NUMERICAL-_hydraulics_solved_

Hydraulics Numerical Examples
Pipe flow
Laminar flow, turbulent flow and head loss in pipe
A pipe 200mm in diameter and 20km long conveys oil of density 900 kg/m 3 and viscosity 0.08 NS/m2 at
10 lps.
a) Compute Reynolds number and state whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
b) Compute loss of head, pressure difference and maximum shear stress at pipe wall
c) Compute the maximum velocity
d) Compute the power required to maintain the flow.
Solution:
Diameter of pipe (D) = 200 mm = 0.2m
Length of pipe (L) = 20 km = 20000m
Density of oil (ρ) = 900 kg/m3
Viscosity of oil (µ) = 0.08 NS/m2
Rate of flow (Q) = 10 lps = 0.01 m3/s
a) Reynolds no. (Re) = ?
Average velocity of flow ( ) = 0.318 m/s
( )
As Re<2000, the flow is laminar.
b) Head loss (hf) = ?
Pressure difference, or = 900x9.81x46.1 = 407017 Pa = 407.017 Kpa

Maximum shear stress at pipe wall, =1.02 N/m2
c) Maximum velocity (umax) = ?

Maximum velocity (umax) = 2V = 2x0.318 = 0.636 m/s
d) Power required to maintain flow (P) = ?
= 4070 W
1
Crude oil of dynamic viscosity 0.2 NS/m2 and specific gravity 0.75 flows through 20mm diameter vertical
pipe. Two gauges have been fixed at 20m apart. The pressure gauge fixed at higher end reads 20 N/cm 2
and that at the lower end reads 60 N/cm2. Assuming steady laminar flow, find the direction and rate of
flow. Justify that the flow is laminar.
Solution:
Specific gravity of fluid (S) = 0.75 A
Density of fluid (ρ) = 0.75x1000 = 750 kg/m3
Dynamic viscosity (µ) = 0.2 NS/m2 20m
Length of pipe (L) = 20m
Pressure at section A (Pa) = 20N/cm2= 20x104 N/m2
Pressure at section B (Pb) = 60 N/cm2 = 60x104 N/m2 B
Cross sectional area (A) = = 0.000314 m2

Zb = 0
Za = 20 m
V = Velocity of flow
Piezometric head at A (Ha) = =
Piezometric head B (Hb) = =

As Hb>ha, the flow takes place from B to A (upwards)
Rate of flow (Q) = ?

Loss of head (hf) = Hb – Ha = 81.55 – 47.2 = 34.35 m
Also
Average velocity (V) = 0.79 m/s

Q = A V = 0.000314x0.79 = 0.000248 m3/s = 0.248 lps
Computing Reynolds no. (Re)
As Re<2000, the flow is laminar
Oil of viscosity 0.1 NS/m2 and relative density 0.9 is flowing through a pipe of 50mm diameter. The
pressure drop in a length of 300m is 680 Kpa. Assuming steady laminar flow, find the rate of flow and
the shear stress at the pipe wall. Justify that the flow is laminar.
2
Solution:
Viscosity of oil (µ) = 0.1 NS/m2
Relative density = 0.9
Density of fluid (ρ) = 0.9x1000 = 900 kg/m3
Diameter of pipe (D) = 50mm = 0.05m
Pressure drop (P1-P2) = 680 KPa = 680000 Pa
Length (L) = 300m
Shear stress at the pipe wall (τ0) = ?
Computing average velocity (V) using Hagen-Poiseuille equation,
V = 1.77 m/s
Q = AV = 0.001963x1.77 = 0.003475 m3/s = 3.475 lps
Computing Reynold no. (Re)
= 28.33 N/m2
A horizontal pipe 60mm in diameter carries oil of sp.gr. 0.8. The pressure difference between two
sections 5km apart is found to be 200 KPa. The oil flowing through the pipe is collected in a tank. It is
found that 200kg of oil is collected in 4 minutes. Compute the dynamic viscosity of oil. Assume laminar
flow and verify it.
Solution:
Diameter of pipe (D) = 0.06m
Flow rate (Q) = 200/(4x60) = 0.833 kg/s
In volumetric flow rate, Q= 0.833/(0.8X1000) m3/s = 0.001m3/s
Viscosity of oil (µ) = ?
Average velocity of flow ( ) = 0.35 m/s
3
Considering laminar flow
= 0.013 NS/m2
As Re<2000, the assumption of laminar flow is ok.
Water is flowing through an inclined pipe of 20cm in diameter. The angle of inclination is 300 to the
horizontal. If the shear stress at distance 4cm form the center is 0.009N/cm2. Find
(a) The maximum value of shear stress.
(b) Velocity at 4cm from the center.
(c ) Maximum value of Velocity
(d) Head loss for the length of 1Km.
Take kinematic Viscosity = 1.18×10-3 m2/s
Solution: 2
Diameter of pipe (D) = 20cm
Radius of pipe (R) = 10cm = 0.1m
Shear stress at r = 0.04m from center ( ) = 0.009N/cm2
1
L = 1km
0
30
Shear stress at the pipe wall (τ0) = ?

Kinematic Viscosity ( ) = 1.18×10-3 m2/s
Dynamic viscosity ( )= = 1.18×10-3x1000 = 1.18 NS/m2
f = 0.03
As shear stress variation is linear
= 225 N/m2
( )
( )
( )
4500
v at r = 0.04 m
4
( )
( )
( ) =8m/s
( )
Max velocity = = 9.5 m/s
Average velocity (V) = vmax/2 = 9.5/2 = 4.75m/s
=457m
Head loss in pipes
At a sudden enlargement of a water main from 250mm to 500mm diameter, the hydraulic gradient rises
by 10mm. Estimate the rate of flow.
1 2
1 2
Solution:
Diameter of smaller pipe (D1) = 250 mm = 0.25m
Cross-sectional area (A1)= = 0.049 m2
Diameter of larger pipe (D2) = 500 mm = 0.5m
Cross-sectional area (A2) = 0.19635 m2
Rise of hydraulic gradient, i.e. ( ) ( ) = 10mm = 0.01m

Applying Bernoulli’s equation from smaller pipe to larger pipe section
5
where he =head loss due to sudden enlargement
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
(a)
From continuity equation
A1V1 = A2V2
(b)
From a and b,
( ) ( )
V2 = 0.181 m/s
Q =A2V2 = = 0.19635x0.181 = 0.0355 m3/s
The rate of flow of water through a horizontal pipe of diameter 200mm is 0.3 m 3/s. The diameter of the
pipe is suddenly enlarged to 400mm. The pressure intensity in the smaller pipe is 15 N/cm 2. Determine
(a) loss of head due to sudden enlargement, (b) pressure intensity in the larger pipe, and (c) power lost
due to enlargement.
1 2
1 2
Solution:
Rate of flow (Q) = 0.3 m3/s
Diameter of smaller pipe (D1) = 200 mm = 0.2m
6
Diameter of larger pipe (D2) = 400 mm = 0.4m
Pressure in smaller pipe (P1) = 15 N/cm2 = 15x104 N/m2
Velocity in smaller pipe (V1) = Q/A1 = 0.3/0.0314 = 9.55 m/s
Velocity in larger pipe (V2) = Q/A2 = 0.3/0.1256 = 2.38 m/s
a) Loss of head due to sudden enlargement (he) = ?

( )
( )
= 2.62 m
b) Pressure intensity in the larger pipe (P2) =?
Applying Bernoulli’s equation from smaller pipe to larger pipe section
where he =head loss due to sudden enlargement

Z1 = Z2
P2 = 167067 N/m2 = 16.7 N/cm2
(c) Power lost due to enlargement (P) = ?
= 7711 W = 7.71 KW
When a sudden contraction is introduced in a horizontal pipe line 500mm diameter to 250mm diameter,
the pressure changes from 100 Kpa to 65 Kpa. Calculate the rate of flow. Take Cc = 0.65.
Following this, if there is a sudden enlargement from 250mm diameter to 500mm diameter and if the
pressure at the 250mm section is 65 Kpa, what is the pressure at the 500mm enlarged section?
1 2 3 4
7
Solution:
Diameters: d1 = 0.5m, d2 = 0.25m, d3 = 0.25m, d4 = 0.5m
Flow rate (Q) =?
Pressure: P1 = 100Kpa, P2 = 65Kpa, P3 = 65Kpa, P4 = ?
First case
A1V1 = A2V2
(a)
Loss of head due to contraction
[ ] [ ] (b)
Applying Bernoulli’s equation from 1 to 2
Z1 = Z2
(c)
From a and c
( )
V2 = 7.5 m/s
Q = A2V2 = = 0.37 m3/s
Second case
V3= V2 = 7.5m/s
=1.9m/s
Loss of head due to expansion

( ) ( )
= 1.6m
Applying Bernoulli’s equation from 3 to 4
P4 = 107016 Pa = 107.016 Kpa
Two reservoirs whose water surface elevation differs by 12m are connected by the following horizontal
compound pipe system starting from the high level reservoir as shown in the figure.
8
L1 =200m, D1 = 0.2m, f1 = 0.008
L2 =500m, D2 = 0.4m, f2 = 0.006
Compute all the losses of head. Sketch EGL and HGL lines.
12m
C 3m
D
A V1 B V2
D1, L1, f1 D2, L2, f2
Solution:
Applying Bernoulli’s eq. between the free surface of the first reservoir and the second reservoir
Total loss = 12m

A1V1 = A2V2
(a)
Total loss = hi + hf1 + he + hf2 + ho = 12 (b)

hi= entry loss at A = = 0.0255 = 0.0255( )2 =
hf1 =head loss in pipe AB = = = 0.0407( )2 =

( ) ( )
he = Head loss due to sudden expansion = = =
hf2 =head loss in pipe CD = = =
h0 = Exit loss = =
substituting above values in eq. (a)
V2 = 1.24 m/s
9
V1 = 4V2 = 4.96 m/s
hi = 0.408V22 = 0.408 x 1.242 = 0.63m

hf1 = 0.6512V22 = 6.512 x 1.242 = 10m
he = 0.4587 V22 =0.4587 x 1.242 = 0.71m
hf2 = 0.3822V22 = 0.3822 x 1.242 = 0.58m
h0 = 0.1274V22 = 0.051x 1.242 = 0.08m
Position of TEL and HGL

At A
Elevation of EGL =15– hi = 15-0.62 = 14.37m
Elevation of HGL =Elevation of EGL – V12/2g = = 13.11m
at B
Elevation of EGL = Elevation of EGL at A – hf1 = 14.37-10 = 4.37m
Elevation of HGL = Elevation of EGL – V12/2g = = 3.11m
at C
Elevation of EGL = Elevation of EGL at B – he = 4.37-0.71 = 3.66m
Elevation of HGL = Elevation of EGL – V22/2g = = 3.58m
at D
Elevation of EGL = Elevation of EGL at C – hf2 = 3.66-0.58= 3.08m
Elevation of HGL = 3m
EGL and HGL lines
TEL
HGL
C
D
A V1 B V2
D1, L1, f1 D2, L2, f2
10
Three types of pipe flow problems
Determine the head (energy) loss for flow of 150 lps of oil flowing through 400m of 200mm diameter
cast-iron pipe. Take υ = 0.00001 m2/s and K = 0.25mm. Use Moody’s diagram.
Solution:
Length (L) = 400m
Cross-sectional area (A)= = 0.0314 m2
υ = 0.00001 m2/s and K = 0.25mm
Head loss (hf) = ?
Average velocity (V) = Q/A = 0.15/0.0314 = 4.77 m/s

Reynolds no. (Re) = = 95400
-3
k/D = 0.25x10 /0.2 = 0.00125
For k/D = 0.00125 and Re = 95400, f = 0.024(from Moody’s chart)
= 55.6 m
Water flows through a 300mm diameter steel pipe with a head loss of 6m in 300m. Determine the rate
of flow. Use (a) Moody’s diagram and (b) Colebrook-White equation for obtaining f and compare the
result . Take υ = 1.13x10-6 m2/s and K = 3mm.
Solution:
Head loss (hf) = 6m
Length (L) = 300m
υ = 1.13x10-6 m2/s and K = 3mm
k/D =3x10-3/0.3 = 0.01
a. Using Moody diagram

Trial 1: For k/D = 0.01, take trial value of f = 0.038 from Moody’s diagram
11
√ √ = 1.76 m/s
Trial 2: For k/D = 0.01 and Re = 467257, f = 0.038 (from Moody’s diagram)
As f is same for trial 1 and 2, the trial and error procedure is stopped here.
f = 0.038 and V = 1.76 m/s
Q = AV = 0.0707x1.76 = 0.124 m3/s
b. Using Colebrook-White equation

Trial 1: For k/D = 0.01, take trial value of f = 0.038
√ √ = 1.76 m/s
( )
√ √
( )
√ √
f = 0.3803
As f is same as assumed f value, the iteration is stopped here.
f = 0.03803 and V = 1.759 m/s
Q = AV = 0.0707x1.759 = 0.124 m3/s
Determine the size of steel pipe required to convey 250 lps oil through 3000m with a head loss of 25m.
Take υ = 1.0x10-5 m2/s and K = 0.046mm. Use Moody’s diagram.
Solution:
Flow rate (Q) = 250 lps = 0.25 m3/s
Length (L) = 3000m
Head loss (hf) = 25m
υ = 1.0x10-5 m2/s and K = 0.046mm
Diameter of pipe (D) = ?
[( ) ]
( ) ( ) = 0.62f
( ) (a)
[( ) ]
= (b)
12
Trial 1: Assume f = 0.02
D = (0.62x0.02)1/5 = 0.416m
Re =31830/0.416 = 7.7x104
k/D = 0.046x10-3/0.416 = 0.00011
Trial 2: For K/D = 0.00011 and Re = 7.7x104, f = 0.0195 (from Moody’s diagram)
As the difference in f for trial 1 and 2 is very small, the trial and error procedure is stopped here.
D = (0.62x0.0195)1/5 = 0.413m
Take 420mm diameter pipe.
A smooth pipe carries 0.3 m3/s of water discharge with a head loss of 3m per 100m length of pipe.
Determine the diameter of the pipe. Use friction factor equation for smooth pipe as
and take kinematic viscosity = 10-6 m2/s.
Solution:
Flow rate (Q) = 0.3 m3/s
Length (L) = 100m
Head loss (hf) = 3m
υ = 10-6 m2/s
Diameter of pipe (D) = ?
[( ) ]
( ) ( ) = 0.248f
( ) (a)
[( ) ]
=
(b)
( )
For first trial, assume f = 0.01

( ) = 0.301m
With this value, new f is
( ) = 0.0111
Second trial:
f = 0.0111
( ) = 0.3075m
With this value, new f is
( ) = 0.01114
13
As the difference in f is very small, the trial and error is stopped here.
( ) = 0.308m = 308 mm
Adopt 310mm diameter pipe.
Pipes in series and parallel, Three reservoir and Pipe network
Three pipes of lengths 800m, 600m and 300m and of diameters 400mm, 300mm and 200mm
respectively are connected in series. The ends of the compound pipe are connected to two tanks, whose
water surface levels are maintained at a difference of 15m. Take f = 0.02.
Determine the rate of flow (a) neglecting minor losses and (b) considering all losses.
c) What will be the diameter of a single pipe of length 1700m and f = 0.02, which replaces three pipes?
Solution:
Length of pipe 1 (L1) = 800m, Diameter of pipe 1 (D1) = 400 mm = 0.4m
f= f1= f2= f3 = 0.02
Difference of water level (H) = 15m
1
H
a) Neglecting minor losses

A1, A2, A3 = Cross-sectional area of pipe 1, 2 and 3
V1, V2, V3 = Velocity in pipe 1, 2 and 3
From continuity, A1V1 = A2V2 = A3V3
14
= 1.77V1
= 4V1
For pipes in series
( ) ( )
V1 = 0.675 m/s
Discharge (Q) = A1 V1 = = 0.0848 m3/s
b) Considering all losses
where = entry loss, = loss due to sudden contraction between 1 and 2, = loss due to
sudden contraction between 2 and 3, and = exit loss

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
V1 = 0.662 m/s
Discharge (Q) = A1 V1 = = 0.0832 m3/s
c) Length of single pipe (L) =1700m

Diameter of equivalent single pipe (D) = ?
D = 0.2665m = 266.5mm
15
A pipe of diameter 300mm and length 1000m connects two reservoirs, having difference of water levels
as 15m. Determine the discharge through the pipe. If an additional pipe of diameter 300mm and length
600m is attached to the last 600m length of the existing pipe, find the increase in discharge. Take f =
0.08 and neglect minor losses.
Solution:
a) Length of pipe (L) = 1000m, Diameter of pipe (D) = 300mm = 0.3m
Cross- sectional area of pipe (A) = = 0.0707 m2
Difference in level (H) = 15m
f= 0.08
Discharge (Q) = ?
( )
Q = 0.0743 m3/s
b) Length of pipe CD (l1) = 400m

Length of pipe DE (l2) = 600m
Length of pipe DF (l3) = 600m
Diameter of all pipes = D= D1 = D2 = 300mm = 0.3m
Increase in discharge = ?
Q1 H
C
D
Q2
B
Q3 F
Since diameters and lengths of pipes DE and DF are equal, Q2 = Q3
16
Q1 = Q2 + Q 3
Q2 = Q1/2
V1 = Q1/A1 = Q1/0.0707 = 14.14Q1
V2 =Q2/A2 = Q2/0.0707 = 14.14Q2 =14.14Q1/2=7.07Q2
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between A and B, taking flow through CDF
( ) ( )
Q1 = 0.1001 m3/s
Increase in discharge = Q1-Q = 0.1001- 0.0743 = 0.0258 m3/s
Two sharp ended pipes of diameters 60mm and 100mm respectively, each of length 100m are
connected in parallel between two reservoirs which have a difference of level of 20m. If f= 0.32 for each
pipe, calculate the rate of flow for each pipe and also the diameter of single pipe 150m long which
would give the same discharge if it were substituted for the original two pipes.
Solution:
Length of pipe 1 (L1) = 100m, Diameter of pipe 1 (D1) = 60mm = 0.06m
Length of pipe 2 (L2) = 100m, Diameter of pipe 2 (D2) = 100mm = 0.1m
Difference in reservoir level (H)= 20m
f= 0.32
H
1
a) Rate of flow (Q1 and Q2) = ?

Computing r using
= 3401013
= 244462.8
For parallel pipes

H= hf1 =hf2
17
Q1 = 0.00242 m3/s = 2.42 lps
Q1 = 0.009 m3/s = 9 lps
b) Discharge through single pipe (Q) = Q1+ Q2 = 0.002424 + 0.009= 0.01142 m3/s
H = hf =20m
Diameter of single pipe (D) = ?
( )
D = 0.120 m = 120 mm
Three reservoir problems

Following are the data for three reservoir system shown in the figure:
Pipe 1: D1 = 1000mm, L1 = 3000m, f1 = 0.015
Pipe 2: D2 = 500mm, L2 = 600m, f2 = 0.024
Pipe 3: D3 = 600mm, L3 = 1200m, f3 = 0.02.
Z1 = 135m, Z2 = 120m and Q1 = 1.5 m3/s. Determine Q2, Q3 and Z3.
Q1
B
1 Q2
Z1 Q3 2
D Z2
C
3
Z3
Solution:
Assume the direction of flow from A to D, D to B and D to C.
Let ( )
Set of equations
(a)
18
(b)
(c)
(d)
Coefficients
= 3.72
= 38.08
= 25.5
Finding hf1
= 8.37m
substituting hf1 in eq. a
= 135 – 8.37 = 126.63 m
Substituting the value of in eq. b
= 126.63 – 120 = 6.63m
, the water will flow from D to B and the assumed direction of flow is ok.
Computing Q2 for hf2
Q2 = 0.417 m3/s
From d,
Q3 = Q1- Q2 = 1.5 – 0.417 = 1.083 m3/s
Computing hf3
= 29.9 m
From c
= 126.63 – 29.9 = 96.73m
Hence Q2 = 0.417 m3/s, Q3 = 1.083 m3/s and Z3 = 96.73 m
For the three reservoir problem Z1=150m, Z3=30m, Q2= 0.65m3/s and r1=4.0, r2=40and r3=15 for the
three pipes while n in equation hf= rQn is 2.0 Determine Q1,Q3 and Z2.
Solution:
Let ( )
Set of equations
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Coefficients: r1=4.0, r2=40and r3=15
19
hf1 = r1Q12= 4Q12
hf2 = r2Q22= 40Q22=40x0.652 = 16.9
hf3 = r3Q32= 15Q32
Substituting hf1 and Z1 in eq. a
(e)
Substituting hf2 in eq. b
(f)
Substituting hf3 and Z3 in eq. c
(g)
Substituting the value of Q2 in eq. d
(h)
Q1
B
1 Q2
2
D
Q3
Z1
Z2
3
C
Z3
Confirming direction of flow: Assume . With this value of , Q1 = 5.47m3/s

Q3 = 5.47-0.65 = 4.82m3/s
As Q1>Q3, the assumed direction of flow is ok.
From eq. e and eq. f
(i)
From eq. e and eq. g
(j)
From eq. h and eq. j
( )
20
Solving for Q3
Q3 = 2.364 m3/s
Q1 = 0.65 + Q3 =0.65 + 2.364 = 3.014 m3/s
= 96.8m
3 3
Hence Q1 = 3.014 m /s, Q3 = 2.364 m /s and Z2 = 96.8m
Reservoir A, water surface elevation 120m is connected to reservoir B and C having surface elevation
70m and 50m respectively. A pipe line 150mm diameter and 400m long connects reservoir A to junction
D: Reservoir B and c are connected to junction D by 75mm diameter 100m long and 100mm diameter
250m long pipeline respectively. Assuming friction factor f = 0.04 for all pipes, estimate the rate of flow
for each pipe, neglecting minor head losses.
Solution:
Pipe AD: D1 = 0.15m, L1 = 400m, f1 = 0.04
Pipe DB: D2 = 0.075m, L2 = 100m, f2 = 0.04
Pipe DC: D3 = 0.1m, L3 = 250m, f3 = 0.04
Z1 = 120m, Z2 = 70m, Z3 = 50m
Q1=?, Q2=?, Q3 = ?
Q1 B
Q2
D
Z1 Q3
Z2
C
Z3
Solution:
Let ( )
Set of equations
(a)
(b)
(c)
21
(d)
Coefficients
= 17413.2
= 139305.5
= 82644.6
Substituting the values of hf1, hf2 and hf3 in equations a, b and c respectively
(e)
(f)
(g)
First let us confirm the direction of flow at junction B.

Assume , then Q1 = 0.0535 m3/s and Q3 = 0.029 m3/s
As Q1>Q3, the assumed direction of flow is correct.
Analytical method
From eq. e and eq. f,

(h)
From eq. e and eq. g
(i)
Suppose Q3 = mQ2
From eq. (d), ( )
Substituting above values, eq. h and j become
(( ) ) (j)
(( ) ) ( ) (k)
Dividing j by k
( )
( )
Solving for m
m = 1.728, -1.544
(Neglecting –ve root)
22
Substituting m into eq. j
(( ) )
3
= 0.0136 m /s
Q3 = mQ2 = 1.728x0.0136 = 0.0235 m3/s
Q1 = 0.0136+0.0235 = 0.0371 m3/s
Alternative method (Trial and error solution)

Trial and error approach 1:
A
Q1 B
Q2
D
Z1 Q3
Z2
C
Z3
Solution:
Pipe AD: D1 = 0.15m, L1 = 400m, f1 = 0.04
Pipe DB: D2 = 0.075m, L2 = 100m, f2 = 0.04
Pipe DC: D3 = 0.1m, L3 = 250m, f3 = 0.04
Z1 = 120m, Z2 = 70m, Z3 = 50m
Q1=?, Q2=?, Q3 = ?

Let ( )
Set of equations
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Coefficients
= 17413.2
= 139305.5
23
= 82644.6
Substituting the values of hf1, hf2 and hf3 in equations a, b and c respectively
(e)
(f)
(g)
First let us confirm the direction of flow at junction B.

Assume , then Q1 = 0.0535 m3/s and Q3 = 0.029 m3/s
As Q1>Q3, the assumed direction of flow is correct.
Trial and error for hD

Take different values of hD and substitute in eqs. e, f and g. Compute Q1, Q2 and Q3. The value of Zj for
which (Q1-(Q2+Q3)) =0 is the actual value.
Table for trial (Zj>Z2, Zj<Z1, for first trial take average of Z1 and Z3)
hD
hD Q1 Q2 Q3 (Q1-(Q2+Q3))
85 0.045 0.01 0.02 0.015 100
90 0.042 0.012 0.022 0.008
100 0.034 0.015 0.025 -0.005
90
At hD= 95.5, (Q1-(Q2+Q3)) =0 80
.01 .02 Q1-(Q2+Q3)

Substituting value of hD in e, f and g
Q1 = 0.037 m3/s, Q2 = 0.0135 m3/s, Q3 = 0.0235 m3/s
24
Hardy-Cross method
For the pipe network shown in figure below, obtain the discharge distribution. Assume n=2 in head loss
computation.
Solution:
Assumed value of discharge through each pipe is shown in figure below.
2
r = 50
B C
0.5
0.5
1
r=200
0.5
r = 150 1 r = 100
1.5
1
A r = 100 D
3.5
Trial1
Loop ABC Loop ACD
pipe r Q rQ2 2rQ pipe r Q rQ2 2rQ
AB 150 1 150 300 AC 200 1 200 400
BC 50 0.5 12.5 50 CD 100 0.5 -25 100
AC 200 1 -200 400 AD 100 1.5 -225 300
Sum -37.5 750 -50 800
∑
For loop ABC, ∑
∑
Forloop ACD, ∑
Corrected flows
AB: 1+0.05 = 1.05, 0.5+0.05 = 0.55, AC: 1-0.05+0.0625=1.0125, CD: 0.5-0.0625 = 0.4375, AD: 1.5-0.0625
= 1.4375
Trial2
Loop ABC Loop ACD
AB 150 1.05 165.375 315 AC 200 1.0125 205.0313 405
BC 50 0.55 15.125 55 CD 100 0.4375 -19.1406 87.5
AC 200 1.0125 -205.031 405 AD 100 1.4375 -206.641 287.5
Sum -24.5313 775 -20.75 780
25
∑
For loop ABC, ∑
∑
Forloop ACD, ∑
Corrected flows
AB: 1.05+0.032=1.082, BC: 0.55+0.032=0.582, AC: 1.0125-0.032+0.027=1.0075, CD: 0.4375-
0.027=0.4105, AD: 1.4375-0.027=1.4105
Trial3
Loop ABC Loop ACD
AB 150 1.082 175.6086 324.6 AC 200 1.0075 203.0113 403
BC 50 0.582 16.9362 58.2 CD 100 0.4105 -16.851 82.1
AC 200 1.0075 -203.011 403 AD 100 1.4105 -198.951 282.1
Sum -10.4664 785.8 -12.7908 767.2
∑
For loop ABC, ∑
∑
Forloop ACD, ∑
As is small, the iteration is stopped here. The distribution of flows is shown in figure.
Final values of flows
AB: 1.082+0.013=1.095, BC: 0.582+0.013=0.595, AC: 1.0075-0.013+0.017=1.0115, CD: 0.4105-
0.017=0.3935, AD: 1.4105-0.017=1.3935
B C 2
0.5
0.595
1.095
0.3935
1.0115
1
A 1.3935 D
3.5
Siphon
A siphon of diameter 150mm connects two reservoirs having a difference in elevation of 15m. The
length of the siphon is 400m and the summit is 4m above the water level in the upper reservoir. The
length of the pipe from upper reservoir to the summit is 80m. Determine the discharge through the
siphon and pressure at the summit. Consider all losses. Take f = 0.02.
Solution:
26
Diameter of siphon (D) = 150mm = 0.15m
Difference in elevation (H) = 15m
Length of siphon (L) = 400m
Height of summit above water level in the upper reservoir (h) = 4m
Length of inlet leg (l) = 80m
Atmospheric pressure head(PA/ and PD/)) = 0
VA = VC = 0
VB = V= Velocity of flow
f = 0.02
Discharge through the siphon (Q) = ?
Pressure at summit (PB) = ?
Za
Zb
Datum
Applying Bernoulli's equation between two points A and C (expressing Pressure values in terms of
absolute pressure and considering all losses)
27
( )
( )
V = 2.316 m/s
Q = AV = 0.01767x2.316 = 0.041 m3/s
Applying Bernoulli's equation between the point A and summit B (expressing Pressure values in terms of
absolute pressure)
( )
( )
= 2.98m absolute (-7.32 m gauge)
A siphon of diameter 200mm connects two reservoirs having a difference in elevation of 20m. The
length of the siphon is 800m and the summit is 5m above the water level in the upper reservoir. If the
separation takes place at 2.8m of water absolute, find the maximum length of the siphon from upper
reservoir to the summit. Take f = 0.016 and atmospheric pressure = 10.3m of water. Neglect minor
losses.
Solution:
Height of summit above water level in the upper reservoir (h) = 5m
Pressure head at summit (PB/) = 2.7 m of water absolute
Atmospheric pressure head= 10.3m of water absolute
f = 0.016
VA = VC = 0
Length of inlet leg (l) = ?
Applying Bernoulli's equation between two points A and C (neglecting minor losses and working in terms
of absolute pressure)
28
V = 2.48 m/s
Za
Zb
Datum
absolute pressure and neglecting minor losses)
l =87.2m
29
A siphon of diameter 200mm connects two reservoirs having a difference in elevation of 40m. The total
length of the pipe is 6000m. The pipe crosses ridge. The summit of the ridge is 7m above the level of the
water in the upper reservoir. Find the minimum depth of pipe below the summit of the ridge, if the
absolute pressure head at the summit of the siphon is not to fall below 2.7m of water. Take f = 0.03 and
atmospheric pressure head =10.3 m of water. The length of siphon from the upper reservoir to the
summit is 500m. Find the discharge also. Neglect minor losses.
Solution:
Height of summit of the ridge above water level in the upper reservoir = 7m
Pressure head at summit (Pb/) = 2.7 m of water absolute
Atmospheric pressure head= 10.3m of water absolute
x
B
7m
Za
Zb
Datum
f = 0.03
VA = VC = 0
Depth of pipe below the summit of the ridge (x) = ?
30
Applying Bernoulli's equation between two points A and C(expressing Pressure values in terms of
V = 0.933m/s
Q = AV = 0.0314x0.933 = 0.03 m3/s
( )
( )
( )
x = 2.77m
Water from a main canal is siphoned to a branch canal over an embankment by means of a wrought iron
pipe of 100mm diameter. The length of the pipeline up to the summit is 30m and the total length is
90m. Water surface elevation in the branch canal is 10m below that of main canal. Take f = 0.025 and
consider all losses.
a) If the total quantity of water required to be conveyed is 0.05m3/s, how many pipelines are needed?
b) What is the maximum permissible height of the summit above the water level in the main canal so
that the water pressure at the summit may not fall below 20 Kpa absolute, the barometer reading being
10m of water?
Solution:
31
f = 0.025
VA = VC= 0
a) no. of pipelines for discharge of 0.05m3/s = ?

Applying Bernoulli's equation between two points A and C (working in terms of absolute pressure)
( )
( )
V = 2.86 m/s
Q = AV = 0.0785x2.86 = 0.02245 m3/s
Discharge through a 100mm diameter pipe = 0.02245 m3/s
no. of pipelines for discharge of 0.05m3/s = 0.05/0.002245 = 3
B
Za
Zb
Datum
32
b) Atmospheric pressure = 10.0 m of water absolute
Pressure at summit = 20 KPa of water absolute
Pressure head at summit(Pb/)= 20x103/9810 =2.04m of water absolute
Maximum permissible height of the summit above the water level(h) = ?
absolute pressure)
( )
( )
h = 4.2m
The siphon pipe of diameter 200mm shown in the fig. below discharges 120 l/s of water to the
atmosphere. Find the total loss of head from point A to C in terms of the velocity head V 2/2g. Find also
the pressure head at B if the total loss of head from A to B is two-thirds of the total loss of head.
2m
Water 1.5m
Solution:
Discharge (Q) = 120lps = 0.12 m3/s
Va= 0
33
Vb = Vc = V= Velocity of flow
Head loss between A to C (hlAC) = ?

Pressure at B (PB)=?
Head loss between A to B ( )

Velocity of water (V) = Q/A = 0.12/0.0314 = 3.82m/s
( )
( )
k = 1.017
= = 0.756m
Head loss between A to B ( ) = = 0.504m

Applying Bernoulli's equation between two points A and B (neglecting minor losses and working in terms
=7.05m (abs)
(-3.25m gauge)
Water hammer in pipes

A water main of concrete pipe, 3.2km long and 30 cm in diameter discharges into a reservoir at the rate
of 9 Million liters per day. If this line is gradually closed by operating a valve at the reservoir end in 16
second, prove that there is risk of pipe burst (Take pressure capacity of the concrete pipe is 25m).
34
Solution:
Length of pipe (L) = 3.2km = 3200m
Diameter of pipe (D) = 30 cm = 0.3m
Cross-sectional area of pipe (A) = = 0.07068 m2
Rate of flow (Q) = 9x106litres/day = = 0.104 m3/s

Velocity of flow (V) = Q/A = 0.104/0.07068 = 1.47 m/s
closure time (T) = 16Sec
Pressure head due to gradual closure of valve (H) = = 30 m

The pressure capacity of the concrete is only 25m but the developed pressure is 30m.Hence there is
possibility of pipe burst.
The water is flowing with a velocity of 1.8m/s in a pipe of length 2000m and of diameter 500mm. At the
end of the pipe, a valve is provided. Find the rise in pressure if the valve is closed in (a) 20Seconds (b) 2
seconds. Assume the pipe to be rigid and take Bulk modulus of water (K) = 19.62x104 N/cm2.
Solution:
Velocity of flow (V) = 1.8m/s
Bulk modulus of water (K) = 19.62x108 N/cm2 =19.62x104 N/cm2 = 19.62x108 N/m2
Rise in pressure (P) =?
For rigid pipe,
Velocity of pressure wave ( ) √ √ = 1400 m/s
Here, = 2.85S
a) T = 20S
As T>2L/c, the valve closure is gradual
= 180000 N/m2 = 180 KN/m2
(b) T= 2s
As T<2L/c, the valve closure is sudden.
= 2520000 N/m2 = 2520 KN/m2
A 200mm diameter pipe of mild steel having 6mm thickness carries water at the rate of 200 lps. What
will be the rise in pressure if the valve of the downstream end is closed instantaneously? Compare the
35
results assuming the pipe to be rigid as well as elastic. Take pipe length as 6km, Modulus of elasticity of
steel (E) = 2.47x1011 N/m2 and Bulk modulus of water (K) = 2.075x109 N/m2.
What should be the maximum closing time for the computed results to be valid?
Solution:
Thickness of pipe (t) = 6mm = 0.006m
Length of pipe (L) = 6km = 6000m
Modulus of elasticity of steel (E) = 2.47x1011 N/m2
Bulk modulus of water (K) = 2.075x109 N/m2.
Rise in pressure (P) = ?
Maximum closure time (T) = ?
Velocity of pressure wave for rigid pipe( ) √ √ = 1440 m/s
Velocity of pressure waves in case of elastic pipe (C) =√ √

( ) ( )
= 1273 m/s
For rigid pipe
= 1000x6.37x1440=1972800 N/m2 = 9172.8 KN/ m2
For elastic pipe
= 1000x6.37x1273= 8109010 N/m2 = 8109.01 KN/m2
Maximum closure time for rigid pipe = = 8.3 S

Maximum closure time for elastic pipe = = 9.4 S
Determine the discharge through a cast iron pipe 20cm diameter having 2cm wall thickness if the valve
at the end is closed suddenly. The stress in the pipe is not to exceed 2 x107 N/m2. Take Modulus of
elasticity of pipe (E) = 1.3x1011 N/m2 and Bulk modulus of water (K) = 2 x109 N/m2.
Solution:
Diameter of pipe (D) = 20 cm = 0.2m
Thickness of pipe (t) = 2cm = 0.02m
Stress ( ) = 2 x107 N/m2
Modulus of elasticity of pipe (E) = 1.3x1011 N/m2
36
Bulk modulus of water (K) = 2x109 N/m2.
Discharge (Q) = ?
Pressure (P) = = 4x106 N/m2
Velocity of pressure waves (C) =√ √ = 1316.5m/s

( ) ( )
V = 3.03/s
Q = AV = 0.0314x3.03 = 0.095 m3/s
Water flows through a 40cm diameter 800m long pipe at rate of 3000lpm. The static pressure of water
in the pipe is 70 KPa and the thickness of pipe material is 6mm. Compute the instantaneous pressure of
water when a valve at the end of the pipe is closed abruptly. What is the maximum hoop stress in the
pipe? Take Bulk modulus of water = 2x109 N/m2 and Young’s modulus of steel = 2.09x1011 N/m2.
Solution:
Diameter of pipe (D) = 0.4m
Thickness of pipe (t) = 6mm = 0.006m
Rate of flow (Q) = 3000 lpm = 0.05 m3/s
Static pressure of water (Po) = 70 Kpa
Modulus of elasticity of steel (E) = 2.09x1011 N/m2
Bulk modulus of water (K) = 2 x109 N/m2
Instantaneous pressure of water = ?
Maximum hoop stress = ?
Pressure rise due to water hammer is
√ √ = 442001 Pa = 442 KPa
Maximum pressure (P) = Ph+Po = 442+70 = 512 Kpa

Maximum hoop stress
= 17066 KN/m2
37
Open Channel flow
Uniform flow
A rectangular channel of 6.1m wide is laid on a slope of 0.00013. The channel carries discharge of
6.8m3/s. Compute the normal depth of the channel and maximum shear stress on the bed taking n =
0.0149.
Solution:
Width (b) = 6.1m
Discharge (Q) = 6.8 m3/s
Channel slope (S) = 0.00013
n = 0.0149
Normal depth (yn) =?
Maximum bed shear stress (τ0) = ?
A = b yn = = 6.1 yn m2
P = b + 2 yn = 6.1+2 yn m
From Manning’s equation
( )
√
( )
Solving for yn
yn = 1.465m
= 0.989
= 9810x0.989x0.00013 = 1.26 N/m2
38
A circular drainage pipe 0.8m in diameter conveys a discharge at a depth of 0.25m. If the pipe is laid on a
slope of 1 in 900, calculate discharge. Take n = 0.015.
Solution:
Diameter (D) = 0.8m
Flow depth (y) = 0.25m
Slope (S) = 1/900
n = 0.015
O
Discharge (Q) =? θ
A B
D
OA=OB=OC = 0.4m y
OD = OC-CD = 0.4-0.25 = 0.15m
θ = arccos(0.15/0.4) = 1.186 rad = 680 C
Flow area (A) = Area of sector OACB- Area of triangle AOB
( ) ( ) = 0.134m2
Wetted perimeter (P) = =1.186x0.8 = 0.949m
Hydraulic radius (R) = A/P = 0.134/0.949 = 0.141m
( ) ( )
3
= 0.08 m /s
An open channel is to be designed to carry 1 m3/s at a slope of 0.0065. Find the most economical cross-
section for (a) a rectangular section, (b) a trapezoidal section, (c) a triangular section and (d) a
semicircular section. Take n = 0.01.
Solution:
Discharge (Q) = 1 m3/s
S =0.0065
n = 0.01
a. For most economical Rectangular section, b = 2y

A = by =2y2
P = b+2y = 4y
R= A/P =0.5y
( )
y = 0.42m
39
b = 2x0.42 = 0.84m
b. For most economical Triangular section, Z:1 = 1:1

A= Zy2 = y2
√ √
R= A/P = √ = 0.353y
( )
y = 0.59m
c. For most economical Trapezoidal section

Z:1 = and
√
(√ )
With Z:1 =
√
√
A = (b+zy)y = ( )
√ √
R = A/P = 0.5y
( )
y = 0.44m
√ =0.51m
d. For most economical semi-circular section,

,
R = A/P = 0.25D
( )
D = 0.92m
y = D/2 = 0.46m
Find the width and depth of rectangular channel to convey a discharge of 1.2 m3/s at a velocity of
0.4m/s. The bed slope of the channel is 0.0001. Take n = 0.014.
Solution:
Velocity (V) =0.4m/s
40
Channel slope (S) = 0.0001
n = 0.014
Width (b) =?
Depth (y) =?
A=Q/V = 1.2/0.4=3 m2
A = by
3=by
y=3/b
P = b + 2y = =
( ) ( )
Solving for b
b = 0.97m, 6.3m
y = 3/b = 3.1m, 0.48m
A triangular gutter whose sides include an angle of 600 conveys water at a uniform depth of 250mm. If
the bed gradient is 1 in 200, find the discharge. Take Chezy’s C = 50.
t t
0.25m
0
60
Solution:
Depth (y) = 0.25m
Slope (S) = 1/200
C = 50
Discharge (Q) =?
t = 0.25tan30 = 0.144m
Base = 2t = 0.288m
A= = 0.036 m2
P =2x0.25/Cos30 = 0.57m
R = A/P = 0.063
√ = √ = 0.032 m3/s
41
A channel of trapezoidal section has to discharge 24 m3/s of water at a velocity of 1.5 m/s. If the bed
width is 10 times the depth of flow and the side slopes are 1V to 1H, find the bed width, depth of flow
and the bed slope. Take n = 0.013.
Solution:
Velocity (V) = 1.5 m/s
Z:1 =1:1
n = 0.013
Flow depth (y) = ?
Bottom width (b) = ?
Bed Slope (S) = ?
b = 10y
A=Q/V = 16m2
( ) ( ) =11y2
2
16 = 11y
y = 1.2m
b = 10x1.2 = 12m
√ √ = 15.4m
R =A/P = 1.038
( )
S=0.00036
A trapezoidal channel to carry 120 cum/min of water is designed to have the best section. Find the
bottom width and depth if the bed slope is 1 in 1000, the side slope is at 450. Take Chezy’s C = 60.
Solution:
Trapezoidal channel
Discharge (Q) =120 cum/min = 120/60 m3/s = 2 m3/s
Z = 1/tan45 = 1
Z:1 = 1:1
Bed slope (S) = 1/1000
C = 60
For most economical trapezoidal channel,

Top width = 2xlength of sloping side
(√ )
(√ )
42
b = 0.828y
A = (b+zy)y = (0.828y+1xy)y = 1.828y2
R =y/2
√
√
y = 0.87m
b = 0.828x0.9 = 0.72m
A power canal of trapezoidal section has to be excavated through hard clay at the least cost. Determine
the dimensions of the channel given, discharge = 15 m3/s, bed slope =1 in 2500 and n = 0.02.
Solution:
Discharge (Q) =15 m3/s
n = 0.02
For trapezoidal channel of best section, side slope = 600
Z:1 =
√
Top width = 2xlength of sloping side
(√ )
(√ ( ) )
√ √
A = (b+zy)y =( ) = 1.732y2
√ √
R =y/2
( ) ( )
y = 2.67m
= 3.1m
√
A lined rectangular channel with n = 0.015 is 4.5m wide and has a flow depth of 2m with bed slope of 1
in 1600. Retaining the rectangular shape of the channel section and the same total area of lining, to
what maximum extent can discharge be increased without changing the slope.
Solution:
Width (b) = 4.5m
Flow depth (y) = 2m
43
n = 0.015
A1 = by = 4.5x2 = 9 m2
P1 = b + 2y = 4.5+2x2 = 8.5 m
R1 =A/P = 9/8.5 = 1.058m
Discharge through the channel
( ) ( ) = 15.57 m3/s
Second case is the case of the economical channel. In this case b = 2y

Area of lining per m length is same in both cases. i.e. wetted perimeter = constant
So, P2 = 8.5m
P2= b2+2y2
8.5 =2y2 + 2y2
y2 = 2.125m
b2 = 2y2 =4.25
A2 = b2y2 = 4.25x2.125 = 9.03 m2

P2 = b2 + 2y2 = 4.25+2x2.125 = 8.5 m
R2 =A2/P2 = 9.03/8.5 = 1.062m
Discharge through the channel
( ) ( ) = 15.66 m3/s
Increase in discharge = 15.66-15.57 = 0.09 m3/s
A trapezoidal channel having side slope of 1:1 has to carry a flow of 15m3/s. The bed slope is 1 in 1000.
Chezy’s C is 45 if the channel is unlined and 70 if the channel is lined with concrete. The cost per m 3 of
excavation is 3 times cost per m2 of lining. Find which arrangement is economical.
Solution:
Discharge (Q) = 15m3/s
Z:1 = 1:1
For channel of best section,
(√ )
(√ )
b = 0.8284y
A = (b+zy)y = (0.8284y+y)y = 1.8284 y2
cost per m2 of lining = p, cost per m3 of excavation = 3p
case a: Unlined channel
44
C = 70
√
√
y = 2.31m
A = 1.8284x2.312 = 9.756m2
Cost of excavation for 1 m length = 9.756x1x3p = 29.268p
case b: Lined canal

C = 70
√
√
y = 1.94m
A = 1.8284x1.942 = 6.881m2
(√ ) (√ ) = 7.094m
For 1m length
cost of excavation = 6.881x1x3p = 20.643p
cost of lining = 7.094x1xp = 7.094p
Total cost = 27.737p (<29.268p)
The lined channel is more economical.
Determine the most economical section of a trapezoidal channel with side slope of 2:1, carrying a
discharge of 11.5m3/s with a velocity of 0.75m/s. What should be the bed slope of the channel? Take n
= 0.025.
For conveying same discharge, if a rectangular channel 1.5m deep and 3m wide is provided what would
be the saving in power per km length of channel?
Solution:
Trapezoidal
Z:1 = 2:1
n= 0.025
Discharge (Q) = 11.5m3/s
Velocity (V) = 0.75m/s
For most economical trapezoidal channel,

(√ )
(√ )
b = 0.472y
45
A = (b+zy)y = (0.472y+2y)y = 2.472y2
√ √ = 4.944y
R =A/P = 0.5y
Q = AV
11.5 = 2.472y2x0.75
y = 2.49m
b = 0.472x2.49 = 1.17m
A = 2.472x 2.492 = 15.326 m2

R = 0.5x2.49 = 1.245m
S = 0.00026
Rectangular
b =3m, y =1.5m
A = by = 3x1.5= 4.5 m2
P = b + 2y = 3+2x1.5 = 6m
R =A/P = 0.75m
S = 0.006
Head saved per km (H) = (0.006-0.00026)x1000 = 5.74m [Head = SL]
Saving in power = =9810x11.5x5.74 = 647558W = 647.5 KW
46
Weir and notch
The maximum flow through a rectangular flume 1m deep and 1.5m wide is 0.75 m3/s. It is proposed to
install a full width, sharp-edged rectangular weir across flume to measure the flow. Find the maximum
height at which the crest of the weir must be placed in order the water may not overflow the sides of
the flume. Neglect velocity of approach. Take Cd = 0.6
Solution:
Width of weir (b) = 1.5m
Cd = 0.6
Discharge over a rectangular weir without velocity of approach is
√
√
H = 0.43m
Height of crest of weir above the bottom of flume = Z
Z+H = 1
Z =1-0.43 = 0.57m
Water flows in a rectangular channel at a velocity of 1m/s, at a depth of 0.3m. Find the height of a
sharp-crested weir to be installed in the channel so as to raise the upstream depth to 1.1m. Take C d =
0.6. Neglect velocity of approach.
Solution:
Length of weir = width of channel = L
Discharge (Q) = C/s area x velocity = O.3Lx1 = 0.3L
Cd = 0.6
√
√
H = 0.3m
Height of weir above the bottom of channel = 1.1-0.3 = 0.8m
Find the depth and top width of a triangular notch to discharge a maximum of 0.6 m3/s and such that
the head shall be 60mm when the discharge is 0.005 m3/s. Take Cd = 0.62
Solution:
For discharge (Q) = 0.005 m3/s, Head (H) = 0.06m
Cd = 0.62
47
√ ( ) (a)
√ ( )
( ) = 3.87
For discharge, Q’ = 0.6m3/s, let Head =H’
√ ( ) (b)
Dividing b by a
( )
( )
H’ = 0.4m
Width of water surface = ( ) = 2x0.4x3.87 = 3.1m
Water flows over a rectangular weir 1m wide at a depth of 160mm and afterwards passes through a
right angled weir. Taking Cd for rectangular and triangular weir as 0.62 and 0.59 respectively, find the
depth over the triangular weir.
Solution:
Width of rectangular weir (L) = 1m
Head (H) =0.16m
√
√
= 0.12 m3/s
900 V-notch
√ ( )
√ ( )
h = 0.37m
Water is flowing in a rectangular channel of 1m wide and 0.8m deep. Find the discharge over a
rectangular weir of crest length 60cm if the head of water over the crest of weir is 30cm and water from
channel flows over the weir. Take Cd = 0.62. Take velocity of approach into consideration.
Solution:
Area of channel (A) = 1x0.8 = 0.8 m2
Length of weir (L) = 0.6m
Head of water (H1) = 0.3m
Cd = 0.62
48
√
√ = 0.18 m3/s
Velocity of approach (Va) = Q/A = 0.18/0.8 = 0.225 m/s
Velocity head ( ) = 0.00258m
√ [( ) ]
√ [( ) ] =0.183 m3/s
A rectangular weir 6m long is divided is divided into 3 bays by 2 vertical posts, each 250mm wide.
Determine the discharge over the weir if the head over the crest is 0.42m. Use Francis’s formula
Solution:
Length = 6m
1 bay = 2 end contractions
n = 3x2 =6
Effective length of weir (L) = 6-2x0.25 = 5.5m
Head over crest (H) = 0.42m
Discharge over weir (Q) = ?
( )
( ) = 2.71m3/s
A weir 36m long is divided into 12 equal bays by vertical posts, each 0.6m wide. Determine the discharge
over the weir if the head over the crest is 1.2m and velocity of approach is 1.2m/s. Use Francis’s formula
Solution:
Length = 36m
1 bay = 2 end contractions
n = 12x2 =24
For 12 bays, there would be 11 vertical posts.
Effective length of weir (L) = 36-11x0.6 = 29.4m
Velocity of approach (Va) = 1.2m/s
Head over crest (H) = 1.2m
Discharge over weir (Q) = ?
Velocity head ( ) = 0.07m
( ( )) [( ) ]
( ( )[( ) ]= 68.5 m3/s
49
Specific energy
Water flows through a rectangular channel, 3m wide, with a velocity of 1.25m/s. The depth of flow is
0.5m. Compute (a) specific energy, (b) specific force, (c) alternate depth, (d) conjugate depth, (e) critical
depth for the discharge and (f) type of flow.
Solution:
Width of channel (b) = 3m
Depth (y) = 0.5m
(a) Specific energy ( ) = 0.579m
(b) Q = AV = (3x0.5)X1.25 = 1.875m3/s
Specific force ( ) ̅ ( ) = 0.614m
( )
(c) Alternate depth (y1) = ?
For y = 0.5m, Froude number ( ) = 0.56. The flow is subcritical.
√ √
The alternate depth should be in supercritical flow, i.e. it is less than 0.5m.
( )
Solving for y1
y1 = 0.2435m
(d) Conjugate depth (y2) = ?
̅̅̅
Solving for y2
y2 = 0.2208m
(e) Critical depth ( ) ( ) ( ) = 0.3414m

(f) As y>yc, the flow is subcritical.
Calculate the critical depth (yc) and corresponding specific energy (EC) for the following different shapes
of channel when Q = 7.5 m3/s.
(a) Rectangular channel with b = 4m
(b) Triangular channel with Z:1 = 0.5:1
(c) Trapezoidal channel with b = 3.6m, Z:1 =2:1
50
Solution:
a) Rectangular channel
b= 4m
q = Q/b =7.5/4 = 1.875 m3/s/m
( ) =( ) = 0.71m
= 1.5x0.71 = 1.065m
b) Triangular channel
Z:1 = 0.5:1
At critical depth,
( )
( ) ( ) = 2.15m
= 1.25x2.15 = 2.68m
c) Trapezoidal channel
b = 3.6m, Z:1 =2:1
At critical depth,
[( ) ]
[( ) ]
[( ) ]
Solving for yc by trial

yc = 0.669m
( ) = (3.6+2x0.669)x0.669 = 3.3 m2
Vc = Q/Ac = 7.5/3.3 = 2.27m/s
= 0.931m
51
A rectangular channel 7.5m wide carries 12m3/s with a velocity 1.5 m/s. Compute specific energy. Also
find depth of flow when specific energy is minimum. What will be the value of critical velocity as well as
minimum specific energy?
Solution:
Channel width (b) = 7.5m
Specific energy (E) = ?
Critical depth (yc) = ?
Critical velocity (Vc) = ?
Minimum specific energy (EC) = ?
A = Q/V = 12/1.5 = 8 m2
Depth of flow (y) = A/b = 8/7.5 = 1.067m
= 1.18m
q= Q/b = 12/7.5 = 1.6 m3/s/m
( ) =( ) = 0. 639m
√ √ = 2.503m/s
Ec = 1.5 yc = 1.5x0.639 = 0.9585m
A 4.9m wide rectangular channel carries a discharge of 20m3/s at a depth of 2m.

(a) Calculate the depth of flow over a hump of 0.3m on the bed. (b) What will be the minimum rise in
the bed level required to obtain critical depth over the rise? (c) What will be the water depths u/s and
over the hump if the bed level is raised by 0.7m?
Solution:
Channel width (b) = 4.9m
U/s depth (y1) = 2m
Discharge per unit width (q) = 20/4.9 = 4.08m3/s/m
Velocity at 1 ( ) = 2.04 m/s
Froude no. at 1 ( ) = 0.46

√ √
As Fr1<1, the u/s flow is subcritical and the transition will cause a drop in water level.
Specific energy at u/s (E1) = = 2.212m
52
( ) ( ) = 1.193m
Critical depth occurs at section 2.
At section 2, specific energy (E2) = Emin = 1.5yc = 1.5x1.193 = 1.7895m
a) Rise ( ) =0.3m
= 2.212-0.3 = 1.912m
E2>Emin, the flow is sub-critical.
Depth of flow over hump (y2) = ?
Solving for y2 (y2>yc, y2<y1)

y2 =1.566m
b) Minimum rise in bed level ( ) =?

Critical depth occurs at section 2.
As calculated above, Specific energy at u/s (E1) = 2.212m and minimum specific energy at section 2 (E2) =
Emin = 1.7895m
= 2.212-1.7895 = 0.4225m
c) Rise ( ) =0.7m
Water depth over hump (y2) = ?
U/s water depth (y1a) = ?
= 2.212-0.7 = 1.512m
As E2<Emin, specific energy at 1 is inadequate for water to flow at critical depth at section 2. Hence the
depth at section 1 increases to y1a and depth at section 2 is critical.
y2 = yc = 1.193m and E2 = Emin
Solving y1a by trial and error (y1a>y1)

Solving for y1a
y1a = 2.333m
53
U/s depth = 2.333m
A 6m wide rectangular channel carries a discharge of 30m3/s at a depth of 2.7m.

(a) Calculate the width at which the channel should be contracted so that the depth in the contracted
section is critical. (b) What will be the depth at the contracted section if width there is 5m? (c) What will
be the depth of flow in the u/s and in the contracted section if the width of channel is reduced to 3.1m?
Solution:
Channel width (b) = 6m
Flow rate (Q) = 30m3/s
Flow depth (y1) = 2.7m
Velocity at 1 ( ) = 1.85m/s
Froude no. at 1 ( ) = 0.36

√ √
a) Minimum width at contraction (bm) = ?
Discharge per unit width at 1 (q1) = 30/6 = 5m3/s/m
Specific energy at u/s (E1) = = 2.875m
At the contacted section, specific energy (E2) = E1 = 2.875m
Ec = E 2
Critical depth at contracted section (yc)= = 1.916m
( ) ( )
Bm = 3.61m
b) Width (b2) = 5m
Depth at contracted section (y2) = ?
As b2>bm(critical width), the flow in the contracted section will not be critical.
At u/s, ( ) ( ) = 1.365m
Discharge per unit width at 2 (q2) = Q/b2 = 30/5 = 6m3/s/m

E1 =E2
54
Solving for y2 (y2>yc, y2<y1)
y2 = 2.605m (>yc)
c) Width (b2) = 3.1m

Depth at contracted section (y2) = ?
Depth at u/s section (y1a) = ?
Discharge per unit width (q2) = Q/b2 = 30/3.1 = 9.677m3/s/m
As b2<bm, the flow cannot take place with the given specific energy (E2<Emin). So the flow in the
contracted section should be critical.
( ) ( ) = 2.121m
Emin = E2 = 1.5yc = 1.5x2.121 = 3.181m
However, since E1 = 2.875m, the flow cannot occur unless E1a =Emin = 3.181m
Solving for y1a (y1a>y1)

U/s depth = 3.043m
Depth at contracted section = critical depth = 2.121m
A discharge of 16 m3/s flows with a depth of 2m in a 4m wide rectangular channel. At a downstream

section, the width is reduced to 3.5m and the channel bed is raised by 0.35m. To what extent will the
surface elevation be affected by these changes?
Solution:
Width of channel at 1 (b1) = 4m
Width of channel at 1 (b2) = 3.5m
Depth of channel at 1 (y1) = 2m
Rise in bed level at 2 ( ) =0.35m
Velocity at 1 ( ) = 2m/s
Froude no. at 1 ( ) = 0.45

√ √
Critical depth at 2 (yc2) = ( ) ( ) = 1.287m
55
Minimum specific energy (Ec2) = 1.5 yc2 = 1.5x1.287= 1.9305m
Specific energy at u/s (E1) = ( ) ( )

= 2.2038m
= 2.2038-0.35 = 1.8538m
As E2<Ec2, the flow is not possible. So, the d/s depth should be critical and the u/s depth will increase to
y1a.
y2 = yc2 =1.287m , E2= Ec2 = 1.9305m
( )
Solving for y1a (y1a>y1)

y1a = 2.0946m
Upstream elevation will rise by 0.0946m.
56
GVF
A rectangular channel conveying a discharge of 30 m3/s is 12m wide with a bed slope 1 in 6000 and
having Manning’s n = 0.025. The depth of flow at a section is 1.5m. Find how far upstream or
downstream of this section the depth of flow will be 2m. Find also the type of profile. Use direct step
method for calculation and take only two steps for calculation.
Solution:
Bed slope (S0) = 1/6000
n = 0.025
Computation by direct step

y A p R V E Sf ̅ x
1.5 18 15 1.2 1.67 1.642 0.001367 0
1.8 21.6 15.6 1.385 1.39 1.898 0.000782 0.001075 -281.9 281.9
2 24 16 1.5 1.25 2.08 0.000569 0.000676 -357.6 639.5
Formulae used in the table

, R =A/P
V= Q/A, E = y +V2/2g, ,̅ [( ) ( )]
̅̅̅̅
, x = cumulative sum of
At a distance of 639.5m, the depth is 2m.
Critical depth is given by

( ) ( ) = 0.86m
Computing normal depth
( )
√
( )
√
( )
Solving for yn
yn = 3.03m
As yn>yc, the channel slope is Mild.
57
As yn>y>yc, the profile is M2. Therefore, 2m depth occurs at a distance of 639.5m u/s of section 1.
The normal depth in a 10m wide rectangular channel having a bottom slope 0.001 is 2m. The Manning’s
n is 0.02. The construction of bridge raises the upstream water level by 1m. Determine the distance
from the bridge where the flow depth is 2.5m. What is the slope of water surface?
Solution:
Width (b) = 10m
Channel bed slope (S0) = 0.001
n = 0.02
Normal depth (yn) =2m
Discharge
( ) ( ) ( )
= 40.1 m3/s
Computation by direct step taking single step

y A p R V E Sf ̅ x
3 30 16 1.875 1.33 3.09 0.000306 0
2.5 25 15 1.66 1.6 2.63 0.000521 0.000414 -785 -785
Distance from the bridge where flow depth is 2.5m = 785m

, R =A/P
V= Q/A, E = y +V2/2g, ,̅ [( ) ( )]
̅̅̅̅
, x = cumulative sum of
slope of water surface = = 1/1570
58
Hydraulic jump
Water flows at a rate of 20 m3/s through a rectangular section of 4m wide creating a hydraulic jump. The
upstream depth of flow is 1.2m. Will a hydraulic jump form? If so, compute downstream depth (sequent
depth), energy lost, power in the jump, height of jump, length of jump, and efficiency of jump.
Solution:
u/s depth (y1) = 1.2m
u/s Velocity (V1) = = 4.16 m/s
u/s Froude no. ( ) = 1.2

√ √
Fr1>1 (supercritical)
d/s depth (y2)

( √ )
( √ ) = 1.52m
d/s Velocity (V2) = = 3.29 m/s
d/s Froude no. ( ) = 0.85

√ √
Fr2<1 (subcritical)
Energy lost ( )
( )
( )
= 0.0045m
Power in the jump (P)
( ) = 9810x20x0.0045 = 883W
Height of jump (Hj)
Hj = y2 - y1 = 1.52-1.2 = 0.32m
Length of jump (Lj)
Lj = 6 Hj = 6x0.32 = 1.92m
Efficiency of jump (η)
= 2.082m
= 2.07m
= 0.99
The head of water over the crest of the spillway is 2m. The bed level of the downstream channel is 34m
below the crest. Find the depth of flow near the beginning of the channel. Also compute the sequent
59
depth of the hydraulic jump. Assume Cd = 0.735m for the spillway. Neglect energy loss due to flow over
the spillway.
2m
34m
y2
y1
1
Solution:
Head (H) = 2m
Coefficient of discharge (Cd) = 0.735
Discharge per unit width (q) = √ √ = 6.139 m3/s/m
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at upstream and at 1 (neglecting velocity head at u/s)
Solving
y1 = 0.232m
V1 = q/ y1 = 6.139/0.232 = 26.46m/s
= 17.5
√ √
Sequent depth
( √ )
( √ ) = 5.627m
Water flows under a sluice gate in a very wide rectangular at the rate of 6m3/s/m. Given Bed slope = 1 in
900, n = 0.015, depth at vena-contracta (y1) = 1m, verify whether hydraulic jump occurs and also find the
location of location jump downstream of the gate. Use direct step method and solve in 1 step.
60
2
3
q = 6m /s/m
1
y2
y0 y1
A B C
Solution:
Discharge (q) = 6m3/s/m
n = 0.015
Bed slope (S0) = 1/900
Depth at vena-contracta (y0) = 1m
Location of jump (AB) = ?
For wide rectangular channel R = y

Velocity at vena-contracta (V0) = q/y0 =6/1 = 6 m/s
( ) ( ) = 1.542m
Finding normal depth
( )
yn = 1.814m
As yn>yc, M3 profile will be formed d/s of gate.

At vena-contracta
= 1.915>1. The flow is supercritical. (y0<yc)
√ √
At 2, the depth becomes equal to normal depth.
y2 = yn = 1.814m
V2 = q/y2 = 6/1.814 = 3.307m/s
= 0.78 <1. The flow is subcritical.
√ √
As the flow changes from supercritical to subcritical, hydraulic jump will occur.
Finding depth before jump (y1)
61
( √ )
( √ ) = 1.289m
Length of jump (BC) = 6(y2-y1) = 6(1.814-1.289) = 3.15m
Finding length AB by direct step method with y0 = 1m and y1 = 1.289, S0 = 1/900 (single step)
y R V E Sf ̅
1 1 6.000 2.835 0.0081
1.289 1.289 4.654771 2.393 0.003475 0.005788 94.42
AB = 94.42m
The jump starts at a distance of 94.42m d/s of vena-contracta.

R=y (For wide rectangular channel)
V= q/y, E = y +V2/2g, ,̅ [( ) ( )]
̅̅̅̅
Water issues out under a sluice gate, the opening of which is 0.25m deep in a rectangular channel
through which flows a discharge of 1 m3/s per m width. Taking coefficient of contraction (Cc) = 0.6,
determine if hydraulic jump can occur. If so, determine the depth after the jump and the loss of head
due to the jump.
2
3
q = 1m /s/m
y2
Y1
A
Solution:
Discharge (q) = 6m3/s/m
Opening = 0.25m
Coefficient of contraction (Cc) = 0.6
= 0.15m
V1 = q/ y1 = 1/0.15 = 6.66m/s
62
= 5.5
√ √
As Fr1>1, the flow is supercritical.
Sequent depth
( √ )
( √ ) =1.1m
V2= q/ y2 = 1/1.1 = 0.91m/s
= 0.285
√ √
As Fr2<1, the flow is subcritical.
As the flow changes from supercritical to subcritical state, hydraulic jump occurs.
Energy lost ( )
( )
( )
= 1.3m
Mobile Boundary Channel

A wide rectangular channel in alluvium of 5mm median size (relative density = 2.65) has a longitudinal
slope of 0.0004. Estimate the depth of flow in this channel which will cause incipient motion.
Solution:
Slope (S) = 0.0004
Size of sediment (d) = 5mm
Depth of flow (y) = ?
For incipient motion to begin
( )
( )
( ) = 4.53Pa
For wide rectangular channel
y =1.15m
Design a straight trapezoidal channel for Q = 6.5 m3/s. The bottom slope is 0.0007 and the channel is
excavated through fine gravel having particle size of 8mm. Use tractive force method. (Take Z:1 = 3:1
and angle of repose = 300 for 8mm gravel)
Solution:
63
Discharge (Q) =6.5 m3/s
Bed slope (S0) =0.0007
Z:1 = 3:1
Angle of repose (φ) = 300
Particle size (d) = 8mm
Channel depth (y) = ?
Channel width (b) = ?
Tanθ = 1/3
√
[ ] [ ] =0.77
Consider straight channel, K2 = 0.9
For d>6mm,
( )
( )
2
7.25 N/m
( )
Manning’s n = = 0.021
Tractive shear on the bed ( ) = 0.9x7.25 = 6.525 N/m2

Tractive shear on the side ( ) = 0.77x6.525 = 5.02 N/m2
( ) = 9810x0.0007y = 6.867y
( ) =0.75x9810x0.0007y= 5.15y
Making ( )
y = 0.95m
Making ( )
y = 0.97m
Take smaller value of y.

y = 0.95m
Finding b using Manning’s equation (considering trapezoidal channel)
( ) ( )
√ √
64
( )( )
( )
( )
Solving
b = 4.31m
Similitude and physical modeling

In 1:30 model of a spillway, the velocity and discharge are 1.5m/s and 2 m 3/s. Find the corresponding
velocity and discharge in the prototype.
Solution:
Linear scale ratio (Lr) = 1/30
Velocity of model (Vm) = 1.5m/s
Discharge of model (Qm) = 2 m3/s
Velocity of prototype (Vp) = ?
Discharge of prototype (Qp) = ?
From Froude model law,

Fr)model = Fr)prototype
√ √
√
Vp = 8.2 m/s
√ =
( )
Qp = 9859 m3/s
The pressure drop in an aeroplane model of size 1/50 of its prototype is 4 N/cm 2. The model is tested in
water. Find the corresponding pressure drop in prototype. Take density of air = 1.24 kg/m 3. The viscosity
of water is 0.01 poise while the viscosity of air is 0.00018 poise.
65
Solution:
Linear scale ratio (Lr) = 1/50
Pressure drop in model (Pm) = 4 N/cm2 = 4x104 N/m2
Density of air (ρp) = 1.24 kg/m3
Density of water (ρm) = 1000 kg/m3
Viscosity of water (μm) = 0.01 poise = 0.001 PaS
Viscosity of air (μp) = 0.00018 poise = 0.000018 PaS
Pressure drop in prototype (Pp) = ?
As the problem involves both viscous and pressure force, we have to use both Reynolds and Euler model
law.
From Reynolds’ model law
Re)model = Re) Prototype
Vm = 3.44 Vp
From Euler model law

Eu) model = Eu) prototype
√ √
√ √
Pp = 4.2 N/m2
66

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Hydraulics Numerical Examples

As Re<2000, the flow is laminar.

b) Head loss (hf) = ?

Pressure difference, or = 900x9.81x46.1 = 407017 Pa = 407.017 Kpa

c) Maximum velocity (umax) = ?

Cross sectional area (A) = = 0.000314 m2

Piezometric head B (Hb) = =

Rate of flow (Q) = ?

Average velocity (V) = 0.79 m/s

As Re<2000, the flow is laminar

Computing Reynold no. (Re)

As Re<2000, the flow is laminar.

As Re<2000, the assumption of laminar flow is ok.

Shear stress at the pipe wall (τ0) = ?

As shear stress variation is linear

As Re<2000, the flow is laminar.

Head loss in pipes

Rise of hydraulic gradient, i.e. ( ) ( ) = 10mm = 0.01m

Q =A2V2 = = 0.19635x0.181 = 0.0355 m3/s

a) Loss of head due to sudden enlargement (he) = ?

b) Pressure intensity in the larger pipe (P2) =?

Applying Bernoulli’s equation from smaller pipe to larger pipe section

where he =head loss due to sudden enlargement

P2 = 167067 N/m2 = 16.7 N/cm2

(c) Power lost due to enlargement (P) = ?

Loss of head due to expansion

P4 = 107016 Pa = 107.016 Kpa

D1, L1, f1 D2, L2, f2

Total loss = 12m

Total loss = hi + hf1 + he + hf2 + ho = 12 (b)

hf1 =head loss in pipe AB = = = 0.0407( )2 =

hf2 =head loss in pipe CD = = =

hi = 0.408V22 = 0.408 x 1.242 = 0.63m

Position of TEL and HGL

EGL and HGL lines

D1, L1, f1 D2, L2, f2

Average velocity (V) = Q/A = 0.15/0.0314 = 4.77 m/s

For k/D = 0.00125 and Re = 95400, f = 0.024(from Moody’s chart)

a. Using Moody diagram

Reynolds no. (Re) = = 467257

b. Using Colebrook-White equation

Reynolds no. (Re) = = 467257

Take 420mm diameter pipe.

Diameter of pipe (D) = ?

For first trial, assume f = 0.01

Pipes in series and parallel, Three reservoir and Pipe network

a) Neglecting minor losses

From continuity, A1V1 = A2V2 = A3V3

For pipes in series

Discharge (Q) = A1 V1 = = 0.0848 m3/s

b) Considering all losses

sudden contraction between 2 and 3, and = exit loss

c) Length of single pipe (L) =1700m

b) Length of pipe CD (l1) = 400m

Since diameters and lengths of pipes DE and DF are equal, Q2 = Q3

a) Rate of flow (Q1 and Q2) = ?

For parallel pipes

Q1 = 0.009 m3/s = 9 lps

Three reservoir problems

Coefficients: r1=4.0, r2=40and r3=15