Unit 1 Aerial Photographs and Photogrammetry

…………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………

SAQ I
a) What is the main difference between normal photography and aerial
photography?
b) How was the first known aerial photograph taken? When and where?

1.6 PLANNING AND EXECUTION OF AERIAL

PHOTOGRAPHIC MISSONS
The aerial photography missions are planned according to the purpose of
photography. However, flight planning before the mission is very important. The
planning also includes the decisions about the direction of flight lines, types of
camera, films to be used, time of the photography, height of the aircraft,
shadow and weather conditions. Most photographic missions are performed
between 10 am and 2 pm to avoid shadows. It is important to have an idea of
certain related terms and their meaning which are essential for interpretation
and making photogrammetrical measurements. These terms are given below:
Flight lines or strips: Most vertical aerial photographs are taken with frame
cameras along the flight lines (Fig. 1.8). All the photographs, when kept
together in their sequence they form a strip. Flightline connects the image
centers of the vertical photographs (Fig. 1.8).

Fig. 1.8: Photographic coverage along flight line. Upper part is showing the flight
path and coverage area during different camera exposure time and lower
part showing strip of aerial photograph showing the overlap, end lap
areas and nadir lines in the photographs.

Stereoscopic coverage: It consists of common areas present in adjacent pairs

of over-lapping photographs, which are called stereopairs and they are capable
of generating stereovision of the terrain photographed. The area included in the
overlap of successive photographs is called the stereoscopic overlap area.
Contributor: Prof. Vaibhava Srivastava 19
Block 1 Remote Sensing Techniques
…………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………
Endlap: The over-lapping of the aerial photographs in the direction of flight is
known as end lap.
Sidelap: The common or overlapping area photographed in the adjacent strips
of the flight is known as side-lap.
Stereomodel: When stereo-pair images are viewed through a stereoscope and
each eye views a different perspective of the same ground, it gives a perception
of a 3D model called stereomodel.
Gap: Any space where aerial photographs fail to provide stereoscopic coverage
is called a gap.
Dead ground: It appears in the photograph if the high objects on the ground
cause problem to extract details of the adjoining regions.
Blocks of aerial photographs: When all the photographs belonging to the
multiple strips of the photographed area are kept together, they are called
blocks of photographs (Fig. 1.9).
Photo mosaic: The proper stacking or placement of a series of photographs
showing object features at their proper location is called a photo mosaic. A
photo mosaic is a bigger photograph made from the pasting of individual
photographs.

Fig. 1.9: Block of aerial photographs comprising various strips of a flight mission
showing side laps in the aerial photographs. The flight lines are kept in
the direction of length of the rectangular area.

1.6.1 Planning Flight Missions

In planning flight mission for aerial photography of a rectangular shaped area,
the flight lines or strips should be kept in its length directions in order to keep
least number of flight lines. After covering a little more than desired length, the
flight is reversed in direction and the adjacent strip is photographed according
to Fig. 1.9. Desired scale of the photographs decides the flying height and
camera type. The speed of the aircraft is planned in accordance with the
percentage of the over-lapped areas to be photographed and camera
intervalometer timing meant to capture the image at regular interval.

20 Contributor: Prof. Vaibhava Srivastava

Unit 1 Aerial Photographs and Photogrammetry
…………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………
Typically, the aerial photography is done with 55 to 65% forward laps or
endlaps but for hilly terrains it should be of the order of 80 to 90% endlaps. The
sidelaps are generally kept with approximately 30% over-lapping. The forward
lap less than 53% and lateral overlap less than 8% are considered insufficient
and cause rejection and re-flying may be needed.
1.6.2 PROJECTION CHARACTERISTICS OF AERIAL
PHOTOGRAPHS
The satellite images and aerial photographs are the feature representation of a
3D terrain on 2D plane. The recording of a 3D object on 2D plane is just like
light is thrown on any object and its shadow is obtained on a wall or any other
2D plane. You may better understand the geometric difference between the
recordings of satellite images and aerial photographs if you know about the
following three commonly used projection systems namely, Parallel, Orthogonal
and Perspective projections as shown in the example given below (Fig.1.10).
The triangles ABC and the line LL’ on which the projection is made are in the
same plane.
(a) Parallel Projection: In this projection, the projecting rays are parallel. The
triangle ABC is projected on the LL’. The projection of rays Aa, Bb, Cc, all
are parallel in this case (Fig. 1.10a)
(b) Orthogonal Projection: In this case, the projecting rays are all
perpendicular to the line LL’ (Fig. 1.10b). A map is an orthogonal projection
of the ground on certain scale. The advantage of this projection is that the
distance, angle and areas in the plane are independent of the elevation
difference of the objects.
(c) Central Projection: In central projection, the projection rays (Aa, Bb, Cc)
pass through a common point ‘O’ called projection or perspective centre
(Fig. 1.10c). The image projected by a lens system is commonly treated as
central or perspective projection.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.10: Characteristics of different projection system: a) Parallel projection; b)
Orthogonal projection; and c) Central or Perspective projection. Note
the projected lengths of the lines ab, bc or ac are not same in these
projections.

The aerial photographs are usually taken from the optical lens system and they
record the terrain images in the central of perspective projection whereas the
satellite images record the terrain data in parallel and/or orthogonal projection.
Contributor: Prof. Vaibhava Srivastava 21
Block 1 Remote Sensing Techniques
…………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………
1.6.3 REFERENCES MARKS ON THE AERIAL
PHOTOGRAPHS
There are some reference marks that are required for photogrammetrical
studies. Some of these marks are recorded at the time of camera exposure and
there are others which include the following:
(i) Fiducial Axes and Fiducial Centre: In an aerial photograph, the line
joining the two opposite-lying fiducial marks gives the fiducial axis. The point
of intersection of the fiducial axes is called fiducial centre (f) (Fig. 1.11).

Fig. 1.11: Fiducial marks, fiducial axes, fiducial center (f) and principal point (p).

(ii) Principal Point and Principal Distance: Principal point is the point where
camera axis meets the ground (p) or photo plane. The approximate position
of the fiducial center (f) of a photograph is coincident with the principal point
(p) in a well-adjusted camera (Fig. 1.11). The principal distance coincides
with the focal length of the lens in such a camera. Imagine a photo plane
perpendicular to the camera axis lying at a distance of focal length from the
perspective center (O) of the camera (Fig.1.12). The foot of the
perpendicular (p) from O on the photo plane is known as Principal Point and
the length of this perpendicular (op) is Principal Distance.

Fig. 1.12: Line drawing showing the concept of ground plane, photo plane,
principal point, nadir point, principal distance and tilt angle.

(iii) Photo Nadir and Ground Nadir: Nadir is referred to the point which lies
vertically below the perspective center. In Fig. 1.12, the vertical line ON
through the perspective centre O meets the photo plane at point ‘n’ which is
called Photo Nadir Point and the ground plane at point N is called the
Ground Nadir Point. These points are also called Plumb Points.

22 Contributor: Prof. Vaibhava Srivastava

Unit 1 Aerial Photographs and Photogrammetry
…………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………
1.6.4 DEVIATION OF THE FLIGHT PATH DURING
PHOTOGRAPHY
During flight mission, it happens quite that aircraft fail to maintain the pre-
planned flight lines and deviate. The deviation from the desired flight path may
be obtained using the recorded information at the time of exposure and the
reference marks discussed above. This deviation may be resolved into a three-
dimensional reference system x, y and z axes (Fig.1.13) and are referred in
terms of swing and tilt discussed below:

Fig. 1.13: The x, y and z- axes reference system of the flight path. (Source:
https://gsp.humboldt.edu/olm/Courses/GSP_216/images/air-photo.jpg)

Swing is the angle measured in the plane of the photograph between the
fiducial axis in the direction of the flight and the actual flight line (Fig. 1.14). The
angle is denoted by letter χ (Kappa). The determination of swing (kappa) is
done by obtaining and transferring the successive principal points of aerial
photographs of a strip in a serial sequence.

Fig. 1.14: Line drawing showing the swing.

Tilt is the angle between the optical axis of the camera and the plumb line (Fig.
1.13). It is also the angle between the ground plane and the photo plane. The
tilt is determined as it is recorded as position of the bubble in the spirit level at
the moment of exposure of the photograph. Tilt can be resolved in two
components, one in the direction of flight (x-axis) and the other perpendicular to
it (y-axis). The component about y-axis i.e. in the direction of x-axis is called
Longitudinal Tilt or x-tilt or Fore-and-Aft Tilt or Tip. It is denoted by letter Phi
(ø). The component about the x-axis, i.e. in the direction of y is called Lateral
Tilt or y-Tilt or Simple Tilt. It is denoted by letter ‘’ (Omega) (Fig. 1.13).
1.6.5 RESOLUTION OF THE AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
Spatial resolution is the ability to record the finest detail in a photograph. It is an
expression of the optical quality of an image produced by a particular camera
Contributor: Prof. Vaibhava Srivastava 23
Block 1 Remote Sensing Techniques
…………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………
system. Resolving power of a film can be measured by photographic test chart
which contains groups of 3 parallel lines separated by space of equal width of
lines (Fig. 1.15). Hence film resolving power is expressed in units of lines per
millimeter. The resolution of test chart is converted into ground distance as per
scale of the photograph which is known as ‘Ground Resolution Distance’ of the
aerial photograph.

Fig. 1.15: A photographic test chart.

1.7 PHOTOGRAMMETRICAL PROPERTIES OF

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
Photogrammetry is the science and technology of obtaining reliable information
about physical objects and environment through the process of recording,
measuring and interpreting photographic images and patterns of
electromagnetic radiant imagery and other phenomena. The purpose of
photogrammetry is to produce an orthogonal projection of the image of the
object from its central projection by using the geometrical links between the
object and its photo-image at the moment of exposure. Therefore for any
photogrammetric measurements we must understand the geometrical
characteristics of the aerial photographs in terms of their projection system,
deviations of the aircraft at the time of exposure apart from the scale,
resolution, image displacement or optical parallax. Let us try to understand the
salient geometrical characteristics aerial photographs that are recorded in the
perspective projections system.
1.7.1 GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES OF VERTICAL
AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
As already discussed an aerial photograph follows the characteristics of the
perspective projections in which all straight lines joining corresponding points,
i.e. straight lines joining object points to their corresponding images, pass
through one point known as perspective centre. The relationship of objects
photographed through perspective projection system in a completely vertical
aerial photograph may be understood with the help of Fig. 1.16. The figure
illustrates the relationship wherein straight lines AA', BB' etc. joining
corresponding points, e.g. A on the ground and A' its image in the image plane
(negative plane), are known as perspective rays and pass through the
perspective centre ‘S’.
24 Contributor: Prof. Vaibhava Srivastava