material,
“So let’s go over these test ques- did you prepare for the exam?” your and it turns out that that’s not the
tions,” your author Sandy began. “I author Susan asked the class. most effective way to use flashcards.”
Hockenbury_7e_CH01_Printer.indd 2 11/20/15 11:58 AM

Introduction
and Research
Methods
1
IN THIS CHAPTER:
“What is, then?” Latisha asked. or maybe it neutralizes positive ions. ❯❯ Introduction: What Is Psychology?
“Stay tuned,” Sandy said with a It didn’t make a whole lot of sense to
❯❯ Contemporary Psychology
smile. “We’re going to talk about it me. But my girlfriend said that a lot
in today’s class.” of famous baseball players and golfers ❯❯ The Scientific Method
Jenna broke in. “I always freeze on wear one. It’s supposed to help with ❯❯ Descriptive Research
tests. They stress me out so bad my pain but it’s also supposed to help
❯❯ Experimental Research
mind goes blank.” you concentrate and give you a better
“I do too,” Tyler piped up. “So memory. I figured it couldn’t hurt, so ❯❯ Ethics in Psychological Research
my girlfriend gave me this bracelet to why not try it?” ❯❯ Closing Thoughts
wear for exams. She swears by hers. “I’m not aware of any research on
❯❯ PSYCH FOR YOUR LIFE: Successful
Do you think it helps?” using magnets for concentration or Study Techniques
“What is that?” Sandy said. Tyler memory,” Sandy said carefully. “But
handed the heavy metal bracelet to we can certainly look it up and let
Sandy. “What’s it supposed to do?” you know what we find out.”
“It’s made of some kind of special Later in the chapter, we’ll share
metal—maybe titanium?” Tyler said. what we found out about magnetic
“It’s magnetic. Oh, and the Web site jewelry—and more important, what
said it generated a negative ion field, psychologists have discovered about
1

2 CHAPTER 1 Introduction and Research Methods
the most effective ways to study. that are of interest to college students. scientific evidence. By the end of the
You’ll also see how psychological In this introductory chapter, we’ll chapter, you’ll have a better apprecia-
research can help you critically evalu- explore the scope of contemporary tion of the scientific methods that psy-
ate new ideas and claims that you psychology as well as psychology’s his- chologists use to answer questions, big
encounter outside the classroom. torical origins. The common theme and small, about behavior and mental
As you’ll discover, psychology has a connecting psychology’s varied topics processes.
lot to say about many of the questions is its reliance on a solid foundation of Welcome to psychology!
Introduction:
What Is Psychology?
KEY THEME
Today, psychology is defined as the science of behavior and mental processes, a defini-
tion that reflects psychology’s origins and history.
KEY QUESTIONS
❯❯What are the goals and scope of contemporary psychology?
❯❯What roles did Wundt and James play in establishing psychology?
❯❯What were the early schools of thought and approaches in psychology, and how did
their views differ?
psychology The scientific study of Psychology is formally defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
behavior and mental processes. But this definition is deceptively simple. As you’ll see in this chapter, the scope of
contemporary psychology is very broad—ranging from the behavior of a single brain
cell to the behavior of a crowd of people or even entire cultures.
Many people think that psychologists are primarily—or even exclusively—
My t h Science interested in studying and treating psychological disorders and problems. But as this
chapter will show, psychologists are just as interested in “normal,” everyday behaviors
Is it true that the field of psy- and mental processes—topics like learning and memory, emotions and motivation,
chology focuses primarily on
relationships and loneliness. And, psychologists seek ways to use the knowledge that
treating people with psychologi-
cal problems and disorders?
they discover through scientific research to optimize human performance and poten-
tial in many different fields, from classrooms to offices to the military.
What Do Psychologists Study? It’s

International Pillow Fight Day and these
young members of a flash mob join the
Carmine Marinelli/ZUMA Press/Newscom
fun in Vancouver, British Columbia.

What motivated them to show up? What
kind of emotions might they be feeling?
How does the presence of like-minded
others affect their behavior? Whether
studying the behavior of a crowd of peo-
ple or a single brain cell, psychologists
rely on the scientific method to guide
their investigations.

I ntroduction : W hat Is Psycholog y? 3
The four basic goals of psychology are to describe, predict, explain, and control or
influence behavior and mental processes. To illustrate how these goals guide psycho-
logical research, think about our classroom discussion. Most people, like Jenna in the
Prologue, have an intuitive understanding of what the word stress refers to. Psycholo-
gists, however, seek to go beyond intuitive or “common sense” understandings of
human experience.
Here’s how psychology’s goals might help guide research on stress:
1. Describe: Trying to objectively describe the experience of stress, Dr. Garcia studies
the sequence of emotional responses that occur during stressful experiences.
2. Predict: Dr. Kiecolt investigates responses to different kinds of challenging events,
hoping to be able to predict the kinds of events that are most likely to evoke a
stress response.
Ted Spiegel/Corbis
3. Explain: Seeking to explain why some people are more vulnerable to the effects
of stress than others, Dr. Lazarus studies the different ways in which people
respond to natural disasters.
4. Control or Influence: After studying the effectiveness of different coping strategies,
Dr. Folkman helps people use those coping strategies to better control their reac- Aristotle (384–322 b.c.e.) The first
tions to stressful events. Western thinker to study psychological
How did psychology evolve into today’s diverse and rich science? We begin this topics, Aristotle combined the logic of
introductory chapter by stepping backward in time to describe the early origins of philosophy with empirical observation. His
psychology and its historical development. As you become familiar with how psy- best-known psychological work, De Anima,
chology began and developed, you’ll have a better appreciation for how it has come to is regarded as the first systematic treatise
encompass such diverse subjects. Indeed, the early history of psychology is the history on psychology. Its topics included such basic
psychological processes as the senses, per-
of a field struggling to define itself as a separate and unique scientific discipline. The
ception, memory, thinking, and motivation.
early psychologists debated such fundamental issues as: Aristotle’s writings on psychology antici-
• What is the proper subject matter of psychology? pated topics and theories that would be cen-
• What methods should be used to investigate psychological issues? tral to scientific psychology centuries later.
• Should psychological findings be used to change or enhance human behavior?

These debates helped set the tone of the new science, define its scope, and set its
limits. Over the past century, the shifting focus of these debates has influenced the
topics studied and the research methods used.
Psychology’s Origins
The Influence of Philosophy and Physiology
The earliest origins of psychology can be traced back several centuries to the writings
of the great philosophers. More than 2,000 years ago, the Greek philosopher Aristotle
wrote extensively about topics such as sleep, dreams, the senses, and memory. Many
of Aristotle’s ideas remained influential until the beginnings of modern science in the
David Sacks/Getty Images

seventeenth century (Kheriaty, 2007).
At that time, the French philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650) proposed a
doctrine called interactive dualism—the idea that mind and body were separate enti-
ties that interact to produce sensations, emotions, and other conscious experiences.
Today, psychologists continue to explore the relationship between mental activity
and the brain.
Philosophers also laid the groundwork for another issue that would become cen- Nature or Nurture? Both father and
tral to psychology, the nature–nurture issue. For centuries, philosophers debated which daughter are clearly enjoying the
was more important: the inborn nature of the individual or the environmental influ- experience of making art together. Is the
ences that nurture the individual. This debate was sometimes framed as nature versus child’s interest in art an expression of her
natural tendencies, or is it the result of
nurture. Today, however, psychologists understand that “nature” and “nuture” are
her father’s encouragement and teach-
impossible to completely disentangle (Sameroff, 2010). So, while some psychologists ing? Originally debated by philosophers
do investigate the relative influences of heredity versus environmental factors on behavior, hundreds of years ago, the relationship
today’s researchers also focus on studying the dynamic interaction between environ- between heredity and environmental
mental factors and genetic heritage (Dick & others, 2015; Szyf, 2013). factors continues to interest psycholo-
gists today (Dick & others, 2015).

structuralism Early school of psychology Such philosophical discussions influenced the topics that would be considered in
that emphasized studying the most basic psychology. But the early philosophers could advance the understanding of human
components, or structures, of conscious behavior only to a certain point. Their methods were limited to intuition, observa-
experiences. tion, and logic.
The eventual emergence of psychology as a science hinged on advances in other
sciences, particularly physiology. Physiology is a branch of biology that studies the
functions and parts of living organisms, including humans. In the 1600s, physiolo-
gists were becoming interested in the human brain and its relation to behavior. By
the early 1700s, it was discovered that damage to one side of the brain produced a
loss of function in the opposite side of the body. By the early 1800s, the idea that
different brain areas were related to different behavioral functions was being vigor-
ously debated. Collectively, the early scientific discoveries made by physiologists were
establishing the foundation for an idea that was to prove critical to the emergence of
psychology—namely, that scientific methods could be applied to answering questions
about behavior and mental processes.
Wilhelm Wundt
The Founder of Psychology
By the second half of the 1800s, the stage had been set for the emergence of psy-
Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) German chology as a distinct scientific discipline. The leading proponent of this idea was a
physiologist Wilhelm Wundt is gener- German physiologist named Wilhelm Wundt (Gentile & Miller, 2009). Wundt
ally credited as being the founder of used scientific methods to study fundamental psychological processes, such as mental
psychology as an experimental science. reaction times in response to visual or auditory stimuli. For example, Wundt tried to
In 1879, he established the first psychol- measure precisely how long it took a person to consciously detect the sight and sound
ogy research laboratory. By the early
of a bell being struck.
1900s, Wundt’s research had expanded
to include such topics as cultural
A major turning point in psychology occurred in 1874, when Wundt outlined the
psychology and developmental connections between physiology and psychology in his landmark text, Principles of
psychology (Wong, 2009). Physiological Psychology (Diamond, 2001). He also promoted his belief that psychology
Bettmann/Corbis
should be established as a separate scientific discipline that would use experimen-
tal methods to study mental processes. In 1879, Wundt realized that goal when he
opened the first psychology research laboratory at the University of Leipzig. Many
mark this event as the formal beginning of psychology as an experimental science
(Kohls & Benedikter, 2010).
Wundt defined psychology as the study of consciousness and emphasized the use of
experimental methods to study and measure it. Until he died in 1920, Wundt exerted
a strong influence on the development of psychology as a science (Wong, 2009).
Two hundred students from around the world traveled to Leipzig to earn doctorates
in experimental psychology under Wundt’s direction. Over the years, some 17,000
students attended Wundt’s afternoon lectures on general psychology, which often
included demonstrations of devices he had developed to measure mental processes
(Blumenthal, 1998).
Edward B. Titchener
Structuralism
Edward B. Titchener (1867–1927) In One of Wundt’s most devoted students was a young Englishman named Edward
contrast to the psychology programs at B. Titchener. After earning his doctorate in Wundt’s laboratory, Titchener began
both Harvard and Columbia at the time, teaching at Cornell University in New York. There he established a psychology labo-
Edward Titchener welcomed women
ratory that ultimately spanned 26 rooms.
into his graduate program at Cornell.
In fact, more women completed their
Titchener shared many of Wundt’s ideas about the nature of psychology. Eventu-
psychology doctorates under Titchener’s ally, however, Titchener developed his own approach, which he called structuralism.
direction than under any other male psy- Structuralism became the first major school of thought in psychology. Structural-
chologist of his generation (Evans, 1991). ism held that even our most complex conscious experiences could be broken down
Archives of the History of American Psychology,
into elemental structures, or component parts, of sensations and feelings. To identify
The University of Akron. Color added by publisher these structures of conscious thought, Titchener trained subjects in a procedure

called introspection. The subjects would view a simple stimulus, such as a book, and
then try to reconstruct their sensations and feelings immediately after viewing it. (In
psychology, a stimulus is anything perceptible to the senses, such as a sight, sound,
smell, touch, or taste.) They might first report on the colors they saw, then the smells,
and so on, in the attempt to create a total description of their conscious experience
(Titchener, 1896).
In addition to being distinguished as the first school of thought in early psychol-
ogy, Titchener’s structuralism holds the dubious distinction of being the first school
to disappear. Titchener’s death in 1927 essentially marked the end of structural-
ism as an influential school of thought in psychology. But even before Titchener’s
death, structuralism was often criticized for relying too heavily on the method of
introspection.
As noted by Wundt and other scientists, introspection had significant limitations.
First, introspection was an unreliable method of investigation. Different subjects often
provided very different introspective reports about the same stimulus. Even subjects well
trained in introspection varied in their responses to the same stimulus from trial to trial.
Second, introspection could not be used to study children or animals. Third, com-
plex topics, such as learning, development, mental disorders, and personality, could
not be investigated using introspection. Ultimately, the methods and goals of struc-
turalism were simply too limited to accommodate the rapidly expanding interests of
the field of psychology.
William James
Functionalism
By the time Titchener arrived at Cornell University, psychology was already well
established in the United States. The main proponent of American psychology was William James (1842–1910) Harvard
one of Harvard’s most outstanding teachers—William James. James had become professor William James was instru-
intrigued by the emerging science of psychology after reading one of Wundt’s arti- mental in establishing psychology in the
cles. But there were other influences on the development of James’s thinking. United States. In 1890, James published
Like many other scientists and philosophers of his generation, James was fas- a highly influential text, Principles of
cinated by the idea that different species had evolved over time (Menand, 2001). Psychology. James’s ideas became the
Many nineteenth-century scientists in England, France, and the United States were basis of another early school of psychol-
evolutionists—that is, they believed that species had not been created all at once but ogy, called functionalism, which stressed
rather had changed over time (Caton, 2007). studying the adaptive and practical func-
In the 1850s, British philosopher Herbert Spencer had published several works argu- tions of human behavior.
ing that modern species, including humans, were the result of gradual evolutionary Bettmann/Corbis
change. In 1859, Charles Darwin’s groundbreaking work, On the Origin of Species,

was published. James and his fellow thinkers actively debated the notion of evolu-
tion, which came to have a profound influence on James’s
ideas (Richardson, 2006). Like Darwin, James stressed the
importance of adaptation to environmental challenges.
In the early 1870s, James began teaching a physi-
Charles Darwin (1809–1882) Naturalist
ology and anatomy class at Harvard University. An Charles Darwin had a profound influence
intense, enthusiastic teacher, James was prone to on the early development of psychol-
changing the subject matter of his classes as his own ogy. Darwin was not the first scientist to
interests changed (B. Ross, 1991). By the late 1870s, propose that complex organisms evolved
James was teaching classes devoted exclusively to from simpler species (Caton, 2007).
the topic of psychology. However, Darwin’s book, On the Origin
At about the same time, James began writing of Species, published in 1859, gathered
a comprehensive textbook of psychology, a evidence from many different scientific
task that would take him more than a decade. fields to present a compelling account
James’s Principles of Psychology was finally pub- of evolution through the mechanism
of natural selection. Darwin’s ideas
lished in 1890. Despite its length of more than
have had a lasting impact on scientific
1,400 pages, Principles of Psychology quickly thought (Dickins, 2011; Pagel, 2009).
became the leading psychology textbook.

functionalism Early school of psychology In it, James discussed such diverse topics as brain function, habit, memory, sensation,
that emphasized studying the purpose, perception, and emotion.
or function, of behavior and mental James’s ideas became the basis for a new school of psychology, called functionalism.
experiences. Functionalism stressed the importance of how behavior functions to allow people
and animals to adapt to their environments. Unlike structuralists, functionalists did
not limit their methods to introspection. They expanded the scope of psychological
research to include direct observation of living creatures in natural settings. They also
examined how psychology could be applied to areas like education, child rearing, and
the work environment.
Both the structuralists and the functionalists thought that psychology should focus
on the study of conscious experiences. But the functionalists had very different ideas
about the nature of consciousness and how it should be studied. Rather than trying
to identify the essential structures of consciousness at a given moment, James saw
consciousness as an ongoing stream of mental activity that shifts and changes.
Like structuralism, functionalism no longer exists as a distinct school of thought in
contemporary psychology. Nevertheless, functionalism’s twin themes of the impor-
tance of the adaptive role of behavior and the application of psychology to enhance
human behavior are still important in modern psychology.
William James and His Students

Like Wundt, James profoundly influenced psychology through his students, many
of whom became prominent American psychologists. Two of James’s most notable
G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924) G. Stanley students were G. Stanley Hall and Mary Whiton Calkins.
Hall helped organize psychology in the In 1878, G. Stanley Hall received the first Ph.D. in psychology awarded in the
United States. Among his many achieve- United States. Hall founded the first psychology research laboratory in the United
ments was the establishment of the States at Johns Hopkins University in 1883. He also began publishing the American
first psychology research laboratory in Journal of Psychology, the first U.S. journal devoted to psychology. Most important, in
the United States. Hall also founded the
1892, Hall founded the American Psychological Association and was elected its first
American Psychological Association.
president (Anderson, 2012). Today, the American Psychological Association (APA)
Corbis
is the world’s largest professional organization of psychologists, with approximately
150,000 members. (The Association for Psychological Science, founded in 1988, has
about 26,000 members.)
In 1890, Mary Whiton Calkins was assigned the task of teaching experimen-
tal psychology at a new women’s college—Wellesley College. Calkins studied with
James at nearby Harvard University. She completed all the requirements for a Ph.D.
in psychology. However, Harvard refused to grant her the Ph.D. degree because she
was a woman and at the time Harvard was not a coeducational institution (Pickren
& Rutherford, 2010).
Although never awarded the degree she had earned, Calkins made several
notable contributions to psychology. She conducted research in dreams, memory,
and personality. In 1891, she established a psychology laboratory at Wellesley
College. At the turn of the twentieth century, she wrote a well-received text-
book, titled Introduction to Psychology. In 1905, Calkins was elected president of the
American Psychological Association—the first woman, but not the last, to hold
that position.
For the record, the first American woman to earn an official Ph.D. in psychology
was Margaret Floy Washburn, Edward Titchener’s first doctoral student at Cornell
University. Washburn strongly advocated the scientific study of the mental processes
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930)
of different animal species. In 1908, she published an influential text, titled The
Under the direction of William James,
Animal Mind. Her book summarized research on sensation, perception, learning, and
Mary Whiton Calkins completed all the
requirements for a Ph.D. in psychology. other “inner experiences” of different animal species. In 1921, Washburn became the
Calkins had a distinguished professional second woman elected president of the American Psychological Association (Viney
career. She established a psychology & Burlingame-Lee, 2003).
laboratory at Wellesley College and Finally, one of G. Stanley Hall’s notable students was Francis C. Sumner.
became the first woman president of the Sumner was the first African American to receive a Ph.D. in psychology, awarded
American Psychological Association. by Clark University in 1920. After teaching at several southern universities,

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) In 1909,

Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939)
Freud (front left) and several other psycho-
After becoming the first American
analysts were invited by G. Stanley Hall
woman to earn an official Ph.D. in psy-
Francis C. Sumner (1895–1954) Francis (front center) to participate in Clark Uni-
chology, Washburn went on to a distin-
Sumner studied under G. Stanley Hall versity’s twentieth-anniversary celebra-
guished career. Despite the discrimination
at Clark University. In 1920, he became tion in Worcester, Massachusetts (Hogan,
against women that was widespread in
the first African American to earn a 2003). Freud delivered five lectures on psy-
higher education during the early twen-
Ph.D. in psychology. Sumner later joined choanalysis. Listening in the audience was
tieth century, Washburn made many
Howard University in Washington, D.C., William James, who later wrote to a friend
contributions to psychology. She was the
and helped create a strong psychology that Freud struck him as “a man obsessed
second woman to be elected president of
program that led the country in training with fixed ideas” (Rosenzweig, 1997). Carl
the American Psychological Association.
African American psychologists (Belgrave Jung (front right), who later developed his
Archives of the History of American Psychology, The own theory of personality, also attended
University of Akron. Color added by publisher
& Allison, 2010).
this historic conference.
Sumner moved to Howard University in Washington,

D.C. While at Howard, he published papers on a wide
variety of topics and chaired a psychology department
that produced more African American psychologists
than all other American colleges and universities com-
bined (Guthrie, 2000, 2004). One of Sumner’s most
famous students was Kenneth Bancroft Clark. Clark’s
research on the negative effects of discrimination was
instrumental in the U.S. Supreme Court’s 1954 decision
to end segregation in schools ( Jackson, 2006). In 1970,
Clark became the first African American president of
the American Psychological Association (Belgrave &
Allison, 2010).
Clark University
Sigmund Freud
Psychoanalysis
Wundt, James, and other early psychologists emphasized
the study of conscious experiences. But at the turn of the twentieth century, new
approaches challenged the principles of both structuralism and functionalism. My t h Science
In Vienna, Austria, a physician named Sigmund Freud was developing an
Is it true that Sigmund Freud
intriguing theory of personality based on uncovering causes of behavior that were
was the first psychologist?
unconscious, or hidden from the person’s conscious awareness. Freud’s school of
thought, called psychoanalysis, emphasized the role of unconscious conflicts
in determining behavior and personality. Freud himself was a neurologist, not a
psychologist. Nevertheless, psychoanalysis had a strong influence on psychological psychoanalysis Personality theory and
thinking in the early part of the century. form of psychotherapy that emphasizes the
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality and behavior was based largely on his role of unconscious factors in personality
work with his patients and on insights derived from self-analysis. Freud believed that and behavior.

behaviorism School of psychology and human behavior was motivated by unconscious conflicts that were almost always sex-
theoretical viewpoint that emphasizes the ual or aggressive in nature. Past experiences, especially childhood experiences, were
study of observable behaviors, especially as thought to be critical in the formation of adult personality and behavior. According to
they pertain to the process of learning. Freud (1904), glimpses of these unconscious impulses are revealed in everyday life in
dreams, memory blocks, slips of the tongue, and spontaneous humor. Freud believed
that when unconscious conflicts became extreme, psychological disorders could result.
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality also provided the basis for a distinct
form of psychotherapy. Many of the fundamental ideas of psychoanalysis, such as the
importance of unconscious influences and early childhood experiences, continue
to influence psychologists and other professionals in the mental health field. We’ll
explore Freud’s theory in more depth in Chapter 10 on personality and Chapter 14
on therapies.
John B. Watson
Behaviorism
The course of psychology changed dramatically in the early 1900s when another
approach, called behaviorism, emerged as a dominating force. Behaviorism rejected
Three Key Scientists in the Development
of Behaviorism Building on the pioneering
the emphasis on consciousness promoted by structuralism and functionalism. It also
research of Russian physiologist Ivan Pav- flatly rejected Freudian notions about unconscious influences, claiming that such
lov, American psychologist John B. Watson ideas were unscientific and impossible to test. Instead, behaviorism contended that
founded the school of behaviorism. Behav- psychology should focus its scientific investigations strictly on overt behavior—observable
iorism advocated that psychology should behaviors that could be objectively measured and verified.
study observable behaviors, not mental Behaviorism is another example of the influence of physiology on psychology.
processes. Following Watson, B. F. Skinner Behaviorism grew out of the pioneering work of a Russian physiologist named
continued to champion the ideas of behav- Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov demonstrated that dogs could learn to associate a neutral
iorism. Skinner became one of the most stimulus, such as the sound of a bell, with an automatic behavior, such as reflexively
influential psychologists of the twentieth salivating to food. Once an association between the sound of the bell and the food
century. Like Watson, he strongly advo-
was formed, the sound of the bell alone would trigger the salivation reflex in the
cated the study of observable behaviors
rather than mental processes.
dog. Pavlov enthusiastically believed he had discovered the mechanism by which all
behaviors were learned.
(t) Culver Pictures/The Art Archive at Art Resource,
NY (bl) Underwood & Underwood/ Corbis (br) Archives
In the United States, a young, dynamic psychologist named John B. Watson
of the History of American Psychology, The University shared Pavlov’s enthusiasm. Watson (1913) championed behaviorism as a new school
of Akron
of psychology. Structuralism was still an influential perspective, but Watson strongly
objected to both its method of introspection and its focus on conscious mental pro-
cesses. As Watson (1924) wrote in his classic book, Behaviorism:
Behaviorism, on the contrary, holds that the subject matter of human psychology is the
behavior of the human being. Behaviorism claims that consciousness is neither a definite
nor a usable concept. The behaviorist, who has been trained always as an experimentalist,
holds, further, that belief in the existence of consciousness goes back to the ancient days
of superstition and magic.
Behaviorism’s influence on American psychology was enormous. The goal of the
Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)
behaviorists was to discover the fundamental principles of learning—how behavior is
acquired and modified in response to environmental influences.
For the most part, the behaviorists studied animal behavior
under carefully controlled laboratory conditions.
Although Watson left academic psychology in the early
1920s, behaviorism was later championed by an equally force-
ful proponent—the famous American psychologist B. F.
Skinner. Like Watson, Skinner believed that psychology
should restrict itself to studying outwardly observable
behaviors that could be measured and verified. In compel-
ling experimental demonstrations, Skinner systematically
used reinforcement or punishment to shape the behavior
John B. Watson (1878–1958) B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) of rats and pigeons.

Contemporar y Psycholog y 9
Between Watson and Skinner, behaviorism dominated American psychology humanistic psychology School of
for almost half a century. During that time, the study of conscious experiences was psychology and theoretical viewpoint that
largely ignored as a topic in psychology (Baars, 2005). In Chapter 5 on learning, we’ll emphasizes each person’s unique potential
look at the lives and contributions of Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner in greater detail. for psychological growth and self-direction.
Carl Rogers
Humanistic Psychology
For several decades, behaviorism and psychoanalysis were the
perspectives that most influenced the thinking of American psy-
chologists. In the 1950s, a new school of thought emerged, called
humanistic psychology. Because humanistic psychology was
distinctly different from both psychoanalysis and behaviorism, it
was sometimes referred to as the “third force” in American psy-
chology (Waterman, 2013; Watson & others, 2011).
Humanistic psychology was largely founded by American
psychologist Carl Rogers (Elliott & Farber, 2010). Like
Freud, Rogers was influenced by his experiences with his
psychotherapy clients. However, rather than emphasizing Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)
unconscious conflicts, Rogers emphasized the conscious
experiences of his clients, including each person’s unique Carl Rogers (1902–1987)
potential for psychological growth and self-direction. In con- Two Leaders in the Development of
trast to the behaviorists, who saw human behavior as being shaped and maintained by Humanistic Psychology Carl Rogers
and Abraham Maslow were key
external causes, Rogers emphasized self-determination, free will, and the importance
figures in establishing humanistic
of choice in human behavior (Elliott & Farber, 2010; Kirschenbaum & Jourdan, 2005). psychology. Humanistic psychology
Abraham Maslow was another advocate of humanistic psychology. Maslow devel- emphasized the importance of self-
oped a theory of motivation that emphasized psychological growth, which we’ll discuss in determination, creativity, and human
Chapter 8. Like psychoanalysis, humanistic psychology included not only influential theo- potential (Serlin, 2012). The ideas of
ries of personality but also a form of psychotherapy, which we’ll discuss in later chapters. Carl Rogers have been particularly
influential in modern psychotherapy.
By briefly stepping backward in time, you’ve seen how the debates among the key Abraham Maslow’s theory of moti-
thinkers in psychology’s history shaped the development of psychology as a whole. Each vation emphasized the importance
of the schools that we’ve described had an impact on the topics and methods of psycho- of psychological growth.
logical research. As you’ll see throughout this textbook, that impact has been a lasting one. (l) Special Collections, Donald C. Davidson
Library/University of California, Santa Barbara
In the next sections, we’ll touch on some of the more recent developments in psycholo- (r) Courtesy of Robert D. Farber University
gy’s evolution.We’ll also explore the diversity that characterizes contemporary psychology. Archives at Brandeis University
❯❯Test your understanding of The Origins of Psychology with .
Contemporary Psychology
KEY THEME
As psychology has developed as a scientific discipline, the topics it investigates have
become progressively more diverse.
KEY QUESTIONS
❯❯How do the perspectives in contemporary psychology differ in emphasis and
approach?
❯❯How do psychiatry and psychology differ, and what are psychology’s major specialty
areas?
Over the past half-century, the range of topics in psychology has become progres-
sively more diverse. And, as psychology’s knowledge base has increased, psychology
itself has become more specialized. Rather than being dominated by a particular
approach or school of thought, today’s psychologists tend to identify themselves
according to: (1) the perspective they emphasize in investigating psychological topics
and (2) the specialty area in which they have been trained and practice.

neuroscience The study of the nervous

system, especially the brain.
Major Perspectives in Psychology
Any given topic in contemporary psychology can be approached from a variety of
perspectives. Each perspective discussed here represents a different emphasis or point
of view that can be taken in studying a particular behavior, topic, or issue. As you’ll
see in this section, the influence of the early schools of psychology is apparent in the
first four perspectives that characterize contemporary psychology.
The Biological Perspective

As we’ve already noted, physiology has played an important role in psychology since
it was founded. Today, that influence continues, as is shown by the many psycholo-
gists who take the biological perspective. The biological perspective emphasizes study-
ing the physical bases of human and animal behavior, including the nervous system,
endocrine system, immune system, and genetics. More specifically, neuroscience
refers to the study of the nervous system, especially the brain. Sophisticated brain-
scanning techniques, including the PET scan, MRI scan, and functional MRI (fMRI)
scan, allow neuroscientists to study the structure and activity of the intact, living
brain in increasing detail. Later in the chapter, we’ll describe these brain-imaging
techniques and explain how psychologists use them as research tools.
The Psychodynamic Perspective

The key ideas and themes of Freud’s landmark theory of psychoanalysis continue
to be important among many psychologists, especially those working in the men-
tal health field. As you’ll see in Chapter 10 on personality, and Chapter 14 on
therapies, many of Freud’s ideas have been expanded or modified by his followers.
Today, psychologists who take the psychodynamic perspective may or may not follow
Freud or take a psychoanalytic approach. However, they do tend to emphasize the
importance of unconscious influences, early life experiences, and interpersonal rela-
tionships in explaining the underlying dynamics of behavior or in treating people
with psychological problems.
The Behavioral Perspective

Watson and Skinner’s contention that psychology should focus on observable behav-
iors and the fundamental laws of learning is evident today in the behavioral perspective.
Contemporary psychologists who take the behavioral perspective continue to study
The Biological Perspective The physio

logical aspects of behavior and mental
processes are studied by biological
psychologists. Psychologists and other
scientists who specialize in the study
of the brain and the rest of the nervous
system are called neuroscientists. Here,
Swiss neuroscientist Juliane Britz uses a
device called an electroencephalogram
to monitor brain wave activity in a
research participant. Dr. Britz studies the
BSIP/Newscom
brain processes involved in sensation,

perception, and awareness (Britz &
others, 2014).

how behavior is acquired or modified by environmental causes. Many psycholo-

gists who work in the area of mental health also emphasize the behavioral perspec-
tive in explaining and treating psychological disorders. In Chapter 5 on learning,
and Chapter 14 on therapies, we’ll discuss different applications of the behavioral
perspective.
The Humanistic Perspective

The influence of the work of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow continues to be
seen among contemporary psychologists who take the humanistic perspective (Serlin,
2012; Waterman, 2013). The humanistic perspective focuses on the motivation of people
to grow psychologically, the influence of interpersonal relationships on a person’s self-
concept, and the importance of choice and self-direction in striving to reach one’s
potential. Like the psychodynamic perspective, the humanistic perspective is often
emphasized among psychologists working in the mental health field. You’ll encoun-
ter the humanistic perspective in the chapters on motivation (8), personality (10),
and therapies (14).
The Positive Psychology Perspective

The humanistic perspective’s emphasis on psychological growth and human
potential contributed to the recent emergence of a new perspective. Positive
psychology is a field of psychological research and theory focusing on the study
of positive emotions and psychological states, positive individual traits, and the
social institutions that foster those qualities in individuals and communities
(Csikszentmihalyi & Nakamura, 2011; Peterson, 2006; Seligman & others, 2005). Studying Behavior from Different
By studying the conditions and processes that contribute to the optimal functioning Psychological Perspectives Psycholo-
of people, groups, and institutions, positive psychology seeks to counterbalance psy- gists can study a particular behavior,
chology’s traditional emphasis on psychological problems and disorders (McNulty topic, or issue from different
perspectives. For example, taking the
& Fincham, 2012).
biological perspective, a psychologist
Topics that fall under the umbrella of positive psychology include personal hap-
might study whether there are biologi-
piness, optimism, creativity, resilience, character strengths, and wisdom. Positive cal differences between rock climbers
psychology is also focused on developing therapeutic techniques that increase per- and other people, such as the ability
sonal well-being rather than just alleviating the troubling symptoms of psychological to stay calm and focused in the face of
disorders (Snyder & others, 2011). Insights from positive psychology research will dangerous situations. A psychologist
be evident in many chapters, including the chapters on motivation and emotion (8); taking the behavioral perspective might
personality (10); stress, health, and coping (12); and therapies (14). look at how people learn to climb and
the types of rewards that reinforce their
The Cognitive Perspective climbing behavior. And, a psychologist
who took the positive psychology per-
During the 1960s, psychology experienced a return to the study of how mental spective might investigate how meeting
processes influence behavior. Often referred to as “the cognitive revolution” in the challenge of climbing a difficult and
psychology, this movement represented a break from traditional behaviorism. Cog- dangerous route contributed to self-
nitive psychology focused once again on the important role of mental processes in confidence and personal growth.
how people process and remember information, develop language, solve problems, Greg Epperson/Getty Images
and think.
The development of the first computers in the 1950s contributed to the cognitive
revolution. Computers gave psychologists a new model for conceptualizing human
mental processes—human thinking, memory, and perception could be understood
in terms of an information-processing model. We’ll consider the cognitive perspec-
tive in several chapters, including Chapter 7 on thinking, language, and intelligence.
The cognitive perspective has also influenced other areas of psychology, including
personality (Chapter 10) and psychotherapy (Chapter 14).
The Cross-Cultural Perspective positive psychology The study of positive

emotions and psychological states, positive
More recently, psychologists have taken a closer look at how cultural factors individual traits, and the social institutions
influence patterns of behavior—the essence of the cross-cultural perspective. By the that foster positive individuals and
late 1980s, cross-cultural psychology had emerged in full force as large numbers of communities.

CU LTUR E A ND H U M A N B E H AV I OR
What Is Cross-Cultural Psychology?

People around the globe share many attributes: We all eat, sleep, In a collectivistic culture, the self is seen as being much more
form families, seek happiness, and mourn losses. Yet the way interdependent with others. Relationships with others and identi-
in which we express our human qualities can vary considerably fication with a larger group, such as the family or tribe, are key
among cultures (Triandis, 2005). What we eat, where we sleep, and components of personal identity. The cultures of Asia, Africa,
how we form families, define happiness, and express sadness can Mexico, and Central and South America tend to be collectivistic.
differ greatly in different cultures. About two-thirds of the world’s population live in collectivistic
Culture refers to the attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors cultures (Triandis, 2005).
shared by a group of people and communicated from one gen- The distinction between individualistic and collectivistic soci-
eration to another (Cohen, 2009, 2010). Studying the differences eties is useful in cross-cultural psychology. However, most
among cultures and the influences of culture on behavior are the cultures are neither completely individualistic nor completely
fundamental goals of cross-cultural psychology. collectivistic, but fall somewhere between the two extremes.
Cultural identity is influenced by many factors, including eth- And, psychologists are careful not to assume that these gener-
nicity, nationality, race, religion, and language. As we grow up alizations are true of every member or every aspect of a given
within a given culture, we learn our culture’s norms, or unwritten culture (Kitayama & Uskul, 2011). Psychologists also recognize
rules of behavior. And, we tend to act in accordance with those that there is a great deal of individual variation among the mem-
internalized norms without thinking. For example, according to bers of every culture (Heine & Norenzayan, 2006). It’s important
the dominant cultural norms in the United States, babies usually to keep that qualification in mind when cross-cultural findings
sleep separately from their parents. But in many cultures around are discussed.
the world, it’s taken for granted that babies will sleep in the same The Culture and Human Behavior boxes that we have included
bed as their parents (Mindell & others, 2010a, b). Members of in this book will help you learn about human behavior in other
these other cultures are often surprised and even shocked at the cultures. They will also help you understand how culture affects
U.S. practice of separating babies from their parents at night. your behavior, beliefs, attitudes, and values as well.
(In Chapter 9 on lifespan development, we discuss this topic at
greater length.)
The tendency to use your own culture as the
standard is called ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism
may be a natural tendency, but it can prevent
us from understanding the behaviors of others
(Bizumic & others, 2009). Ethnocentrism may
also prevent us from being aware of how our
behavior has been shaped by our own culture.
Extreme ethnocentrism can lead to intoler-
ance toward other cultures. If we believe that
our way of seeing things or behaving is the only
proper one, other ways of behaving and thinking
may seem laughable, inferior, wrong, or even
immoral.
In addition to influencing how we behave,
culture affects how we define our sense of
Dave Stamboulis/age fotostock
self (Markus & Kitayama, 1991, 1998, 2010).

For the most part, the dominant cultures of the
United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand,
and Europe can be described as individualis-
tic cultures. Individualistic cultures emphasize
the needs and goals of the individual over
the needs and goals of the group (Henrich,
2014; Markus & Kitayama, 2010). In individual-
istic societies, the self is seen as independent,
The Roots of Collectivistic Culture? Even within a given society, people’s
autonomous, and distinctive. Personal identity
cultural values may vary. Thomas Talhem and his colleagues (2014) found that
is defined by individual achievements, abilities,
Chinese from northern China, where wheat is traditionally grown, are more indi-
and accomplishments.
vidualistic than Chinese from southern China, where rice is grown, despite sharing
In contrast, collectivistic cultures emphasize
the same ethnic, educational, and socioeconomic background. The explanation?
the needs and goals of the group over those of
As this photo of villagers in southwest China harvesting rice shows, rice farming
the individual. Social behavior is more heavily
requires an extraordinary level of cooperation and coordination among villagers,
influenced by cultural norms and social context
characteristics that are highly valued in collectivistic cultures. In contrast, wheat
than by individual preferences and attitudes
farmers can succeed without help from their neighbors.
(Owe & others, 2013; Talhelm & others, 2014).

psychologists began
studying the diversity of Cultural Differences in Everyday
Behavior Our everyday behavior reflects
human behavior in dif-
cultural norms—unspoken standards of
ferent cultural settings social behavior. For example, imagine
and countries (Kita- the behavior of commuters on a subway
yama & Uskul, 2011; platform in any large U.S. city. Contrast
P. Smith, 2010). In the that behavior with that of commuters in
Japan. White-gloved conductors oblig-
process, psychologists
ingly “assist” passengers in boarding by
discovered that some shoving them in from behind, cramming
well-established psycho- as many people into the subway car as
KIM KYUNG-HOON/Reuters/Corbis
logical findings were possible.
not as universal as they
had thought.
For example, one
well-established psy-
chological finding was
that people exert more
effort on a task when
working alone than
when working as part of a group, a phenomenon called social loafing. First demon-
strated in the 1970s, social loafing was a consistent finding in several psychological
studies conducted with American and European subjects. But when similar stud-
ies were conducted with Chinese participants, the opposite was found to be true
(Hong & others, 2008). Chinese participants worked harder on a task when they
were part of a group than when they were working alone, a phenomenon called
social striving.
Today, psychologists are keenly attuned to the influence of cultural factors on
behavior (Heine, 2010; Henrich & others, 2010). Although many psychological
processes are shared by all humans, it’s important to keep in mind that there are cul-
tural variations in behavior. Thus, we have included Culture and Human Behavior
boxes throughout this textbook to help sensitize you to the influence of culture on
behavior—including your own. We describe cross-cultural psychology in more detail
in the Culture and Human Behavior box on page 12.
The Evolutionary Perspective

Evolutionary psychology refers to the application of the principles of evolu- culture The attitudes, values, beliefs, and
tion to explain psychological processes and phenomena (Buss, 2009, 2011b). The behaviors shared by a group of people and
evolutionary perspective reflects a renewed interest in the work of English naturalist communicated from one generation to another.
Charles Darwin. As noted previously, Darwin’s (1859) first book on evolution, cross-cultural psychology Branch of
On the Origin of Species, played an influential role in the thinking of many early psychology that studies the effects of
psychologists. culture on behavior and mental processes.
The theory of evolution proposes that the individual members of a species com- ethnocentrism The belief that one’s own
pete for survival. Because of inherited differences, some members of a species are culture or ethnic group is superior to all
better adapted to their environment than are others. Organisms that inherit char- others and the related tendency to use
acteristics that increase their chances of survival in their particular habitat are more one’s own culture as a standard by which to
likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on their characteristics to their offspring. But judge other cultures.
individuals that inherit less useful characteristics are less likely to survive, repro- individualistic cultures Cultures that
duce, and pass on their characteristics. This process reflects the principle of natural emphasize the needs and goals of the individual
selection: The most adaptive characteristics are “selected” and perpetuated in the over the needs and goals of the group.
next generation. collectivistic cultures Cultures that
Psychologists who take the evolutionary perspective assume that psychologi- emphasize the needs and goals of the group
cal processes are also subject to the principle of natural selection. As David Buss over the needs and goals of the individual.
(2008) writes, “An evolved psychological mechanism exists in the form that it does evolutionary psychology The application
because it solved a specific problem of survival or reproduction recurrently over of principles of evolution, including natural
evolutionary history.” That is, psychological processes that helped individuals adapt selection, to explain psychological processes
to their environments also helped them survive, reproduce, and pass those abilities and phenomena.

The Evolutionary Perspective The evo-

lutionary perspective analyzes behavior
in terms of how it increases a species’
chances to survive and reproduce. Com-
paring behaviors across species can often
lead to new insights about the adaptive
Steve Prezant/Corbis
function of a particular behavior. For
Keren Su/Corbis
example, close bonds with caregivers are
essential to the primate infant’s
survival—whether that infant is a golden
monkey at a wildlife preserve in north-
ern China or a human infant at a family
picnic in Norway. As you’ll see in later on to their offspring (Confer & others, 2010). However, as you’ll see in later chap-
chapters, the evolutionary perspective ters, some of those processes may not necessarily be adaptive in our modern world
has been applied to many different areas (Loewenstein, 2010; Tooby & Cosmides, 2008).
of psychology, including human relation-
ships, eating behaviors, and emotional
responses (Confer & others, 2010;
Scott-Phillips & others, 2011).
Specialty Areas in Psychology
Many people think that psychologists primarily diagnose and treat people with psy-
chological problems or disorders. In fact, psychologists who specialize in clinical psy-
chology are trained in the diagnosis, treatment, causes, and prevention of psychological
Specialty Areas and
FIGURE 1.1 disorders, leading to a doctorate in clinical psychology.
Employment Settings The graph In contrast, psychiatry is a medical specialty. A psychiatrist has earned a
on the left shows the specialty areas of medical degree, either an M.D. or D.O., followed by several years of specialized
individuals who recently received their training in the treatment of mental disorders. As physicians, psychiatrists can hos-
doctorates in psychology. The category pitalize people, order biomedical therapies such as electroconvulsive therapy (ECT),
“Other” includes such specialty areas
and prescribe medications. Clinical psychologists are not medical doctors and
as health psychology, forensic psychol-
ogy, and sports psychology. The right
cannot order medical treatments. However, a few states have passed legislation
graph shows psychologists’ primary allowing clinical psychologists to prescribe medications after specialized training
places of employment. (Riding-Malon & Werth, 2014).
Source: Data from Finno & others (2006); As you’ll learn, contemporary psychology is a very diverse discipline that ranges
NSF/NIH/USED/USDA/NEH/NASA, far beyond the treatment of psychological problems. This diversity is reflected in
2009 Survey of Earned Doctorates.
Figure 1.1, which shows the range of specialty areas and employment settings for
Specialty Areas of Psychologists Employment Settings of Psychologists
For-profit
Clinical 36% organizations and 41%
self-employment
Counseling 13%
Social and Universities,
8% colleges, and 35%
personality
medical schools
Other 8%
Biological and Nonprofit
7% 8%
experimental organizations
General 6%
State and local
Cognitive 6% 7%
government
Industrial/
6%
Organizational Other
Developmental 5% educational 6%
institutions
School 4%
Federal
Educational 2% 3%
government
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40% 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45%
Percentage Percentage

The Scientif ic Method 15
Table 1.1
Major Specialties in Psychology
Specialty Major Focus
Relationship between psychological processes and the body’s physi-
Biological psychology cal systems; neuroscience refers specifically to the study of the
brain and the rest of the nervous system.
Causes, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of psychological
Clinical psychology
disorders.
Mental processes, including reasoning and thinking, problem
Cognitive psychology
solving, memory, perception, mental imagery, and language.
Helping people adjust, adapt, and cope with personal and interper-
Counseling psychology sonal challenges; improving well-being, alleviating distress and mal-
adjustment, and resolving crises.
Developmental Physical, social, and psychological changes that occur at different
psychology ages and stages of the life span.
Applying psychological principles and theories to methods of
Educational psychology
learning.
Basic psychological processes, including sensation and perception,
Experimental psychology
and principles of learning, emotion, and motivation.
Psychological factors in the development, prevention, and treat-
Health psychology ment of illness; stress and coping; promoting health-enhancing
behaviors.
Industrial/Organizational
The relationship between people and work.
psychology
The nature of human personality, including the uniqueness of each
Personality psychology
person, traits, and individual differences.
How an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior are affected by
Social psychology
social environments and the presence of other people.
Applying psychological principles and findings in primary and
School psychology
secondary schools.
Applying the findings of basic psychology to diverse areas; examples
Applied psychology include sports psychology, media psychology, forensic psychology,
rehabilitation psychology, and military psychology.
psychologists. Table 1.1 provides a brief overview of psychology’s most important

specialty areas.
❯❯Test your understanding of Contemporary Psychology with .
The Scientific Method

KEY THEME
The scientific method is a set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that guides all
scientists, including psychologists, in conducting research.
psychiatry Medical specialty area focused
KEY QUESTIONS on the diagnosis, treatment, causes, and
❯❯What assumptions and attitudes are held by psychologists? prevention of mental and behavioral
❯❯What characterizes each step of the scientific method? disorders.
❯❯How does a hypothesis differ from a theory? scientific method A set of assumptions,
attitudes, and procedures that guide
Whatever their approach or specialty, psychologists who do research are scientists. researchers in creating questions to
And, like other scientists, they rely on the scientific method to guide their research. investigate, in generating evidence, and in
The scientific method refers to a set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that drawing conclusions.

empirical evidence Verifiable evidence guide researchers in creating questions to investigate, in generating evidence, and in
that is based upon objective observation, drawing conclusions.
measurement, and/or experimentation. Like all scientists, psychologists are guided by the basic scientific assumption that
hypothesis (high-POTH-uh-sis) A tentative events are lawful. When this scientific assumption is applied to psychology, it means
statement about the relationship between that psychologists assume that behavior and mental processes follow consistent pat-
two or more variables; a testable prediction terns. Psychologists are also guided by the assumption that events are explainable. Thus,
or question. psychologists assume that behavior and mental processes have a cause or causes that
variable A factor that can vary, or change, can be understood through careful, systematic study.
in ways that can be observed, measured, Psychologists are also open-minded. They are willing to consider new or alterna-
and verified. tive explanations of behavior and mental processes. However, their open-minded
operational definition A precise attitude is tempered by a healthy sense of scientific skepticism. That is, psychologists criti-
description of how the variables in a study cally evaluate the evidence for new findings, especially those that seem contrary to
will be manipulated or measured. established knowledge.
The Steps in the Scientific Method

Systematically Seeking Answers
Like any science, psychology is based on verifiable or empirical evidence—evidence
that is the result of objective observation, measurement, and experimentation. As part
of the overall process of producing empirical evidence, psychologists follow the four
basic steps of the scientific method. In a nutshell, these steps are:
• Formulate a specific question that can be tested.
• Design a study to collect relevant data.
• Analyze the data to arrive at conclusions.
• Report the results.
Following the basic guidelines of the scientific method does not guarantee that
valid conclusions will always be reached. However, these steps help guard against
bias and minimize the chances for error and faulty conclusions. Let’s look at some of
the key concepts associated with each step of the scientific method.
Step 1. Formulate a Testable Hypothesis

Once a researcher has identified a question or an issue to investigate, he or she
must formulate a hypothesis that can be tested empirically. Formally, a hypoth-
esis is a tentative statement that describes the relationship between two or more
variables. A hypothesis is often stated as a specific prediction that can be empirically
tested, such as “strong social networks are associated with greater well-being in
college students.”
A variable is simply a factor that can vary, or change. These changes must be
capable of being observed, measured, and verified. The psychologist must provide an
operational definition of each variable to be investigated. An operational definition
defines the variable in very specific terms as to how it will be measured, manipulated,
or changed. Operational definitions are important because many of the concepts that
psychologists investigate—such as memory, happiness, or stress—can be defined and
measured in more than one way.
For example, how would you test the hypothesis that “strong social networks are
associated with greater well-being in college students”? To test that specific predic-
tion, you would need to formulate an operational definition of each variable. How
could you operationally define social networks? Well-being? What could you objectively
observe and measure?
To investigate the impact of social networks on college students, Adriana
Manago and her colleagues (2012) used Facebook data. They operationally defined
network size as the participant’s number of Facebook friends. They asked participants to

classify their Facebook friends into different categories, such as “close

friends,” “acquaintances,” and “online only” friends. Figure 1.2
shows the percentage of each type of friend in the participants’ social
networks.
How was well-being operationally defined? Manago and her col-
Jed Share/Kaoru Share/Getty Images

leagues (2012) used a standard scale that measured life satisfaction.
Students rated their agreement on a 5-point scale for nine state-
ments such as “I have a good life” and “I like the way things are
going for me.” And what did Manago and her colleagues find?
Students with larger networks were significantly happier with their
lives.
Step 2. Design the Study and Collect the Data

This step involves deciding which research method to use for collecting Are Hands-Free Cell Phones Safer to Use than Regular
Cell Phones? Hypotheses are often generated from
data. There are two basic types of designs used in research—descriptive
everyday observations. Many people assume that hands-
and experimental. Each research approach answers different kinds of
free devices are safe to use while driving, since they
questions and provides different kinds of evidence. don’t require the driver to actually look at the phone
Descriptive research includes research strategies for observing and or take their hands off the wheel to operate them. But
describing behavior, including identifying the factors that seem to are they? Several studies have found that talking on a
be associated with a particular phenomenon. The study by Adriana hands-free cell phone was just as distracting as talking
Manago and her colleagues (2012) on social networks and student on a hand-held cell phone (Baumeister & others, 2011;
well-being is just one example of descriptive research. Descriptive Strayer & others, 2006). Hands-free or not, talking on
research answers the who, what, where, and when kinds of questions a cell phone or operating speech-to-text devices while
about behavior. Who engages in a particular behavior? What factors driving were much more distracting than listening to the
or events seem to be associated with the behavior? Where does the radio, conversing with a passenger, or listening to music
(Strayer & others, 2013). You’ll learn why in the discus-
behavior occur? When does the behavior occur? How often does the
sion of multitasking in Chapter 4.
behavior occur? In the next section, we’ll discuss commonly used
descriptive methods, including naturalistic observation, surveys, case studies,
and correlational studies.
In contrast, experimental research is used to show that one variable causes change
in a second variable. In an experiment, the researcher deliberately varies one factor,
then measures the changes produced in a second factor. Ideally, all experimental
conditions are kept as constant as possible except for the factor that the researcher
systematically varies. Then, if changes occur in the second factor, those changes can
be attributed to the variations in the first factor.
Acquaintances 27% FIGURE 1.2 College Students’ Facebook

Activity 24%
Networks This graph illustrates the percentage
of each type of friend in college students’ Face-
Close 21% book networks. “Activity” friends were people
who shared some activity, such as teammates
Maintained 18% or co-workers; “maintained” friends were friends
from high school or a previous romantic part-
Strangers 4% ner. Adriana Manago and her colleagues (2012)
found that the proportion of close friends to
Other 4% acquaintances did not make a difference to col-
lege students’ satisfaction with their lives, but the
Online-Only 2%
number of friends did. Students with more friends
0 5 10 15 20 25 30% were more satisfied with their lives.
Source: Data from Manago & others (2012).
Percentage

Step 3. Analyze the Data and Draw Conclusions

Once observations have been made and measurements have been col-
lected, the raw data need to be analyzed and summarized. Researchers
use the methods of a branch of mathematics known as statistics to
analyze, summarize, and draw conclusions about the data they have
collected.
Researchers rely on statistics to determine whether their results sup-
Ellis Bronte/age fotostock
port their hypotheses. They also use statistics to determine whether their
findings are statistically significant. If a finding is statistically signifi-
cant, it means that the results are not very likely to have occurred by
chance. As a rule, statistically significant results confirm the hypothesis.
Appendix A provides a more detailed discussion of the use of statistics
in psychology research.
Success in College: Meta-Analysis
Keep in mind that even though a finding is statistically significant, it
Reveals the Most Important Factors may not be practically significant. If a study involves a large number of participants,
Although many factors are implicated in even small differences among groups of subjects may result in a statistically significant
college success, a meta-analysis of over finding. But the actual average differences may be so small as to have little practical
200 research studies pointed to motiva- significance or importance.
tional factors as the strongest predictor For example, Reynol Junco (2012) surveyed nearly two thousand college students
of college success (Richardson & others, and found a statistically significant relationship between grade point average (GPA)
2012). The belief that you have the skills and amount of time spent on Facebook: Students who spent a lot of time on Facebook
and abilities to succeed in college, a trait tended to have lower grades than students who spent less time. However, the practi-
called performance self-efficacy, was cal, real-world significance of this relationship was low: It turned out that a student had
more important than high school grades,
to spend 93 minutes per day more than the average of 106 minutes for the increased
test scores, and social or economic status.
time to have even a small (.12 percentage points) impact on GPA. So remember that
a statistically significant result is simply one that is not very likely to have occurred by
chance. Whether the finding is significant in the everyday sense of being important
is another matter altogether.
A statistical technique called meta-analysis is sometimes used in psychology to ana-
lyze the results of many research studies on a specific topic. Meta-analysis involves
pooling the results of several studies into a single analysis. By creating one large pool
of data to be analyzed, meta-analysis can help reveal overall trends that may not be
evident in individual studies.
Meta-analysis is especially useful when a particular issue has generated a
large number of studies with inconsistent results. For example, many studies
have looked at the factors that predict success in college. British psychologist
Michelle Richardson and her colleagues (2012) pooled the results of over 200
research studies investigating personal characteristics that were associated with suc-
cess in college. “Success in college” was operationally defined as cumulative GPA.
They found that motivational factors were the strongest predictor of college success,
outweighing test scores, high school grades, and socioeconomic status. Especially
statistics A branch of mathematics used important was a trait they called performance self-efficacy, the belief that you have the
by researchers to organize, summarize, and skills and abilities to succeed at academic tasks. We’ll talk more about self-efficacy
interpret data.
in Chapter 8 on motivation and emotion.
statistically significant A mathematical
indication that research results are not very
likely to have occurred by chance. Step 4. Report the Findings
meta-analysis A statistical technique For advances to be made in any scientific discipline, researchers must share their find-
that involves combining and analyzing ings with other scientists. In addition to reporting their results, psychologists provide
the results of many research studies on a a detailed description of the study itself, including who participated in the study, how
specific topic in order to identify overall variables were operationally defined, how data were analyzed, and so forth.
trends. Describing the precise details of the study makes it possible for other investiga-
replicate To repeat or duplicate a scientific tors to replicate, or repeat, the study. Replication is an important part of the scientific
study in order to increase confidence in the process. When a study is replicated and the same basic results are obtained again,
validity of the original findings. scientific confidence that the results are accurate is increased. Conversely, if the

replication of a study fails to produce the same basic findings, confidence in

the original findings is reduced.
Psychologists present their research at academic conferences or write a
paper summarizing the study and submit it to one of the many psychol-
ogy journals for publication. Before accepting papers for publication, most
psychology journals send the paper to other knowledgeable psychologists to
review and evaluate. If the study conforms to the principles of sound scientific
research and contributes to the existing knowledge base, the paper is accepted
for publication.
Shawn P. Calhoun
Throughout this text, you’ll see citations that look like the one you
encountered in the discussion above on social networks and well-being:
“(Manago & others, 2012).” These citations identify the sources of the
research and ideas that are being discussed. The citation tells you the author
or authors (Manago & others) of the study and the year (2012) in which the
study was published. You can find the complete reference in the alphabetized Ref- Claude Steele Presenting His Research
Along with writing up their research for
erences section at the back of this text. The complete reference lists the authors’
publication, psychologists also often
full names, the article title, the journal or book in which the article was pub- discuss their research at psychology
lished, and the DOI, or digital object identifier. The DOI is a permanent Internet conferences. Here, Stanford University
“address” for journal articles and other digital works posted on the Internet. professor Claude Steele presents his
Figure 1.3 shows you how to decipher the different parts of a typical journal research at the annual meeting of the
reference. Association of Psychological Science
(APS). Steele’s research centers on ste-
reotype threat, which refers to the ways
Building Theories that negative stereotypes can affect the
Integrating the Findings from Many Studies performance of people who belong to
stigmatized groups. We discuss Steele’s
As research findings accumulate from individual studies, eventually theories influential research in Chapter 7.
develop. A theory, or model, is a tentative explanation that tries to account for
diverse findings on the same topic. Note that theories are not the same as hypoth-
eses. A hypothesis is a specific question or prediction to be tested. In contrast, a
theory integrates and summarizes numerous research findings and observations
on a particular topic. Along with explaining existing results, a good theory often theory A tentative explanation that tries
generates new predictions and hypotheses that can be tested by further research to integrate and account for the relationship
(Higgins, 2004). of various findings and observations.
As you encounter different theories, try to remember that theories are tools for
explaining behavior and mental processes, not statements of absolute fact. Like any
FIGURE 1.3How to Read a Journal
Reference Using the References sec-
tion at the back of this text, you can find
the complete source for each citation
that appears in a chapter. This figure
shows the different components of a
typical journal reference. In the chapter
itself, the citation for this particular ref-
erence reads “(Manago & others, 2012).”
Year study published Authors Title of study

Copyright © 2012 by the American
Manago, Adriana M.; Taylor, Tamara; & Greenfield, Patricia M.

(2012). Me and my 400 friends: The anatomy of college students’
Psychological Association
Facebook networks, their communication patterns, and well-being.

Developmental Psychology, 48 369–380. DOI:10.1037/a0026338
Title of scientific journal Volume number Page numbers Digital object identifier

S C I E NC E V E R S U S P S E UDO S C I E NC E
What Is a Pseudoscience?
The word pseudo means “fake” or “false.” Thus, a pseudoscience the ploys below should serve as a warning sign that you need to
is a fake science. More specifically, a pseudoscience is a theory, engage your critical and scientific thinking skills.
method, or practice that promotes claims in ways that appear to be
scientific and plausible even though supporting empirical evidence Strategy 1: Testimonials rather than scientific evidence
is lacking or nonexistent (Matute & others, 2011). Surveys have Pseudosciences often use testimonials or personal anecdotes
found that pseudoscientific beliefs are common among the general as evidence to support their claims. Although they may be sin-
public (National Science Board, 2010). cere and often sound compelling, testimonials are not accept-
Do you remember Tyler from our Prologue? He wanted to able scientific evidence. Testimonials lack the basic controls
know whether a magnetic bracelet could help him concentrate used in scientific research. Many different factors, such as the
or improve his memory. We’ll use what we learned about magnet simple passage of time, could account for a particular indi-
therapy to help illustrate some of the common strategies used to vidual’s response.
promote pseudosciences.
Strategy 2: “Sciencey” presentation without scientific
Magnet Therapy: What’s the Attraction? substance
The practice of applying magnets to the body to supposedly treat Pseudoscientific claims are often peppered with scientific jargon
various conditions and ailments is called magnet therapy. Magnet or data to make their claims seem more credible, such as “these
therapy has been around for centuries. Today, Americans spend
an estimated $500 million each year on magnetic bracelets, belts,
vests, pillows, and mattresses. Worldwide, the sale of magnetic Magnets for concentration
devices is estimated to be $5 billion per year (Winemiller & oth- and pain relief? Many peo-
ers, 2005). ple use magnetic bracelets
The Internet has been a bonanza for those who market prod- to relieve pain or improve
ucts like magnet therapy. Web sites hail the “scientifically proven focus and concentration.
healing benefits” of magnet therapy for everything from improving Retired Major League base-
concentration and athletic prowess to relieving stress and cur- ball player Ivan “Pudge”
Rodriguez credited his mag-
ing Alzheimer’s disease and schizophrenia (see Johnston, 2008;
netic bracelet for helping
Parsons, 2007). Treating pain is the most commonly marketed him keep his balance on the
MLB Photos via Getty Images

use of magnet therapy. However, reviews of scientific research ballfield and relieving the
on magnet therapy consistently conclude that there is no evidence muscle aches that come
that magnets can relieve pain (National Standard, 2009: National from a rigorous schedule.
Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2009). How could such claims be
But proponents of magnet therapy, like those of other pseu- empirically tested?
doscientific claims, use very effective strategies to create the
illusion of scientifically validated products or procedures. Each of
tool, the value of a theory is determined by its usefulness. A useful theory is one
that furthers the understanding of behavior, allows testable predictions to be made,
and stimulates new research. Often, more than one theory proves to be useful in
explaining a particular area of behavior or mental processes, such as the development
of personality or the experience of emotion.
It’s also important to remember that theories often reflect the self-correcting nature of
the scientific enterprise. In other words, when new research findings challenge established
ways of thinking about a phenomenon, theories are expanded, modified, and even
replaced. Thus, as the knowledge base of psychology evolves and changes, theories
evolve and change to produce more accurate and useful explanations of behavior and
mental processes.
While the conclusions of psychology rest on empirical evidence gathered using the
pseudoscience Fake or false science that scientific method, the same is not true of pseudoscientific claims ( J. C. Smith, 2010). As
makes claims based on little or no scientific you’ll read in the Science Versus Pseudoscience box above, pseudosciences often claim
evidence. to be scientific while ignoring the basic rules of science.

Descr iptive Research 21
magnets increased biomagnetic balance 84% when worn as studies that tested the same thing but yielded results that failed to
directed!” And “sciencey” graphs and technical terms can be support the claim. This illustrates confirmation bias—the tendency
persuasive, especially to people who value scientific research, to seek out evidence that confirms an existing belief while ignoring
making information seem true (Tal & Wansink, 2014). Rather than evidence that contradicts or undermines the belief (J. C. Smith,
being taken in by scientific-looking graphs or scientific-sounding 2010). When disconfirming evidence is pointed out, it is ignored,
terms, look for the actual scientific support for the claim that is rationalized, or dismissed.
being made.
Strategy 6: Shifting the burden of proof
Strategy 3: Combining established scientific knowledge with In science, the responsibility for proving the validity of a claim rests
unfounded claims with the person making the claim. Many pseudosciences, however,
Pseudosciences often mention well-known scientific facts to shift the burden of proof to the skeptic. If you express skepticism
add credibility to their unsupported claims. For example, the about a pseudoscientific claim, the pseudoscience advocate will
magnet therapy spiel often starts by referring to the proper- challenge you to disprove their claim.
ties of the earth’s magnetic field, the fact that blood contains
minerals like iron that are attracted to magnets, and so on.
Strategy 7: Multiple outs
Unfortunately, it turns out that the iron in red blood cells is
not attracted to magnets (Ritchie & others, 2012). Established What happens when pseudosciences fail to deliver on their
scientific procedures may also be mentioned, such as magnetic promised benefits? Typically, multiple excuses are offered.
resonance imaging (MRI). For the record, MRI does not use Privately, Tyler admitted that he hadn’t noticed any improve-
static magnets, which are the type that are found in magnetic ment in his ability to concentrate while wearing the bracelet
jewelry. his girlfriend gave him. But his girlfriend insisted that he simply
hadn’t worn the bracelet long enough for the magnets to “clear
his energy field.” Other reasons given when magnet therapy
Strategy 4: Irrefutable or nonfalsifiable claims fails to work:
Consider this claim: “Magnet therapy restores the natural magnetic • Magnets act differently on different body parts.
balance required by the body’s healing process.” How could you
test that claim? An irrefutable or nonfalsifiable claim is one that can- • The magnet was placed in the wrong spot.
not be disproved or tested in any meaningful way. The irrefutable • The magnets were the wrong type, size, shape, etc.
claims of pseudosciences typically take the form of broad or vague One of our goals in this text is to help you develop your scientific
statements that are essentially meaningless. thinking skills so you’re better able to evaluate claims about behav-
ior or mental processes, especially claims that seem far-fetched
Strategy 5: Confirmation bias or too good to be true. In this chapter, we’ll look at the scientific
Scientific conclusions are based on converging evidence from mul- methods used to test hypotheses and claims. And in the Science
tiple studies, not a single study. Pseudosciences ignore this pro- Versus Pseudoscience boxes in later chapters, you’ll see how vari-
cess and instead trumpet the findings of a single study that seems ous pseudoscience claims have stood up to scientific scrutiny. We
to support their claims. In doing so, they do not mention all the other hope you enjoy this feature!
Descriptive Research
KEY THEME
Descriptive research is used to systematically observe and describe behavior.
KEY QUESTIONS
❯❯What are naturalistic observation and case study research, and why and how are they
conducted?
❯❯What is a survey, and why is random selection important in survey research?
❯❯What are the advantages and disadvantages of each descriptive method? confirmation bias The tendency to seek
out evidence that confirms an existing
Descriptive research designs include strategies for observing and describing behavior. belief while ignoring evidence that might
Using descriptive research designs, researchers can answer important questions, such as contradict or undermine the belief.
when certain behaviors take place, how often they occur, and whether they are related descriptive research Scientific
to other factors, such as a person’s age, ethnic group, or educational level. As you’ll see procedures that involve systematically
in this section, descriptive research can provide a wealth of information about behavior, observing behavior in order to describe the
especially behaviors that would be difficult or impossible to study experimentally. relationship among behaviors and events.

Naturalistic Observation: Studying

Humans and Animals in Their
Natural Settings
Left: In 1980, a single hump-
back whale was first seen whacking
the water with his tail, a foraging
technique called “lobtail feeding.”
Researchers used naturalistic obser-
vation to track the spread of this
Bruce Bennett/Getty Images

feeding technique throughout a
Jenny Allen, Ocean Alliance

humpback whale population (Allen
& others, 2013; de Waal, 2013).
Right: After media reports of
aggressive behavior by adult spec-
tators at Canadian youth hockey
games, psychologist Anne Bowker
and five other observers (2009)
systematically recorded the com-
ments of adult spectators at youth
hockey games. They found that Naturalistic Observation
two-thirds of the comments were
The Science of People- and Animal-Watching
directed at the players rather than
the officials, and that most com- When psychologists systematically observe and record behaviors as they occur in their
ments were positive and encourag- natural settings, they are using the descriptive method called naturalistic obser-
ing rather than critical. vation. Usually, researchers engaged in naturalistic observation try to avoid being
detected by their subjects, whether people or nonhuman animals. The basic goal
of naturalistic observation is to detect the behavior patterns that exist naturally—
patterns that might not be apparent in a laboratory or if the subjects knew they were
being watched.
As you might expect, psychologists very carefully define the behaviors that they
will observe and measure before they begin their research. Often, to increase the
accuracy of the observations, two or more observers are used. In some studies, obser-
Kjetil Dahle/age fotostock
vations are recorded so that the researchers can carefully analyze the details of the
behaviors being studied.
One advantage of naturalistic observation is that it allows researchers to study
human behaviors that cannot ethically be manipulated in an experiment. For
example, suppose that a psychologist wants to study bullying behavior in children. It
would not be ethical to deliberately create a situation in which one child is aggres-
Try your hand at collecting and analyzing
data by completing Lab: Naturalistic sively bullied by another child. However, it would be ethical to study bullying by
Observation. observing aggressive behavior in children on a crowded school playground (Drabick
& Baugh, 2010).
As a research tool, naturalistic observation can be used wherever patterns of
behavior can be openly observed—from the rain forests of the Amazon to restaurants,
city streets, and classrooms. Because the observations occur in the natural setting,
the results of naturalistic observation studies can be generalized to real-life situations
with more confidence than can the results of studies using artificially manipulated
or staged situations.
Case Studies
Details, Details, Details
naturalistic observation The systematic A case study is an intensive, in-depth investigation of an individual, a family, or
observation and recording of behaviors as some other social unit. Case studies involve compiling a great deal of informa-
they occur in their natural setting. tion from numerous sources to construct a detailed picture of the person. The
case study An intensive study of a single individual may be extensively interviewed, and his or her friends, family, and
individual or small group of individuals. co-workers may be interviewed as well. Psychological and biographical records,

neurological and medical records, and even school or work records may be
examined. Other sources of information can include psychological testing and survey A questionnaire or interview designed
observations of the person’s behavior. Clinical psychologists and other mental to investigate the opinions, behaviors, or
health specialists routinely use case studies to develop a complete prof ile of a characteristics of a particular group.
psychotherapy client. sample A selected segment of the
Case studies are also used in psychological research investigating rare, unusual, population used to represent the group that
or extreme conditions. These kinds of case studies often provide psychologists is being studied.
with information that can be used to help understand normal behavior. For representative sample A selected segment
example, the Chapter 3 Prologue features the story of Mike May, who partially that very closely parallels the larger population
regained his sight after being blind since early childhood. You’ll read how the being studied on relevant characteristics.
information gained from extensive testing of Mike’s brain and visual abilities
random selection Process in which
has provided insights into brain and visual development in normally sighted subjects are selected randomly from a larger
individuals. group such that every group member has an
While case studies can provide invaluable information, they also have limitations. equal chance of being included in the study.
The most important limitation is that the findings on people with rare or unusual
conditions might not apply to people in the broader population.
Surveys
(A) Always (B) Sometimes (C) Never (D) Huh? Table 1.2
How much time do you spend studying and preparing for class? Is it Comparing a Sample to the Larger Population
more, less, or about the same amount of time as other students at your U.S. 4-Year-
college? Do students in some majors study more than students in other College NSSE
majors? Population Sample
How could you find out the answers to such questions? A direct way Enrollment Status
to find out about the behavior, attitudes, and opinions of people is simply
Full-time 84% 89%
to ask them. In a survey, people respond to a structured set of ques-
tions about their experiences, beliefs, behaviors, or attitudes. One key Part-time 16% 14%
advantage offered by survey research is that information can be gathered
from a much larger group of people than is possible with other research Gender
methods. Female 56% 55%
Typically, surveys involve carefully constructed questionnaires. Question-
naires may be paper, Internet-based, computer-based, or administered in Male 44% 45%
person or over the telephone by a trained interviewer.
Surveys are seldom administered to everyone within the particular Race/Ethnicity
group or population under investigation. Instead, researchers usually select African American/Black 13% 13%
a sample—a segment of the group or population. Selecting a sample that
American Indian/Alaska native 1% 1%
is representative of the larger group is the key to getting accurate survey
results. A representative sample very closely parallels, or matches, the Asian/Asian American/Pacific
6% 5%
Islander
larger group on relevant characteristics, such as age, sex, race, marital status,
and educational level. Caucasian/White 63% 65%
How do researchers select participants so that their sample is represen- Hispanic 12% 10%
tative of the larger group? The most common strategy is to randomly select Other n/a 1%
the sample participants. Random selection means that every member
Multiracial/Multiethnic 3% 3%
of the larger group has an equal chance of being selected for inclusion
in the sample. To illustrate, let’s look at the National Survey of Student International 3% 2%
Engagement (2012), a survey of almost 300,000 U.S. college students and Source: Data from NSSE, 2012.
22,000 Canadian college students. The NSSE surveys college freshmen
and seniors about the nature and quality of their educational experience.
How closely did the NSSE sample match important
Table 1.2 shows how the randomly selected sample surveyed in the NSSE
characteristics of U.S. undergraduates enrolled at
compares to the broader population of U.S. undergraduates enrolled in four-year institutions as a whole? You can see for
four-year institutions. yourself by comparing the two columns in this table.
What did the NSSE f ind? Among other f indings, they discovered Clearly, the random selection process used in the
that f irst-year female students studied more than male students, and NSSE resulted in a sample that very closely approxi-
online students studied more than on-campus students. Engineering mated the characteristics of the larger population.

correlational study A research strategy majors spent the most time preparing for class, while business majors spent the
that allows the precise calculation of how least. The researchers also surveyed faculty about their perceptions of student
strongly related two factors are to each study habits. Interestingly, students studied less than instructors expected but
other. more than their instructors believed that they did.
correlation coefficient A numerical One potential problem with surveys and questionnaires is that people do not
indication of the magnitude and direction of always answer honestly, especially when they are asked questions about sexual
the relationship (the correlation) between activity, drug or alcohol use, or illegal activities. The tendency to respond in
two variables. socially desirable ways can be addressed in a carefully designed survey. One strat-
egy is to rephrase the question and ask for the same information in a different way
at different points during the survey. Researchers can then compare the responses
to make sure that the participant is responding honestly and consistently. There
is some evidence that participants are more likely to respond honestly to Internet
or computer-administered surveys than to surveys that are administered in person
(Dennis & Li, 2007).
Correlational Studies
Looking at Relationships and Making Predictions: ❯
Can Eating Curly Fries Make You Smarter?
KEY THEME
Correlational studies show how strongly two factors are related.
KEY QUESTIONS
❯❯What is a correlation coefficient?
❯❯What is the difference between a positive correlation and a negative correlation?
❯❯Why can’t correlational studies be used to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships?
Along with answering the who, what, where, and when questions, the data gathered by
descriptive research techniques can be analyzed to show how various factors are related.
A correlational study examines how strongly two variables are related to, or associ-
ated with, each other. Correlations can be used to analyze the data gathered by any type
of descriptive method, and are also used to analyze the results of experiments.
To illustrate, let’s look at a correlational study conducted by psychologists Marissa K.
Hartwig and John Dunlosky (2012). Hartwig and Dunlosky were interested in identify-
ing the study habits most strongly linked to academic success. They surveyed 324 col-
lege students at a large state university. They used self-reported GPA as the operational
definition of academic achievement. Figure 1.4 shows some of the survey results. Once
the data were collected, Hartwig and Dunlosky used a statistical procedure to calculate
a figure called a correlation coefficient.
A correlation coefficient is a numerical indicator of the strength of the relation-
ship between two factors. A correlation coefficient always falls in the range from
100%
FIGURE 1.4 Study Strategies and Grade-Point 90
Average The graph shows the percentages of students
endorsing practice testing
80
Percentage of students
reporting regular use of self-testing, according to grade- 70

point average (GPA). The most common reason for self- 60
testing was to determine how well information had been
50
learned.
40
Source: Data from Hartwig & Dunlosky, 2012.
30
20
10
0
1.7–2.1 2.2–2.6 2.7–3.1 3.2–3.6 3.7–4.0
GPA GPA GPA GPA GPA

−1.00 to +1.00. The correlation coefficient has two parts—the number and the sign. positive correlation A finding that two
The number indicates the strength of the relationship, and the sign indicates the direc- factors vary systematically in the same
tion of the relationship between the two variables. direction, increasing or decreasing together.
More specifically, the closer a correlation coefficient is to 1.00, whether it is negative correlation A finding that two
positive or negative, the stronger the correlation or association is between the two factors vary systematically in opposite
factors. Hence, a correlation coefficient of +.90 or −.90 represents a very strong directions, one increasing as the other
association, meaning that the two factors almost always occur together. A correla- decreases.
tion coefficient of +.10 or −.10 represents a very weak correlation, meaning that
the two factors seldom occur together. (Correlation coefficients are discussed in Will Eating Curly Fries Make You
greater detail in Appendix A on statistics, at the back of this book.) Intelligent? British psychologists
Notice that correlation coefficients do not function like the algebraic number Michal Kosinski and his colleagues
line. A correlation of −.80 represents a stronger relationship than does a correlation (2013) studied 58,000 Facebook users
of +.10. The plus or minus sign in a correlation coefficient simply tells you the direc- who had agreed to share their prefer-
tion of the relationship between the two variables. ences, and found some interesting
A positive correlation is one in which the two factors vary in the same direc- correlations between Facebook “likes”
tion. That is, the two factors increase or decrease together. For example, Hartwig and personality traits. Some asso-
and Dunlosky (2012) found that there was a strong positive correlation between ciations were not surprising, such as
a strong association between being
GPA and use of self-testing as a study strategy. That is, as the use of self-testing
outgoing and liking dancing. But what
increased, so did GPA. Other study strategies, such as using flashcards, rereading, or
about the strong positive correlation
highlighting, were not associated with an increase in GPA. Wondering why not? between intelligence and liking curly
Stay tuned—we’ll discuss that very question in the Psych for Your Life section at fries and Morgan Freeman’s voice? Can
the end of the chapter. you conclude that eating curly fries or
In contrast, a negative correlation is one in which the two variables move in listening to Morgan Freeman causes high
opposite directions: As one factor decreases, the other increases. In a study investigat- intelligence? No. Even though a strong
ing the relationship between multitasking and GPA, Reynol Junco and Shelia Cotten positive correlation exists, you cannot
(2012) found that there was a negative correlation between time spent sending text conclude that one causes the other.
messages while studying and GPA: As time spent texting while studying increased, James McQuillan/Getty Images
GPA decreased.
What can we conclude about the relationship between academic achievement
and sending texts while studying? Or GPA and self-testing? Does the evidence
allow us to conclude that texting while studying causes a decrease in grade-point
average? Or that using self-testing as a study strategy causes people to achieve
higher GPAs?
Not necessarily. Consider the negative correlation between GPA and time
spent texting while studying. It could be that a third variable was responsible
for the associations between texting and GPA. Perhaps students who send texts
while studying do so because they lack academic motivation, or are uninter-
ested in the subject matter. In other words, it might be that a lack of academic
motivation or interest, rather than sending texts, was actually responsible for
the lower grades.
Similarly, consider the positive correlation between self-testing and GPA. We can-
not conclude that using self-tests in itself causes an increase in GPA. It’s entirely possible
that people who are more academically motivated are also more likely to actively test
their mastery of class material, which after all, takes more effort than simply reread-
ing or highlighting material in a textbook. Thus, it could be that highly motivated
students are more likely to use self-testing as a study strategy than students who are
less motivated.
Here is the critical point: Even if two factors are very strongly correlated, correlation
does not necessarily indicate causality. A correlation tells you only that two factors seem to
be related or that they co-vary in a systematic way. Although two factors may be very
strongly correlated, correlational studies cannot be used to demonstrate a true cause-
and-effect relationship. As you’ll see in the next section, the experimental method is
the only scientific strategy that can provide compelling evidence of a cause-and-effect
relationship between two variables.
❯❯Test your understanding of The Scientific Method and Descriptive
Research Methods with .

experimental research A method of

investigation used to demonstrate cause-
and-effect relationships by purposely
Experimental Research
manipulating one factor thought to produce KEY THEME
change in another factor. The experimental method is used to demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship
between two variables.
independent variable The purposely
manipulated factor thought to produce KEY QUESTIONS
change in an experiment; also called the ❯❯What roles do the independent variable and dependent variable play in an experiment?
treatment variable.
❯❯What is the testing effect?
dependent variable The factor that is ❯❯How can experimental controls help minimize the effects of confounding variables?
observed and measured for change in an
experiment, thought to be influenced by In this chapter, we’ve noted a number of factors that are associated with higher or
the independent variable; also called the lower college grades. But all of these factors—such as time spent sending texts and on
outcome variable. Facebook—are correlational, meaning that while they are linked, they do not neces-
confounding variable A factor or variable sarily indicate that the two factors are causally related.
other than the ones being studied that, if In contrast to descriptive research and correlational studies, experimental research
not controlled, could affect the outcome of is used to demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship between changes in one vari-
an experiment; also called an extraneous able and the effect that is produced on another variable. Conducting an experiment
variable. involves deliberately varying one factor, which is called the independent variable,
random assignment The process of sometimes called the treatment variable. The researcher then measures the changes, if
assigning participants to experimental any, that are produced in a second factor, called the dependent variable, also called
conditions so that all participants have an the outcome variable. The dependent variable is so named because changes in it “depend
equal chance of being assigned to any of on” variations in the independent variable.
the conditions or groups in the study.
To the greatest degree possible, all other conditions in the experiment are kept
control group or control condition In an exactly the same for all participants. Thus, when the data are analyzed, any changes
experiment, the group of participants who that are measured in the dependent variable can be attributed to the deliberate
are exposed to all experimental conditions, manipulation of the independent variable. In this way, an experiment can provide
except the independent variable; the group
evidence of a cause-and-effect relationship between the independent and dependent
against which changes in the experimental
group are compared.
variables.
In designing experiments, psychologists try to anticipate and control for con-
experimental group or experimental founding variables. Also called extraneous variables, these factors are not the focus
condition In an experiment, the group
of the experiment. However, confounding variables might produce inaccurate
of participants who are exposed to all
experimental conditions, including the
experimental results by influencing changes in the dependent variable. Confound-
independent variable. ing variables in a psychology experiment could include unwanted variability in such
factors as age, gender, ethnic background, race, health, occupation, personal habits,
education, and so on.
To illustrate how experimental research works, let’s look at a topic of interest to
most college students: What types of study strategies are most effective?
In most educational settings, learning is thought to take place during study,
instruction, and practice. Tests, in contrast, are neutral experiences and simply
assess what has been learned. But some studies seemed to suggest that being tested
on new information helped students learn and remember it better than simply
studying it (see Roediger & Butler, 2011). Psychologists Henry Roediger and Jef-
frey Karpicke (2006) set out to investigate the effects of testing on learning and
memory.
Experimental Design
Studying the Effects of Testing
How could you design an experiment to show a difference between learning due
to studying and learning due to testing? Roediger and Karpicke (2006) designed an
experiment that compared the effects of repeated testing with the effects of repeated
study periods. They predicted that students who repeatedly took tests after studying
would have better long-term memory of the new information than students who
repeatedly studied, but were not tested on, the same material. The hypothesis, then, was
that “repeated testing improves learning more than repeated studying.”

Exper imenta l Research 27
The participants were 60 college under-

FIGURE 1.5The Testing Effect
graduates, aged 18 to 24. The researchers
Experimental Design
used random assignment to assign participants
to one of two groups: either the experimental
group or the control group. Random assign-
ment means that all the participants have an Participants:
equal chance of being assigned to any of the 60 undergraduates
experimental conditions. Random assign- ages 18–24
ment helps ensure that any potential differ-
ences among the participants are spread out
evenly across all experimental conditions. Random assignment
Random assignment also helps minimize
the possibility of bias because the same cri-
teria are used to assign all participants to the
different experimental conditions.
In any well-designed experiment, there Control group Experimental group
is at least one control group. The control REPEATED STUDY REPEATED TESTING
(30 participants) (30 participants)
group serves as a baseline against which
changes in the experimental group can be
compared. In a typical experiment, the par-
ticipants assigned to the control group go Study prose passage Study prose passage
through all the experimental phases but are for 5 minutes for 5 minutes
not exposed to the independent variable.
Only the participants in the experimental
group are exposed to the independent vari- Study prose passage
Test
able. In this study, the independent variable for 5 minutes
was repeated testing. The dependent variable was
the score earned on a final test.
Here’s how the experiment was con- Study prose passage Commercial Eye/Getty Images Test
ducted. All of the participants were given for 5 minutes
a short prose passage to study. Participants
in the control group read the passage for five
minutes, and took a two-minute break.
Study prose passage
They then studied the passage again for five for 5 minutes
Test
minutes before taking another two-minute
break. They repeated this process for a total
of four consecutive study periods. Note that
this is the standard test-preparation method: One Week Interval
to repeatedly study the same material until
you feel certain that you have mastered it.
Participants in the experimental group were
given the same prose passage to learn. They Final test on Final test on
were also allotted five minutes to study the prose passage prose passage
passage, and then took a two-minute break.
But rather than restudying the passage, they
took a test on the material: They were given
a blank sheet of paper and were allowed ten Data analyzed
minutes to write down as much information
from the prose passage as they could remember. After another two-
minute break, without studying the material again, they were given
the same test, followed by a two-minute break. This procedure was Results reported
followed for a total of one study period and three test periods. Figure
1.5 shows the setup of the experiment.
At the end of the session, all of the participants filled out a short
questionnaire asking them to predict how well they would remember
the material in a week. A week later, all participants were tested on
the material.

100%
FIGURE 1.6Effects of Testing on Retention:
Percentage of information
Experimental Results 80
recalled correctly
One week after the experimental sessions concluded, 61%
60
participants were tested to see how much they retained
from material they had studied. As you can see, the par- 40%
40
ticipants who were repeatedly tested remembered much
more of the information than the students who had
20
repeatedly studied the same material.
Source: Data from Roediger & Karpicke, 2006. 0
Control condition: Experimental condition:
Repeated study Repeated testing
Retention tested after one week
How do you think the two groups would compare on a test of their retention
My t h Science of the material a week later? Conventional wisdom would suggest that the control
group members, who studied the material in four periods for a total of twenty
Is it true that reading something minutes, would have learned the material much better than the participants in the
over and over is the most effec-
experimental group, who, after all, had only studied the material for a total of five
tive way to prepare for a test?
minutes.
Figure 1.6 shows the results on the test one week later. Despite having studied
the material only one-fourth as long as the control group, the experimental group
trounced the control group: They remembered 61% of the material in the passage
while the control group remembered only 40%. Interestingly, the control group
participants were much more confident of their ability to remember the information
than the experimental group.
Were you surprised by the results? In fact, the basic results have been replicated
by many different researchers (see Bjork & others, 2013; Rowland, 2014). Multiple
studies have supported what has been dubbed the testing effect: the finding that
practicing retrieval of information from memory produces better retention than
restudying the same information for an equivalent amount of time. In other words,
testing—rather than simply being a neutral assessment of what has been learned—is
a powerful learning tool in its own right (Carpenter, 2012; Roediger & Nestojiko,
2015).
We’ll discuss some of the reasons for the testing effect in Chapter 6, Memory. In
Psych for Your Life at the end of this chapter, we’ll describe some of the other ways in
which the testing effect has been explored. And, we’ll discuss additional ways in which
you can use psychological research to improve your own memory for new information.
testing effect The finding that practicing

retrieval of information from memory Experimental Controls
produces better retention than restudying
the same information for an equivalent Some experiments involve extra controls to increase the reliability of their find-
amount of time. ings. One important safeguard is the double-blind technique, which is often used
when researchers are testing the effectiveness of a procedure or drug treatment. In a
double-blind technique An experimental
control in which neither the participants
double-blind study, both the participants and the researchers interacting with them
nor the researchers interacting with the are blind, or unaware of the treatment or condition to which the participants have
participants are aware of the group or been assigned.
condition to which the participants have Using a double-blind technique helps guard against the possibility that the researcher
been assigned. inadvertently becomes an extraneous or confounding variable in the study. This can
demand characteristics In a research happen when a researcher, without realizing it, displays demand characteristics.
study, subtle cues or signals expressed by These are subtle cues or signals that can bias the outcome of the study by communicat-
the researcher that communicate the kind ing the behavior or response that is expected of the participants. A behavior as subtle as
of response or behavior that is expected the researcher slightly smiling or frowning when dealing with some participants, but
from the participant. not others, could bias the outcome of a study.

Such studies also often involve the use of

a placebo, which is a so-called “sugar pill” Can Ginkgo Biloba Enhance Your
or other inactive substance or procedure. Mental Abilities? The herbal supple-
Although it is inactive, a placebo can pro- ment ginkgo biloba is marketed as a
duce real effects (see Wager & Atlas, 2015). “cognitive enhancer” that supposedly
A placebo effect is any change that can improves memory, alertness, and con-
be attributed to beliefs and expectations centration, especially in older adults.
However, studies of ginkgo don’t support
rather than to an actual drug, treatment, or
those claims (see Canter & Ernst, 2007;
procedure.
Daffner, 2010; Snitz & others, 2009).
For example, one student in our class
asked us whether we believed that the herb
ginkgo biloba could improve memory. To
test that notion, psychologist Paul Solomon
and his colleagues (2002) used a placebo
in a double-blind study to test whether
ginkgo biloba improved memory and con-
centration in older adults. Participants in
Joe Raedle/Getty Images

the experimental group took the manufac-
turer’s recommended daily dosage of ginkgo
biloba for six weeks, while those in the
control group took an identical dosage of
placebo capsules.
The researchers who interacted with the
participants did not know which participants received the real and which received
the fake ginkgo biloba. The researchers who did know the group assignments did not
interact with or evaluate the participants. Memory and other cognitive abilities were
assessed at the beginning and end of the six-week study.
Can you predict the results of the ginkgo biloba experiment? At the end of the
six-week study, the test scores of both groups rose. However, there were no sig-
nificant differences between the improvement in the ginkgo biloba and placebo
groups. So why did both groups improve? The researchers concluded that it was
probably due to the practice effect. The participants’ experience with the tests—the
practice they got by simply taking the mental ability tests twice—was the most
likely reason that test scores improved in both groups. This experiment illustrates
the importance of the control group: Without a control group to compare, the
improvement in the experimental group might have been attributed to the drug.
But since the control group participants also improved, there must have been
another explanation.
Limitations of Experiments and Variations

in Experimental Design
A well-designed and carefully executed experiment can provide convincing evidence
of a cause-and-effect relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
But experiments do have limitations. Because experiments are often conducted in
highly controlled laboratory situations, they are sometimes criticized for having little
to do with actual behavior. That is, the results may not generalize well, meaning that placebo A fake substance, treatment, or
the results cannot be applied to real-world situations or to more general populations procedure that has no known direct effects.
beyond the participants in the study. To minimize this, experiments are some- placebo effect Any change attributed to
times carried out in natural settings, rather than in a laboratory. A second potential a person’s beliefs and expectations rather
limitation is that the phenomena the researchers want to study may be impossible or than to an actual drug, treatment, or
unethical to control experimentally. procedure.
But researchers are sometimes able to take advantage of naturally occurring events natural experiment A study investigating
or conditions. In a natural experiment, researchers carefully observe and measure the effects of a naturally occurring event on
the impact of a naturally occurring event or condition on their study participants the research participants.

Using a Natural Experiment to Study

the “Freshman Fifteen” Research shows
that many college freshman do gain
weight, although it is typically closer to
Suzanne DeChillo/The New York Times/Redux

five pounds than fifteen (Holm-Denoma
& others, 2008). Kandice Kapinos and
Olga Yakusheva (2011) used a natural
experiment to study the effect of envi-
ronmental factors on weight gain in
college freshmen. Not surprisingly, fresh-
man students who lived in a dorm with
an on-site snack bar or cafeteria were
more likely to eat more and gain weight
than freshmen who had to walk across
campus for meals and snacks.
(Rutter, 2008). Although not true experiments, psychologists can use natural experi-
ments to study the effects of disasters, epidemics, or other events.
Sometimes natural experiments involve everyday settings. Psychologists Kandice
Kapinos and Olga Yakusheva (2011) were interested in better understanding the
relationship between environmental factors and weight gain. Previous research had
shown that environmental factors, such as high concentrations of fast-food restau-
rants, are correlated with the average weight of nearby residents (Inagami & others,
2009). However, since the research was correlational, it wasn’t possible to conclude
that proximity of fast-food restaurants caused weight gain. It could be that people with
Think Like a Scientist unhealthy eating habits were more likely to choose to live in neighborhoods with easy
Could you have been part of an experiment access to fast food.
without realizing it? Go to LaunchPad: Of course, researchers can’t randomly assign large numbers of participants to long-
Resources to Think Like a Scientist about term living situations. But Kapinos and Yakusheva identified a naturally occurring
Contagious Online Emotions.
situation in which people are randomly assigned to housing—college dormitories.
College freshmen do tend to gain weight during their first year away from home—the
so-called “freshman fifteen”—although the weight gain is typically closer to five pounds
(Holm-Denoma & others, 2008). Kapinos and Yakusheva took advantage of the naturally
occurring conditions on their own college campus by comparing weight changes in
freshmen who lived in dorms with on-site cafeterias and snack bars with weight changes
in freshman who lived in dorms that did not have on-site food services. Since freshmen
were randomly assigned to the dormitories, the researchers could safely assume that there
wasn’t some other factor that might cause differences between the two groups.
What did Kapinos and Yakusheva (2011) find? Female students who were assigned
to dormitories with on-site dining facilities gained more weight and exercised
less than students who were assigned to dormitories without food services. Male
students assigned to dormitories with food services reported eating more meals and
more snacks, but did not report gaining weight. Kapinos and Yakusheva (2011)
concluded that campus design did play a significant role in influencing healthy—and
unhealthy—behaviors in college students.
Before leaving the topic of research methods, one contemporary trend deserves
special mention: the increasing use of brain-imaging techniques in virtually every
area of psychology. To help highlight the importance of neuroscience, every chapter
includes a special “Focus on Neuroscience” feature. This chapter’s Focus on Neu-
critical thinking The active process of
roscience explores brain-imaging techniques and discusses their increasing use in
minimizing preconceptions and biases psychological research (see pp. 34–35).
while evaluating evidence, determining the This brief introduction to research methods will give you some idea of how psy-
conclusions that can reasonably be drawn chologists conduct research. But we hope it also illustrates some of the ways in which
from evidence, and considering alternative scientists—and others—evaluate claims and evidence. In the Critical Thinking box
explanations for research findings or other “Think Like a Scientist,” we offer several suggestions to help you evaluate claims that
phenomena. you encounter both inside and outside the classroom.

C r i t i c al Thin k in g
How to Think Like a Scientist

Do violent video games make people aggressive? Are some people But is such a conclusion justified? No. You cannot conclude
“right-brained” and others “left-brained”? What’s the best way to that the correlation found between obesity and advertisements
lose weight? Do “educational” DVDs and TV shows improve chil- occurred because the higher prevalence of advertising caused
dren’s language abilities or help them learn how to read? higher rates of obesity. The evidence does not support that con-
How can you evaluate the claims you encounter? Both in class clusion. In fact, it could just as likely be that advertisers are more
and out, it’s important to engage in critical thinking, actively ques- likely to place ads for food in areas where they believe there are
tioning statements rather than blindly accepting them. higher numbers of obese people (Chabris & Simons, 2013).
Critical thinkers are open to new information, ideas, and claims. Similarly, remember that testimonials are not evidence (Coltheart
However, this open-mindedness is tempered by a healthy sense & MacArthur, 2012). Distinguish between empirical evidence that
of skepticism (J. C. Smith, 2010). The critical thinker consistently can be objectively observed, measured, and shared—and private
asks, “What evidence supports this claim?” opinions, based on feelings or personal experience. For example,
In this chapter, we’ve detailed the ways that psychologists con- the fact that a relative’s child had a terrible experience in day care
duct research, including the different ways they test hypotheses. is not evidence that day care is generally bad for all children.
You can think of the claims you encounter in print or in online 3. Consider Alternative Explanations
media, on TV shows, or in conversation as hypotheses, too. In Especially if a claim is highly unusual, seems to contradict ac-
other words, when you encounter an idea or statement that is cepted scientific theories, or has no plausible explanation, consider
presented as factual, try to think like a scientist. alternative explanations. A claim demonstrating improvement in a
Like a scientist, you can follow these four steps to determine the condition or skill could, in fact, have many different explanations.
validity of a particular claim: For example, suppose a friend’s cold disappeared after he took a
1. Identify the Claim special herbal supplement recommended by another friend. The
Some claims are so vague that they are impossible to be tested improvement could be due to the herbs. But it could also be due
scientifically. For example, take the statement that “you use only to the placebo effect (page 29) or to the natural healing that often
10% of your brain.” Superficially, it sounds convincing, but can you takes place with the simple passage of time. A child’s improve-
imagine an experiment that would actually test this claim? Try to ment in paying attention in class might be due to the new, sugar-
restate the claim in terms of a hypothesis that could be supported restricted diet she started. But it could also be the result of normal
or disproved by empirical evidence. How would you define the maturation, or the extra attention she received from her teacher
variables that could be objectively measured? after her parents expressed their concerns.
2. Evaluate the Evidence 4. Consider the Source of the Research or Claim
As you have learned, the scientific method includes key safe- Typically, scientific research is reported in a peer-reviewed sci-
guards in experimental design, such as random assignment, the entific journal or at an academic conference before the results are
presence of a control group, and researchers who are “blind” released to the media. So, when research is reported in the popu-
to participants’ conditions. So when evidence is offered in sup- lar media or on the Internet, consider the source of the research.
port of a particular position, scrutinize it and look for those basic While publication in a scientific journal is no guarantee that the
safeguards. results will prove valid over time, you can at least be certain that
Consider also the nature the research has been carefully evaluated by other scientists in
My t h Science of the evidence that may be the field. When a claim has no apparent ties to legitimate educa-
offered. When words like tional or scientific enterprises, you should be especially cautious.
Is it true that when two behav- “link,” “tie,” or “association” In general, it’s worth considering the researchers’ motives. If the
iors are “linked,” “related,” or are used, the evidence is prob- people or company making the claim have the potential to profit
tend to occur together it’s safe ably correlational, rather than from its use, the source may not be objective.
to assume that one behavior experimental. But remember Whether the claims you encounter come from friends, instruc-
caused the other? the distinction between cor- tors, or pundits, remember these four steps—and think like a
relation and causation. As you scientist before blindly accepting them.
have learned, just because two events are correlated does not mean
that they are causally linked. For example, consider a recent study CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS
that found a positive correlation between the number of outdoor
signs and billboards advertising food and non-alcoholic beverages • Why might other people want to discourage you from thinking
and the rate of obesity in particular urban neighborhoods (Lesser critically?
& others, 2013). As the number of outdoor food ads increased, so • In what situations is it probably most difficult or challenging for
did the obesity rate. One Internet headline read, “Billboards Make you to exercise critical thinking skills? Why?
You Fat!” Some commentators advised that policy makers consider • What can you do or say to encourage others to use critical think-
restricting outdoor food advertising as a way of reducing obesity in ing in evaluating questionable claims or assertions?
urban areas.

F OCU S ON N E URO S C I E NC E
Psychological Research Using Brain Imaging

Brain-scan images have become so commonplace in news articles
Radiology & Neurology/Washington

Dr. Marcus E. Raichle, Professor of
and popular magazines that it’s easy to forget just how revolution-
University School of Medicine

ary brain-imaging technology has been in the field of psychology
(Mather & others, 2013a, b). Here, we’ll look at three commonly
used brain-imaging techniques and examine how they’re used in
psychological research.
Positron emission tomography, abbreviated PET, is based on
the fact that increased activity in a particular brain region is
associated with increased blood flow and energy consumption.
Unpracticed Practiced
A small amount of radioactively tagged glucose, oxygen, or other
substance is injected into the person’s bloodstream. Then, the Positron Emission Tomography (PET) PET scans provide color-
person lies in a PET scanner while performing some mental task. coded images of the brain’s activity. This example shows the
For several minutes, the PET scanner tracks the amounts of radio- comparison between subjects learning a new language task (left)
and performing the language task after it has been well learned
active substance used in thousands of different brain regions. A
(right). Red and yellow colors highlight areas with the highest
computer analyzes the data, producing color-coded images of the level of activity, while green and blue colors indicate lower levels
brain’s activity. of brain activity. As you can see, the process of practicing and
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) does not involve invasive learning a new language task involves more and different brain
procedures such as injections of radioactive substances. Instead, areas before becoming established.
while the person lies inside a magnetic tube, powerful but harm-
less magnetic fields bombard the brain. A computer analyzes the For example, MRI scans were used to compare London taxi driv-
electromagnetic signals generated by brain-tissue molecules in ers with matched participants who were not taxi drivers (Maguire
response to the magnetic fields. The result is a series of digital & others, 2000, 2006). In order to be licensed, London taxi drivers
images, each a detailed “slice” of the brain’s structures. MRI scans are required to have an encyclopedic knowledge of the city streets.
are routinely used to produce detailed images of other body parts, The MRI scans showed that a brain structure involved in spatial
such as joints, spine, or organs. memory, the hippocampus, was significantly larger in the experi-
Functional MRI (fMRI) combines the ability to produce a detailed enced taxi drivers than in the control subjects (see MRI scans on
image of the brain’s structures with the capacity to track the the next page). And, the size of the hippocampus was also posi-
brain’s activity or functioning (K. Smith, 2012). While the person tively correlated with the length of time the participants had been
lies in the MRI scanner, a powerful computer tracks the electro- driving taxis in London: The longer the individual had been driving
magnetic signals that are generated by changes in the brain’s a taxi, the larger the hippocampus (Woollett & others, 2009). In
metabolic activity, such as increased blood flow to a particular Chapter 2, Neuroscience and Behavior, we’ll look at how the brain
brain region. By measuring the ebb and flow of oxygenated blood changes in response to learning and environmental influences.
in the brain, an fMRI produces a series of scans that show detailed Brain-imaging technology can also be used in experimental
moment-by-moment “movies” of the brain’s changing activity in research, such as a study of the effects of sleep deprivation that
specific structures or regions. we’ll discuss in Chapter 4 (see pages 146–147). In a typical experi-
In the study of brain activity, fMRI has several advantages over ment, brain scans are taken while research participants are exposed
PET scan technology. Because fMRI is a noninvasive procedure to the experimental treatment or task. These scans are compared to
and the magnetic waves are harmless, research participants can scans taken of control group participants. The differences between
safely undergo repeated fMRI scans. Also, fMRI produces a much the two sets of scans are assumed to be due to the experimental
sharper image than PET scans and can detail much smaller brain treatment or condition. When multiple participants are compared,
structures. Another advantage of fMRI is that it provides a picture researchers combine results to produce a composite scan showing
of brain activity averaged over seconds rather than the several the average differences among the experimental groups.
minutes required by PET scans.
Limitations of Brain-Imaging Studies
How Psychologists Use Brain-Imaging Technology Images are becoming even more detailed as brain-imaging technol-
Brain imaging is used for both descriptive and experimental ogy advances. Nevertheless, brain-imaging research has several
research. A descriptive study using brain scans might compare limitations (Miller, 2010; Satel & Lilienfeld, 2013). When you consider
the brain structure or functioning of one carefully defined group of the results of brain-imaging studies, including those presented in
people with another. this textbook, keep the following points in mind:
positron emission tomography (PET) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

scan An invasive imaging technique that A noninvasive imaging technique that
provides color-coded images of brain produces highly detailed images of the
activity by tracking the brain’s use of a body’s structures and tissues, using
radioactively tagged compound, such as electromagnetic signals generated by the
glucose, oxygen, or a drug. body in response to magnetic fields.

Reprinted with permission of Wiley-Liss, Inc.,

a subsidiary of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Hippocampus, Vol. 16, 2006, p. 1097.
Science 313 (2006):1402. Reprinted with permission from AAAS

Owen, A.M., et al. “Detecting awareness in the vegetative state.”
Patient
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) MRI scans produce a

highly detailed image of the brain, showing “slices” of the brain
from different angles. The yellow dots highlight the brain region
that was significantly larger in experienced London taxi drivers,
known for their encyclopedic memory of London streets, as com-
pared to control subjects (Maguire & others, 2000, 2006). This
region, called the hippocampus, is known to be involved in form-
ing new memories. This landmark study provided solid evidence
for the once-revolutionary idea that structures in the adult brain Controls
change in response to experience and learning.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
fMRI combines highly detailed images of brain structures
1. Brain-imaging studies usually involve a small number of subjects. with moment-by-moment tracking of brain activity. Here,
Because of the limited availability and the high cost of the fMRI was used to record the brain activity of a 23-year-
technology, many brain-imaging studies have fewer than a old woman who had been unresponsive to external
dozen participants. With any research involving a small num- stimuli for five months following an auto accident (Owen
& others, 2006). Researchers asked her to first imagine
ber of participants, caution must be exercised in generalizing
playing tennis, and then to imagine walking through her
results to a wider population (Button & others, 2013). house. The scans above compare her brain activity to
2. Brain imaging studies tend to focus on simple aspects of behavior. Even that of normal volunteers (“controls”) performing the
seemingly simple tasks involve the smooth coordination of multiple same tasks. In both the patient and the controls, regions
brain regions. As Jerome Kagan (2008) observes, “An event as known to be involved in movement and spatial navigation
simple as the unexpected sound were active. The fMRI scans confirmed that the patient
was conscious of her surroundings and able to respond to
My t h S c i e n c e of a whistle activates 24 different spoken commands.
brain areas.” Thus, it’s naïve to think
Is it true that brain scans
that complex psychological or be-
can pinpoint the exact,
havioral functions can be mapped
single part of the brain that
to a single brain center (Coltheart, useful, brain-activity snapshots of a particular behavior must
causes a complex behavior?
2013; Mather & others, 2013b). be accurately interpreted within the context of existing psy-
3. Brain imaging may not increase understanding of a psychological chological knowledge about the behavior (Beck, 2010; Kihl-
process. For example, although brain imaging might point to strom, 2010).
a particular brain structure as being involved in, say, fear or
romantic love, knowing this may not advance our understand- Looking at Brain-Scan Images
ing of the psychological experience of fear or romantic love What should you notice when you look at the brain-scan images
(Decety & Cacioppo, 2010). in this text? First, read the text description so you understand the
4. Brain imaging is not necessarily a more “scientific” explanation. task or condition being measured. Second, read the brain-scan
As psychologist Paul Bloom (2006) points out, “Functional caption for specific details or areas to notice. Third, carefully
MRI seems more like ‘real’ science than many of the other compare the treatment scan with the control scan if both are
things that psychologists are up to. It has all the trappings shown. Fourth, keep the limitations of brain-scan technology
of work with great laboratory credibility: big, expensive, and in mind. Finally, remember that human experience is much too
potentially dangerous machines, hospitals and medical cen- complex to be captured by a single snapshot of brain activity
ters, and a lot of people in white coats.” To be truly (Miller, 2010).
functional magnetic resonance imaging

(fMRI) A noninvasive imaging technique
that uses magnetic fields to map brain
activity by measuring changes in the brain’s
blood flow and oxygen levels.

comparative psychology The branch of

psychology that studies the behavior of
different animal species.
Ethics in Psychological Research
KEY THEME
Psychological research conducted in the United States is subject to ethical guidelines
developed by the American Psychological Association (APA).
KEY QUESTIONS
❯❯What are five key provisions of the APA ethics code for research involving humans?
❯❯Why do psychologists sometimes conduct research with nonhuman animal subjects?
You might wonder what would happen if you were to volunteer to participate in a
psychology experiment or study. Are psychologists allowed to manipulate or control
you without your knowledge or consent? Could a psychologist force you to reveal
your innermost secrets? Could he or she administer electric shocks?
The answer to all of these questions is “no.” The American Psychological Associa-
tion (APA) has developed a strict code of ethics for conducting research with both
human and animal subjects. This code is contained in a document called Ethical
My th Science Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (APA, 2002, 2010). You can download a
Is it true that psychologists are copy of the document at the Web site www.apa.org/ethics.
not allowed to trick you into tak- In general, psychologists must respect the dignity and welfare of participants. Psy-
ing part in a study? chologists cannot deceptively expose research participants to conditions that might
cause either physical or emotional harm. At most institutions, any psychological
research using human or animal subjects is scrutinized by an institutional review
board before approval is granted (Fisher & Vacanti-Shova, 2012).
Here are highlights of five key provisions in the most recent APA ethical principles
regulating research with human participants:
• I nformed consent and voluntary participation. The psychologist must
inform the participants of the purpose of the research, including significant
From the film Obedience (c) 1968 by Stanley Milgram, (c)renewed
1993 by Alexandra Milgram; and distributed by Alexander Street
factors that might influence a person’s willingness to participate in the study,

such as potential risks, discomfort, or unpleasant emotional experiences. The
psychologist must also explain that participants are free to decline to partici-
pate or to withdraw from the research at any time.
• Students as research participants. When research participation is a course require-
ment or an opportunity for extra credit, the student must be given the choice of
an alternative activity to fulfill the course requirement or earn extra credit.
• The use of deception. Psychologists can use deceptive techniques as part of the
study only when two conditions have been met: (1) when it is not feasible to use
alternatives that do not involve deception and (2) when the potential findings jus-
tify the use of deception because of their scientific, educational, or applied value.
• Confidentiality of information. In their writing, lectures, or other public
Press.
forums, psychologists may not disclose personally identifiable information

about research participants.
The Shocking Treatment of Research • Information about the study and debriefing. All participants must be provided
Participants? Could a psychologist ethi- with the opportunity to obtain information about the nature, results, and conclu-
cally conduct an experiment in which sions of the research. Psychologists are also obligated to debrief the participants and
research participants were instructed to to correct any misconceptions that participants may have had about the research.
shock another person for giving incorrect
answers on a memory test? This photo is What about research involving nonhuman animal subjects? Only a fraction of
taken from an actual psychology experi- psychological research studies conducted in a given year involve animal subjects—
ment conducted by Stanley Milgram in typically about 7 to 8 percent. About 90 percent of those studies involve rodents
the early 1960s. To find out more, stay or birds, typically rats, mice, and pigeons. Why are animals used in psychological
tuned: We discuss Milgram’s research in research? A few of the main reasons are listed below.
detail in Chapter 11, Social Psychology.
1. Many psychologists are interested in the study of animal behavior for its
Today’s psychologists are required to
own sake.
follow stringent ethical guidelines devel-
oped by the American Psychological The branch of psychology that focuses on the study of the behavior of nonhuman
Association. animals is called comparative psychology. Some psychologists also do research
in animal cognition, which is the study of animal learning, memory, thinking, and

Psych for Your Life 35
language (Wasserman & Zentall, 2006). And research is also pursued for
its potential to the animals themselves. For example, psychological research
on animal behavior has been used to improve the quality of life of animals
in zoos and to increase the likelihood of survival of endangered species in
the wild (Blumstein & Fernandez-Juricic, 2010; Goulart & others, 2009).
2. A nimal subjects are sometimes used for research that could
not feasibly be conducted on human subjects.
There are many similarities between human and animal behavior, but
animal behavior tends to be less complex. Thus, it is sometimes easier to
identify basic principles of behavior by studying animals. Psychologists can
also observe some animals throughout their entire lifespan. To track such
changes in humans would take decades of research. Finally, psychologists can
exercise greater control over animal subjects than over human subjects. If
Zhang Jun Xinhua News Agency/Newscom.

necessary, researchers can control every aspect of the animals’ environment
and even their genetic background (Ator, 2005).
The use of nonhuman animal subjects in psychological research is also
governed by specific ethical guidelines (APA, 2011; Perry & Dess, 2012).The
American Psychological Association publishes the Guidelines for Ethical Con-
duct in the Care and Use of Animals, which you can read at http://www.apa
.org/science/leadership/care/guidelines.aspx.The APA guidelines for animal
care have been praised as being the most comprehensive set of guidelines of
their kind. In addition, psychologists must adhere to federal and state laws
governing the use and care of research animals.
❯❯Test your understanding of The Experimental Method and Ethics Psychological Research Helping Animals Com-
with . parative psychologist Rebecca Snyder is the curator
of giant panda research and management at Zoo
Atlanta. Collaborating with scientists at Chengdu
Closing Thoughts Zoo in Sichuan province in China, Snyder and her
colleagues have studied topics as diverse as spatial
Remember the students in the chapter Prologue who wanted help with memory in adult giant pandas, play behavior in cubs,
studying for tests? Many students come to psychology courses with questions and reproductive behavior (Charlton & others, 2010;
about personal experiences, seeking help for common problems or explana- Perdue & others, 2009; M. Wilson & others, 2009).
tions for common and uncommon behaviors. As you’ll see throughout this Knowledge gained from such research not only
book, psychological research has produced many useful insights into behav- improves the quality of life of pandas in zoos, but
ior and mental processes. At the end of each chapter, we present research- also can be applied to conservation efforts in the wild
(Perdue & others, 2013). Many zoos consult compara-
based strategies that you can implement to improve your everyday life.
tive psychologists to help design appropriate housing
At several points in this chapter, we’ve described research on factors affect-
and enrichment activities for all sorts of animals. For
ing academic success in college. Fortunately, psychologists have identified more on the psychological and behavioral research at
several techniques that anyone can use to improve their mastery of new infor- Zoo Atlanta, visit: http://www.zooatlanta.org/home
mation. We discuss these techniques in the next section, “Psych for Your Life.” /research_projects
P syc h f o r Yo u r L ife
Successful Study Techniques

Psychologists have conducted literally thousands of research studying? The psychological research is clear: Attention is
studies investigating learning and memory. In Chapter 6, a limited resource (Chun & others, 2011). So, when you sit
you’ll learn some strategies to improve your memory for down to study, put your cell phone on “silent” and try to avoid
specific tasks, such as memorizing lists of items. For now, going online except for topic-related material. If you find it
here are six research-based suggestions that you can use to hard to stay on task, set a timer and challenge yourself to read
help you study more effectively—and succeed in this course for 30 minutes without interruption. You’ll be amazed at how
and others. much more efficient your studying is.
1. Focus your attention 2. Engage your mind: Be an active reader
Many students think they are good multitaskers. But do you One of the most common study techniques used by
remember the correlational research on multitasking during students is to highlight or underline text in handouts and

textbooks. Highlighting and underlining can be helpful, but material is tested in other ways. Thus, it represents more than
only if done properly (Dunlosky & others, 2013). “teaching to the test” (Roediger, Finn, & Weinstein, 2012).
Research has found that you’re more likely to remember Why is practice testing such a powerful study technique?
text marked by highlighting or underlining. The problem is One reason may be that practice tests counteract the fluency
that you are less likely to remember material that you don’t effect. When you reread text or review your notes, the mate-
mark. Thus, if you highlight the wrong material, highlighting rial seems familiar and easy to understand, so the tendency is
may be more harmful than helpful. It’s also a problem if you to assume that you know the material. But often we mistake
highlight too much material. If your textbook looks like your familiarity for knowledge. Practice testing allows you to iden-
younger brother’s coloring book, you’re probably doing it tify the gaps that exist in your knowledge so that you can better
wrong. One early study found a negative correlation (see p. 25 allocate your study time (Roediger, Putnam, & Smith, 2011).
if you don’t remember what that means) between the amount Practice tests also allow you to practice the very skills that
of text highlighted and the scores on tests covering the mate- you will need to succeed—retrieving information you’ve
rial: The more material students highlighted, the lower their learned from memory (Roediger, Finn, & Weinstein, 2012).
test scores (Fowler & Barker, 1974). And, some research suggests that repeatedly retrieving infor-
How can you use highlighting and underlining to improve mation seems to help you organize that information in mem-
learning? Be an active reader—and a selective highlighter, ory, making it easier to remember in the future.
highlighting only the most important information. If you How can you incorporate practice tests into your own
have a tendency to highlight entire paragraphs, instead choose studying? Take advantage of any practice quizzes that may
no more than one or two points per paragraph to highlight. In be offered by your professor, in study guides, or in your
this textbook, the “Key Questions” at the beginning of each textbook. Challenge yourself to write out the definitions for
section will help you identify the most important points. each of the boldfaced key terms in each section of your text.
3. In the classroom, take notes by hand, not on your laptop Even simpler, duplicate the procedure used in the experiment
described on pages 26–28. After you finish reading a section
Many students take notes on a laptop or tablet, but a recent study
of material, close your book and write down ten key points
conclusively showed that using handwriting to take notes increases
that were in the section you just read. Make sure you go back
both conceptual understanding and factual retention of the mate-
and check your work against the material you are trying to
rial (Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014). Students also had higher test
master; correct any inaccurate information, and fill in any
scores when they studied from their handwritten notes versus study-
missing ideas.
ing from typed notes, even though their typed notes included more
information. The explanation? Students who typed on a laptop 5. Use flashcards and practice tests correctly
tended to simply transcribe verbatim what they heard. In contrast, Millions of schoolchildren have been taught how to use
note-takers using longhand had to listen, digest, and summarize the flashcards: Quiz yourself, and if you answer an item correctly,
information in their own words. Doing so required them to deeply set the card aside. Keep quizzing yourself on the remaining
engage with the material, which led to better memory for the mate- cards until all cards have been set aside, at which point you can
rial (Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014). Paying attention pays off! conclude that you have successfully mastered the information.
4. Practice retrieval: The testing effect But is this an effective study technique? Should students
skip material that they have learned in order to focus their
Hundreds of experiments have shown that tests do more
effort on material that they have not learned? Let’s take a look
than simply assess learning; they are powerful tools in their
at a clever experiment that tested this notion.
own right (see Dunlosky & others, 2013; Bjork & others,
Jeffrey Karpicke & Henry Roediger (2008) gave partici-
2013). Earlier in the chapter, we described an experiment
pants a list of 40 Swahili words and their English translations.
that demonstrated the power of the testing effect—the finding
All of the participants studied and were tested on the com-
that retrieving information from memory produces better
plete list in the first study session. Then, the participants were
retention than restudying the same information (Roediger &
divided into four groups and tested a week later after complet-
Karpicke, 2006; Roediger & Butler, 2011).
ing three study/test sessions (see figure). The results:
Are practice tests helpful only for factual material? Does the
testing effect only enhance rote memorization? No. Practice • Students who studied and were tested on the entire list in each
tests need not be multiple-choice or short-answer tests. Essay study period scored 80% on the test a week later.
questions or other tasks that require you to retrieve information • Participants who studied only the items they missed but were
from your memory also produce improved retention (Roediger, tested on the entire list also scored 80% on the test a week
Putnam, & Smith, 2011; Roediger, Agarwal, & others, 2011). later.
And, studies have shown that practice tests enhance mem- • Participants who studied all the items but were only tested on
ory for all types of information. Some examples include spatial items they missed scored 36% on the test one week later.
information, such as map-learning, and even the learning of
• Participants who, like the traditional flashcard user, only
new skills like CPR (Dunlosky & others, 2013; Kromann
studied and were tested on items they missed scored 33% on the
& others, 2009). Research also shows that material learned
final test.
via retrieval practice transfers to novel situations, when the

Chapter Review 37
Test all Test only 6. Space out your study time: The benefits of distributed vs.
items missed items massed practice
Psychologists call it “massed practice.” Students call it
Study all
80% 36%
“cramming.” A common strategy for time-challenged stu-
items dents, massed practice involves trying to study as much as
possible in a short period of time, typically right before an
Study only
exam. Interestingly, massed practice is effective—but only in
80% 33% the short term (Bjork & others, 2013). Typically, information
missed items
learned through cramming is forgotten very quickly.
A much more effective study strategy is what psycholo-
Effects of Flashcard Strategy on Retention Karpicke and gists call distributed practice, which means that you learn the
Roediger (2008) found that repeated study has no effect information over several sessions, separated in time. Count-
on final test performance—but repeated testing did. less studies have shown that information learned over dis-
Source: Data from Karpicke & Roediger (2008). tributed sessions is much better retained than information
learned in a single session (see Dunlosky & Rawson, 2015;
In other words, repeated study had no effect on final test Soderstrom & Bjork, 2015). One reason may be that the
performance—but repeated testing did. How can you apply this time between sessions gives you a chance to organize and
finding to your own study habits? For any type of practice test, don’t incorporate new information into your memory (Carpenter
stop practicing items that you’ve answered correctly. Especially if & others, 2012).
you are using flashcards, don’t drop those cards once you think We hope you find these suggestions helpful, both in psy-
you have mastered the information—keep testing yourself on them. chology and in your other courses. Welcome to psychology!
Chapter Review
Key People and Key Terms

Mary Whiton Calkins, p. 6 G. Stanley Hall, p. 6 Carl Rogers, p. 9 Margaret Floy Washburn, p. 7
Kenneth Bancroft Clark, p. 7 William James, p. 5 B. F. Skinner, p. 8 John B. Watson, p. 8
Charles Darwin, p. 5 Abraham Maslow, p. 9 Francis C. Sumner, p. 7 Wilhelm Wundt, p. 4
Sigmund Freud, p. 7 Ivan Pavlov, p. 8 Edward B. Titchener, p. 4
psychology, p. 2 scientific method, p. 15 survey, p. 23 experimental group
structuralism, p. 4 empirical evidence, p. 16 sample, p. 23 (experimental condition), p. 27
functionalism, p. 6 hypothesis, p. 16 representative sample, p. 23 testing effect, p. 28
psychoanalysis, p. 7 variable, p. 16 random selection, p. 23 double-blind technique, p. 28
behaviorism, p. 8 operational definition, p. 16 correlational study, p. 24 demand characteristics, p. 28
humanistic psychology, p. 9 statistics, p. 18 correlation coefficient, p. 24 placebo, p. 29
neuroscience, p. 10 statistically significant, p. 18 positive correlation, p. 25 placebo effect, p. 29
positive psychology, p. 11 meta-analysis, p. 18 negative correlation, p. 25 natural experiment, p. 29
culture, p. 12 replicate, p. 18 experimental research, p. 26 critical thinking, p. 30
cross-cultural psychology, p. 12 theory, p. 19 independent variable, p. 26 positron emission tomography
(PET) scan, p. 32
ethnocentrism, p. 12 pseudoscience, p. 20 dependent variable, p. 26
magnetic resonance imaging
individualistic cultures, p. 12 confirmation bias, p. 21 confounding variable, p. 26
(MRI), p. 32
collectivistic cultures, p. 12 descriptive research, p. 21 random assignment, p. 27
functional magnetic resonance
evolutionary psychology, p. 13 naturalistic observation, p. 22 control group (control imaging (fMRI), p. 33
psychiatry, p. 14 case study, p. 22 condition), p. 27
comparative psychology, p. 34
Hockenbury_7e_CH01_Printer.indd 37 11/23/15 7:22 PM

Concep t map
1 Introduction and Research Methods
Origins of Psychology
Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Psychology’s goals: To describe, explain, predict, and influence
behavior and mental processes
The work of early philosophers and psychologists provided a

foundation for the birth of psychology as an experimental science.
Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) William James (1842–1910)

Founded psychology as Functionalism: Adaptive
experimental science role of behavior
Edward B. Titchener (1867–1927) Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)

Structuralism: Structures of Psychoanalysis:
thought; introspection Unconscious influences on
behavior
Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)

John B. Watson (1878–1958)
B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)
Behaviorism: Observable behaviors that Carl Rogers (1902–1987)
can be objectively measured and verified Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)
Humanistic psychology:
Psychological growth, human
Contemporary Psychology potential, self-direction
Perspectives: Specialty areas:

• Biological Specialty• areas:
• Biological Health
• Psychodynamic • Clinical • Industrial/Organizational
• Behavioral • Cognitive • Personality
• Humanistic • Counseling • Social
• Positive psychology • Developmental • School
• Cognitive • Educational • Applied
• Cross-cultural • Experimental
• Evolutionary psychology
The Scientific Method Systematic procedure to collect empirical evidence
1. G
enerate an empirically testable hypothesis; Use statistics to analyze findings
operationally define all variables and determine whether they
2. Design study and collect data are statistically significant;
3. Analyze data and draw conclusions use meta-analysis to combine
and analyze data from multiple
4. Report the findings studies.
Publish details of study design so Develop theories to integrate

that study can be replicated. and explain various findings
and observations.
38

Research Methods
Must conform to American Psychological Association codes of ethics
Nonhuman subjects:
Human participants:
• Acceptable scientific purpose
• Informed consent
• Must increase knowledge about species,
• Voluntary participation behavior, or benefit the health or welfare of
• Deception allowable only when no other humans or nonhuman animals
alternatives and if justified by study’s • Must meet local, state, and federal guidelines
potential merit regulating care of research animals
• Confidentiality of personal information
• Debriefed at conclusion of study
Descriptive research methods:

Systematically observe and describe behavior.
Naturalistic Case studies Surveys, Experimental method: Natural experiments:

observation questionnaires Manipulates independent Investigate effects of
variable and measures the effects naturally occurring
on dependent variable; used to events
demonstrate a cause-and-effect
Correlational studies: relationship
• Determine strength of relationship between
two factors; cannot provide evidence of
causality
Experimental controls:
• The relationship is expressed as a numerical
correlation coefficient. • Random assignment of research participants to experimental
or control group
• A positive correlation indicates that two
factors vary in the same direction. • Double-blind experimental design to guard against
experimenter bias and demand characteristics
• A negative correlation indicates that two
factors vary in opposite directions. • Anticipate potential inf luence of extraneous variables
Experimental group: Control group: Placebo control group:

Exposed to Not exposed (in some experiments):
independent variable to independent Exposed to fake
variable independent variable
Measure effects, if any,

on dependent variable
39

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My t h Sci e n ce

• That reading something over and over is the most

The First Exam noticed a lot of you had trouble with

Hockenbury_7e_CH01_Printer.indd 2 11/20/15 11:58 AM

Hockenbury_7e_CH01_Printer.indd 1 11/20/15 11:58 AM

What Do Psychologists Study? It’s

fun in Vancouver, British Columbia.

Hockenbury_7e_CH01_Printer.indd 2 11/20/15 11:58 AM

• Should psychological findings be used to change or enhance human behavior?

David Sacks/Getty Images

Hockenbury_7e_CH01_Printer.indd 3 11/20/15 11:58 AM

Hockenbury_7e_CH01_Printer.indd 4 11/20/15 11:58 AM

change. In 1859, Charles Darwin’s groundbreaking work, On the Origin of Species,

Hockenbury_7e_CH01_Printer.indd 5 11/20/15 11:58 AM

William James and His Students

Hockenbury_7e_CH01_Printer.indd 6 11/20/15 11:58 AM

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) In 1909,

Sumner moved to Howard University in Washington,

Hockenbury_7e_CH01_Printer.indd 7 11/20/15 11:58 AM

Hockenbury_7e_CH01_Printer.indd 8 11/20/15 11:58 AM

❯❯Test your understanding of The Origins of Psychology with .

Hockenbury_7e_CH01_Printer.indd 9 11/20/15 11:58 AM

neuroscience The study of the nervous

The Biological Perspective

The Psychodynamic Perspective

The Behavioral Perspective

The Biological Perspective The physio­

brain processes involved in sensation,

Hockenbury_7e_CH01_Printer.indd 10 11/20/15 11:58 AM

how behavior is acquired or modified by environmental causes. Many psycholo-

The Humanistic Perspective

The Positive Psychology Perspective

The Cross-Cultural Perspective positive psychology The study of positive

Hockenbury_7e_CH01_Printer.indd 11 11/20/15 11:58 AM

What Is Cross-Cultural Psychology?

self (Markus & Kitayama, 1991, 1998, 2010).

Hockenbury_7e_CH01_Printer.indd 12 11/20/15 11:58 AM

The Evolutionary Perspective

Hockenbury_7e_CH01_Printer.indd 13 11/20/15 11:58 AM

The Evolutionary Perspective The evo-

Specialty Areas of Psychologists Employment Settings of Psychologists

Hockenbury_7e_CH01_Printer.indd 14 11/20/15 11:58 AM

psychologists. Table 1.1 provides a brief overview of psychology’s most important

The Scientific Method

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The Steps in the Scientific Method

Step 1. Formulate a Testable Hypothesis

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classify their Facebook friends into different categories, such as “close

Jed Share/Kaoru Share/Getty Images

Step 2. Design the Study and Collect the Data

Acquaintances 27% FIGURE 1.2 College Students’ Facebook

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Step 3. Analyze the Data and Draw Conclusions

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replication of a study fails to produce the same basic findings, confidence in

Year study published Authors Title of study

Manago, Adriana M.; Taylor, Tamara; & Greenfield, Patricia M.

Facebook networks, their communication patterns, and well-being.

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• That reading something over and over is the most

The Biological Perspective The physio