Penn State University

Department of Chemistry

CHEM 110 Study Guide

Fill this out before your first recitation. Ask your TA for help if necessary.

Your name Recitation section number & room

Chem 110 lecture time and location TA Name

Chem 110 Instructor’s Name TA e-mail

Instructor’s e-mail address TAs office hours (in 205 Whitmore)

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Suggested Study Cycle

The follow cycle depicts the components of learning that we suggest you use.

General Overview of weekly work cycle.

There are assigned activities (as noted) associated with each of the steps in the cycle. More
specific guidance to help you with time management will be provided by your course instructor.

PREVIEW: Read the eBook (use Reading Guides), complete the required definitions.

ATTEND: Participate in class: work with others on the assigned activities, ask questions.

REVIEW: Complete class activities, check answers, and assess areas of confusion. Review
posted notes for additional guidance.

STUDY: Complete the open-ended homework, then Organize, synthesize, analyze e.g.
prepare a study guide for the weekly work using the learning objectives.

ASSESS: Complete the multiple-choice homework as test/ take CAT quizzes/ do paired
problems in homework assignments.

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Chapter 01.1-3

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of Lessons 01-1-3, you should be able to:

• use the periodic table to determine the numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons in
an atom or ion
• calculate average atomic mass (atomic weight) from atomic (or isotopic) masses and
natural abundances
• convert between molecular and macroscopic amounts of matter and energy using
Avogadro’s number and the mole concept

Lesson 1 definitions
Elaborate on these words together. Use the same example (atom) to explain how these
terms define the structure of the atom.
- atom
- proton - atomic number - ion
- neutron - atomic symbol - cation
- electron - isotope - anion

Lesson 2 definitions
- atomic mass
- molar mass
Elaborate on these words together.
- Avogadro’s number
- mole

Lesson 3 definitions
You will find additional information that will help with this in the section in the eBook on pure
substances. The link is found in Chapter 1, Lesson 3
https://genchem.science.psu.edu/pure-substances
- matter
- elements
- allotrope
- molecule
- compounds
- ions

For the next four words, after finding the glossary definition, provide an example of each.
For elaboration: using your own words, how would you define these terms for your non-scientist
friend?
- chemical properties
- physical properties
- extensive properties
- intensive properties

Copyright 2021 Chemistry Department PSU 5 Study Guide

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Chapter 1.1,3 Structure of an atom

ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND ISOTOPES

We will start with the nuclear model of the atom which states that an atom is made of
protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Table T01-1-1: COMPONENTS OF ATOMS

mass (amu) charge (au)
+
proton p ~1 +1
electron e- ~0 −1
neutron n0 ~1 0

An element is defined by its atomic number (Z) which is equal to the number of protons in
its nucleus.
-------------------------------------
For a neutral atom, the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.
Atoms gain or lose electrons to form ions.
Anion: Negatively charges species Cation: Positively charge species
i.e. Cl− i.e. Na+

-------------------------------------
TOPIC 1 - ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Problem 1-1:
74
Use this atomic symbol to answer the questions below. 32 X
A. What is the identity of the element? Explain how you know.

B. How many protons, neutrons, and electrons does it have? Explain how you know.

Problem 1-2:
%! !"
How many protons, neutrons and electrons does this ion have? #$!

Copyright 2021 Chemistry Department PSU 6 Study Guide

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Chapter 1.1 Structure of an atom

ISOTOPES
For a given element, the number of protons is fixed, but the number of neutrons can vary.

The mass number is equal to the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

Definition: Isotopes -Atoms with the same atomic number but a different number of neutrons
Example: Carbon-12, Carbon-13 and Carbon-14

Atomic mass is the mass of a single atom of a particular isotope.

13 14
12
C C C
12 amu 13.003354 amu 14.00324 amu
98.93% 1.07% <.01%
-------------------------------------

Definition:
Atomic Mass (Atomic Weight) -The average of the masses of an element’s naturally occurring
isotopes weighted according to their abundances.
Carbon
Equation: E01-1-2 Weight listed on the periodic table! 6

C
atomic weight = ∑ ⎡⎣( isotope mass ) × ( fractional natural abundance ) ⎤⎦ 12.011

-------------------------------------

Mass Spectrometer is used to measure masses and abundances of atoms/molecules.

Figure F01-1-4

Mass spectrum of Ne
The isotope abundance is determined from the peak intensity.

Copyright 2021 Chemistry Department PSU 7 Study Guide

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Chapter 1.1 Structure of an atom

TOPIC 2 - ISOTOPES
Problem 2-1:
Chlorine has 2 isotopes: Chlorine-35 and Chlorine-37. Write the symbols (including the atomic
number and mass number) for the isotopes of chlorine. How many protons, neutrons and
electrons do these isotopes have?

Problem 2-2:

A. An atom has only two isotopes. Using the mass spectrum shown below,
determine the average atomic mass of the atom. (The percent abundance
of an isotope is given by the peak intensity.)

B. Use the average atomic mass to determine the identity of the element and
the number of protons it has.

Problem 2-3:
Vanadium has two naturally occurring isotopes:
50
V with an atomic mass of 49.9472 amu and
51
V with an atomic mass of 50.9440 amu
What are the percent abundances of the vanadium isotopes?

Copyright 2021 Chemistry Department PSU 8 Study Guide

 Name___________________________ CHEM 110 Section_________

Chapter 1.2 Avogadro’s number

AVOGADRO’S NUMBER
Issue: Atoms cannot be seen or weighed. The mole is the connection.

Definitions:
One Mole -The number of atoms in exactly 12 g of 12C
Avogadro’s number (NA) = 6.022 × 1023 mol-1
– The number of particles (atoms, molecules, ions…) in one mole of that substance
1 g = 6.02214 × 1023 amu

Key Points:
We can have a mole of anything (atoms, molecules, green peas)
Instead of counting atoms or molecules, we quantify the number in groups called moles
The mass of a compound in grams is related to the mass of a single molecule in amu

TOPIC 3 – AVOGADRO’S NUMBER

Problem 3-1:
A 1 lb bag of skittles has 480 skittles. How many dozen skittles are in a pound? Set up an
appropriate ratio and use units.

Problem 3-2:
A 1 lb bag of skittles has 4.7 × 1021 molecules of sugar. How many moles of sugar is this?

Copyright 2021 Chemistry Department PSU 9 Study Guide

 Name___________________________ CHEM 110 Section_________

Chapter 1.2 Avogadro’s number

MOLAR MASS
Mole – Mass Relationship
Conventions:
1 mole of 12C atoms weighs exactly 12 g
1 atom of 12C weighs exactly 12 amu

Relationship:
Molecular Mass expressed in amu is numerically the same as Molar Mass expressed in grams
per one mole (g/mol) for the same compound.

Consequence: The atomic mass given on the periodic table in amu is also the mass of a mole
of atoms in g.

Element Atomic mass 1 mole of atoms Molar mass

1 atom of Fe = 55.8 amu 6.022 × 1023 atoms of Fe = 55.8 g
1 atom of S = 32.1 amu 6.022 × 1023 atoms of S = 32.1 g

We can determine the number of moles of a compound by weighing the substance (in g) and
using the molar mass (MM in g/mol) to convert to moles.

!&''())
!"# = )
++ , -!"# .

TOPIC 4 – MOLAR MASS

Problem 4-1:
A. How many moles of Pb are in a 51.8 g sample of lead?

B. How many atoms are in the 51.8 g sample of lead?

Problem 4-2:
A. How many moles of methane (CH4) are in a 40.1 g sample?

B. How many moles of hydrogen atoms (H) are in the 40.1 g sample of CH4?

Copyright 2021 Chemistry Department PSU 10 Study Guide

 Name___________________________ CHEM 110 Section_________

Chapter 1.1 Structure of an atom

TOPIC 5 – MODERN VIEW OF THE ATOM

Background:
The modern view of an atom suggests that atoms are almost entirely empty space.

Atom Diameter = 0.1-0.5 nm ~ 10−10m

Nuclear diameter = 10−5 nm = 10−14m
Atom diameter = 10,000 × nuclear diameter

Problem 5-1:
What would be the diameter of an atom if it had an eraser as its nucleus? (Assume that the
diameter of a pencil eraser is 1/8 in. = 0.125 in.)

Copyright 2021 Chemistry Department PSU 11 Study Guide

 Name___________________________ CHEM 110 Section_________

Chapter 01.1-4 Introduction to Energy

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of Lesson 01-4, you should be able to:

• Know the difference between potential and kinetic energy. Be able to give specific
examples of each.
• Identify the “system” and “surroundings” in a given chemical/physical process.
• Apply the 1st Law of Thermodynamics to calculate the change in internal energy of
system, the change in heat of a system, or the change in work of a system given the
other two.
• Define the term State Function and give specific examples.
• Assign positive and negative signs to internal energy, heat, and work.
• Define Electrostatic Potential Energy and apply Coulomb's Law to rank the overall
electrostatic energy, and the strength of attraction for different interacting charges.

Required Definitions
- energy (This is defined at the beginning of Chapter 1 Lesson 4)
- kinetic energy
- potential energy
- internal energy (DE)
- electrostatic potential energy
Elaborate on the next two words together.
- system
- surroundings
Elaborate on the next two words together.
- heat
- work
- state function

Copyright 2021 Chemistry Department PSU 12 Study Guide

 Name___________________________ CHEM 110 Section_________

Chapter 1.4 Intro to energy

TYPES OF ENERGY
Definitions:
Kinetic Energy (KE) -Energy of motion Potential Energy (PE) -Stored energy
Examples:
Kinetic Energy: What is moving? Potential Energy: Where is it stored?
moving mass mass in a place where
Mechanical (mass) Mechanical
(½ mv2) a force can act
due to the interaction of
Electrical moving charge Electrostatic
charged particles
Light moving photons bonds
Chemical
molecules moving
Sound Binding Energy Atomic nucleus
uniformly
molecules moving
Heat
randomly

Unit of energy: Joule

---------------------------------------------
First Law of Thermodynamics
Law of conservation of energy
Energy can be converted from one form to another, but the total energy remains constant.
*During energy conversion, some heat is always produced

TOPIC 6 – TYPES OF ENERGY

Problem 6-1:
Work with one or two others to determine which types of energy (listed above) are involved in
the following examples. The first example is done for you.

Examples of energy
Initial energy form… … is converted to
conversion
Recharging your cell phone Chemical PE (stored in
Electricity (KE)
battery chemicals in battery)
1. ceiling light

2. automobile engine

3. toaster

4. solar cell

5. lightning

Copyright 2021 Chemistry Department PSU 13 Study Guide

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Chapter 1.4 Intro to energy

INTERNAL ENERGY, HEAT, AND WORK

Definitions:
System- Whatever you are interested in Surroundings -Everything else

All energy lost by a system under observation must be gained by the surroundings (and vice versa)
F01-4-1

Energy OUT
Energy IN

-------------------------------------------------------
Internal Energy(E) = Total Energy of system
Sum of all sources of kinetic and potential energy for a system.
The capacity to do work or transfer heat.

We can measure the change in internal energy of a system ΔEsystem by measuring the amount of
work (w) or heat (q) going into or out of the system.

Quantitative definition:
ΔE = ΔEsystem = Efinal – Einitial
ΔE = q + w where q = heat, w = work
-------------------------------------------------------

The magnitude and signs of q, w, and ΔE are very important!

Positive q Heat goes into the system.

Negative q Heat comes out of the system.
Positive w Work is done ON the system
Negative w Work is done BY the system.

To help remember the sign of an energy change, think of energy as if it were money and your
bank account is the system.

Money » energy Bank account » system

Positive ΔE: Energy into the system Money into account: Balance gets higher (more positive)
Negative ΔE: Energy out of the system Money out of account: Balance gets lower (more negative)

Copyright 2021 Chemistry Department PSU 14 Study Guide

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Chapter 1.4 Intro to energy

TOPIC 7 - INTERNAL ENERGY, HEAT, AND WORK

Problem 7.1:
A beaker of water is on a hotplate. The water is initially at 20 °C and is heated until it is 49°C.

a) What is the “system” in this situation?

b) Does energy go into or come out of the system?

c) Is ΔE positive or negative?

Problem 7-2:
What is the change in internal energy of the system (ΔE, with magnitude and sign) when 320
kJ of heat is added, and the system does 45 kJ of work? Draw a schematic diagram (like the
one above) depicting the processes first using arrows that depict the sign of q and w.

Problem 7-3:
The internal energy (ΔE) of a system decreases by 1100 J during a reaction. If the system
performed 400 J of work on the surroundings, what is the magnitude and sign of heat flow (q)?
Draw a schematic diagram depicting the processes first.

Copyright 2021 Chemistry Department PSU 15 Study Guide

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Chapter 1.4 Intro to energy

STATE FUNCTIONS
Definition:
A State Function is a property of a system whose value does not depend on the pathway used
to get to the present state: it only depends on the current state (composition, T,P), it does not
depend on past history (path or mechanism).

Why do we care?
We can measure and tabulate state functions.
We can modify the path (mechanism) to maximize the outcome.

State functions are written as uppercase letters (E, H, P, V, T, S…)

q and w are not state functions but ∆E (= q + w) is a state function

TOPIC 8 – STATE FUNCTIONS

Problem 8-1:
Consider the systems below.
System A: 50 g of water in a beaker is cooled from 99 ˚C to 25 ˚ C.
System B: 50 g of water in a beaker is warmed from 1 ˚ C to 25 ˚ C.

50 g H2O(!) 50 g H2O(!) 50 g H2O(!) 50 g H2O(!)

99 °C 25 °C 25 °C 1 °C

cool
heat

Cool the water A B Heat the water

Both beakers are open to the atmosphere. Which system has more energy?

Copyright 2021 Chemistry Department PSU 16 Study Guide

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Chapter 1.4 Intro to energy

ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

Electrostatic energy: A form of potential energy that results from the interaction of charged
particles

Equation: Coulomb’s Law E = electrostatic potential energy

Q1, Q2 = charges on particles 1 & 2
Q1Q2
E∝ d = distance between the particles
d
Electrostatic energy is proportional to the magnitude of the charges and inversely proportional to
the distance between charged particles. F01-4-2

- As the magnitude of charge increases,

the magnitude of the energy increases.
- As the distance between charges increases
the magnitude of the energy decreases.

Explore Coulomb’s Law using the eBook app

TOPIC 9 – ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

Problem 9-1:
For each pair of charged particles, indicate whether the electrostatic potential energy is positive
or negative AND whether the interaction is repulsive or attractive.

I II III

+2 +1 −2 +1 −1 +1

Problem 9-2:
Assuming the distance d is the same for all of these, rank them in order of increasing
electrostatic potential energy.

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Chapter 1.5-6 Enthalpy & Light

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of Lesson 01-5-6, you should be able to:

• Define the term Enthalpy and differentiate endothermic and exothermic process and
apply those terms appropriately to a system.
• Define the term wavelength, frequency, and photon energy.
• Explore the relationship between wavelength and frequency, between energy and
wavelength, and between energy and frequency.
• Recognize the ranges of wavelength of different regions in the electromagnetic spectrum
and rank the relative order of wavelength (frequency, photon energy) of different regions
in electromagnetic spectrum.
• Rank the relative order of colors and range of wavelength in the visible spectrum.
• Calculate the frequency or wavelength of a photon.
• Calculate the energy of a photon, a mole of photons, the total energy (or the number) of
multiple photons.

Required definitions
- enthalpy (DH)
Elaborate on the next two words together.
- exothermic
- endothermic

- Light, electromagnetic radiation

- electromagnetic radiation (wave)
- photon

Elaborate on the next two words together.

- wavelength
- frequency

Copyright 2021 Chemistry Department PSU 18 Study Guide

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Chapter 1.5 Enthalpy

ENTHALPY
There are two important types of work in chemical systems

• Work related to electrostatic attraction: w+/- = Eel (Coulomb’s Law) QQ

Eel = k 1 2
• PV work = external pressure × ΔV = PΔV d
– Work at constant P (wp) arises from expansion or contraction of the system.

Expansion at constant pressure: P

P
• Volume increase = ΔV
ΔV = Vfinal – Vinitial (positive value)
• This system does work
work done by system is negative so

wp = − PΔV at constant P
Initial state Final state

The change in energy at constant P is different from the change in energy at constant V.
What is different?

ΔE = q + w The subscript on q and w indicates the variable

that is held constant (in this case P.)
ΔE = qp + wp = qp – PΔV (P = constant)

so qp = ΔE + PΔV = ΔH = Enthalpy This is a State Function

---------------------------------------------

Definition:
Enthalpy: heat transferred at constant pressure: qp

For many chemical processes, PΔV is small and ΔE ≈ ΔH

Like ΔE, ΔH is a state function.

When heat comes out of system into surroundings = exothermic process

Adding heat to the system = endothermic process

Endothermic Exothermic

heat heat
System ----> Surroundings q is negative
Surroundings ----> System q is positive

Copyright 2021 Chemistry Department PSU 19 Study Guide

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Chapter 1.5 Enthalpy

TOPIC 10 - ENTHALPY
Definition:
Enthalpy: heat transferred at constant pressure: qp

Diagram 1: Diagram 2:

Initial Final
state state

H H

Final Initial
state state

Problem 10-1:
For the processes depicted by Diagrams 1 and 2 above:

a) What is the sign of ΔH?

b) Is heat released or absorbed?

c) Is the process exothermic or endothermic?

Problem 10-2:
Under conditions of constant pressure, a reusable heat pack is activated by squeezing it. There is
a salt inside the heat pack (the system) and the rest of the heat pack is the surroundings. The
heat pack starts at 20 °C (initial state) and heats up to 70 °C (final state). Is the process
exothermic or endothermic? Which of the diagrams above is most appropriate for this process?

Problem 10-3:
Under conditions of constant pressure, a reusable cold pack is activated by squeezing it. The
salt inside the cold pack is the system and the rest of the cold pack is the surroundings. The
cold pack starts at 20 °C (initial state) and cools down to 10 °C (final state). Is the process
exothermic or endothermic? Which of the diagrams above is most appropriate for this process?

Copyright 2021 Chemistry Department PSU 20 Study Guide

 Name___________________________ CHEM 110 Section_________

Chapter 1.6 Light Energy

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
Electromagnetic radiation (light) is a form of kinetic energy.

Light behaves as a wave!

c = λν
c = speed of light = 3.00 × 10+8 m/s

λ= wavelength = distance between peaks

ν = frequency = cycles (waves) per unit time

wavelength and frequency are inversely related.

TOPIC 11A – ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Problem 11-1:
What is the frequency of light if λ = 450 nm? Use units!

Problem 11-2:
What has a higher frequency?
A.) Visible Light (λ = 640 nm)
B.) Microwaves (λ = 12,000 nm)

Copyright 2021 Chemistry Department PSU 21 Study Guide

 Name___________________________ CHEM 110 Section_________

Chapter 1.6 Light Energy

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION (Continued)

A spectrum is the distribution of wavelengths of light absorbed or emitted by an object

Figure F01-6-2

Visible light is only a small slice of the electromagnetic spectrum between 400-750 nm

Know the common wavelength units for different types of electromagnetic radiation
Know the range of wavelengths for visible light (400 – 750 nm)
Learn these types of electromagnetic radiation and their relative ordering in l (and n)

Type of Radiation l Range (m) Units

gamma rays, x-rays <10-8 Angstrom (Å)
ultraviolet (UV), visible 10-8 – 10-6 nanometer (nm)
infrared (IR) 10-6 – 10-4 micrometer (µm)
microwave 10-4 – 10-1 millimeter (mm), centimeter (cm)
radio 100 – 104 meter (m), kilometer (km)

TOPIC 11B – ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Explore the electromagnetic spectrum

Problem 11-3:
What is the range of wavelengths for visible light?

Problem 11-4:
Does UV light have longer or shorter λ than visible?

Problem 11-5:
Rank the following ranges of light in order of increasing λ:
A.) UV
B.) IR
C.) Microwave

Copyright 2021 Chemistry Department PSU 22 Study Guide

 Name___________________________ CHEM 110 Section_________

Chapter 1.6 Light Energy

ENERGY OF PHOTONS
Light behaves as a wave! Or does it???
Several phenomena being studied in the early 1900s were inconsistent with the wave nature of
light.

- Black body radiation: radiation emitted by an object. (thermal radiation)

The distribution of radiation emitted is related to the temperature of the object. Cooler objects emit more
radiation in the infrared (lower frequencies) while hotter objects emit light at higher frequencies.

In the classical model, it is assumed that light has wave properties, but the results calculated using this
model don’t match the experiment.
Chapter 1 Lesson 6
Blackbody Use the app to explore how the distribution of
radiation emitted light changes with temperature

Max Planck explained the distribution of black body radiation by treating light as if it came in
discrete amounts or packets he called quanta. He found that the energy of these packets was
proportional to the frequency of the light:
Planck proposed: E = n hν
n = integer number of photons
ν = frequency of emitted light
h = Planck’s constant = 6.626 × 10−34 J-s

ü When light transfers energy to matter it does in discrete amounts or “packets”.

ü Today, we call these packets photons.

When a molecule interacts with light, it absorbs or emits a single photon. ΔEmolecule = Ephoton= hn
Light still behaves as a wave so c=ln
"'
Combining particle and wave nature we find: !!"#$#% = (

TOPIC 12 – ENERGY OF PHOTONS

Problem 12-1:
What is the energy of a single green photon (λ = 523 nm)? Use units!

Problem 12-2: ΔEtotal = n Ephoton= n hn

What is the energy of one mole of the green photons above? n = integer number of photons ( = # of
molecules that absorb/emit a photon)

Copyright 2021 Chemistry Department PSU 23 Study Guide

 Name___________________________ CHEM 110 Section_________

Chapter 1.7 Spectroscopy

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of Lesson 01-7 and Intro to Climate Science, you should be able to:

• Describe what happens to light when it is transmitted, emitted, absorbed and reflected.
Be able to use the color wheel to identify complementary colors.
• Illustrate the ways that energy is converted to different forms of kinetic or potential
energy when a photon is absorbed.
• Describe the processes that occur on a molecular level when photons are absorbed.
• Explain how incoming sunlight and outgoing thermal radiation from the Earth regulate
global temperatures
• interpret graphical representations of simple climate data

Required definitions

How light interacts with matter

Light interacts with matter in different ways. Define these different ways that light can
interact with matter and give an example of each. The first one is done as an example.
Definition:
Emit: to release or give off energy
Example: a light bulb gives off light; light comes out of the system
Required definitions:
- absorb
- transmit
- reflect
- diffract
Additional definitions
- radiation
- absorption spectrum
- greenhouse effect
- global warming

Copyright 2021 Chemistry Department PSU 24 Study Guide

 Name___________________________ CHEM 110 Section_________

Chapter 1.7 Spectroscopy

LIGHT
When white light interacts with matter different phenomena can occur.
Light can be:
Emitted: energy (photon) out of system (ΔE = −)
Absorbed: energy (photon) into system (ΔE = +)
Transmitted: passes through without being absorbed.
Reflected: light changes its direction, is not absorbed or transmitted.
Diffracted: light bends when it passes through a narrow opening or obstacle

The distribution of wavelengths of light absorbed or emitted by an object is called its spectrum.
“White” light contains a continuous distribution of visible (400-750 nm) wavelengths.

An instrument that measures the spectrum of light is called a spectrometer.

Figure F01-7-3

Absorbance is plotted as
a function of wavelength

A color wheel depicts the human response to missing components of the visible spectrum

The sample appears to be the complementary color of the absorbed

wavelengths. In the example above, the sample absorbs 650 to 750
nm range and appears to be green. Note that while the color wheel
is depicted with sections of equal size this is for sake of simplicity.
Based on the wavelength ranges listed, the sections are different
sizes.

The absorbance of a sample (A) depends on how many molecules

the photons encounter and the wavelength of light. Color wheel with wavelength ranges

Absorbance = A = ε ℓ c
ε = molar absorptivity coefficient
ℓ = pathlength
c= concentration of analyte

TOPIC 13 - LIGHT
Problem 13-1:
This problem is related to a demo that will be performed during lecture.
Three green objects will be available in lecture in the front of the room. How does green light interact with each of
these objects?
Green light is: emitted absorbed reflected transmitted
Paper

Solution

Light stick

Copyright 2021 Chemistry Department PSU 25 Study Guide

 Name___________________________ CHEM 110 Section_________

Chapter 1.7 Spectroscopy

SPECTROSCOPY
Spectroscopy is the study of light-matter interactions. Much of what we know about atomic and
molecular structure comes from spectroscopic data.

When an atom or molecule absorbs energy, the photon energy can be converted into different
forms of kinetic or potential energy

Forms of kinetic energy: energy due to the motion of a particle

- Translation (increase kinetic energy of particle ½ mv2)

o Directly related to temperature: increases “heat”
- Vibration (causes/increases vibrational mode)
- Rotation (causes/increase rotational mode)
o Vibrational and rotation energy can be converted to heat (translation) through collisions

Forms of potential energy: energy a substance has due to its position relative to another object

– Electron transitions (creating excited state)

– Ionizing (creating high energy ions)
– Breaking bonds (creating free radicals, non-bonded atoms)

Radiation that can break bonds or ionize is typically considered to be dangerous. High energy
radiation is more dangerous than low energy radiation

How light interacts with matter depends on the energy of its photons & thus n or l.
Photon energy
E n l

Copyright 2021 Chemistry Department PSU 26 Study Guide

 Name___________________________ CHEM 110 Section_________

Chapter 1.7 Spectroscopy

TOPIC 14 – SPECTROSCOPY
Problem 14-1:
Give examples of ways that these types of light are encountered in real-world situations. Based
on your experience, is this type of energy dangerous or not? (As an example, the entry for
visible light is already done.)

Common Is photon energy

Use & Energy: Interaction with converted into
λ potential or kinetic
Dangerous High or low? Matter (Demo!)
or Not??? energy? (PE or KE)

0.01 nm Ionizing radiation

Gamma
(small) N2+ hν→N2+ + e−

Ionizing radiation
X-Ray ~ 1 nm
O2+ hν→O2+ + e−

Breaks chemical
10 – 400 bonds
Ultraviolet
nm
O3+ hν→O2 + O

Room Heat = KE
lighting: Light Adds heat (↑ T)
In the middle of
400 -750 emitted from Translation (KE) Electronic
Visible electromagnetic
nm light bulbs Electronic transitions = PE
spectrum
NOT transitions
dangerous

enhances
Infrared μ
vibrations

enhances
Microwave mm-cm
rotations

1- 1000
Radio m Flip nuclear spin
(long)

Simulation of what happens at a molecular level when light interacts with matter.

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/molecules-and-light/latest/molecules-and-light_en.html

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 Name___________________________ CHEM 110 Section_________

Chapter 1.7 Spectroscopy

INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATE SCIENCE

Apply what we have learned about energy to global warming

The earth and the atmosphere are the system of interest. Everything else is the surroundings

Conservation of energy: If energy coming into the system (Earth + atmosphere) is equal to the
energy going out, then the global temperature will be constant.

– The Sun and Earth are thermal (black body) radiators: see F01-7-5
– The Earth’s temperature results from a balance between solar energy absorbed and radiation emitted
– Incoming solar radiation is mainly ultraviolet and visible.
– Energy radiated out by the earth is mainly infrared.

F01-7-5

F01-7-5a

before the
atmosphere

after filtering

Distribution of Radiation emitted from the sun Filtered Solar Spectrum

and earth: intensity as a function of wavelength

Energy out: Some radiation from Earth is trapped by the atmosphere: see F01-7-5 b (next
page)
Energy in: Some solar radiation is filtered out by the Earth’s atmosphere: see F01-7-5 a

TOPIC 15- CLIMATE SCIENCE

Problem 15-1: Use Figure F01-7-5 (a)
In the eBook Select the yellow peak that represents the black body radiation of the sun. Use the more detailed inset
that depicts the radiative flux of sunlight as a function of wavelength to answer question A.

A. Which type of light (region in the electromagnetic spectrum) reaches earth? What effect does this light
have on the surface? (How does this type of light interact with matter?)

B. What has to happen in order for the temperature of the earth to stay constant?

C. What type of light is radiated out from the earth?

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Chapter 1.7 Spectroscopy & Climate science

INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATE SCIENCE

Some radiation from Earth is trapped by the atmosphere: see F01-7-5 b.

In the absence of an atmosphere, earth would have a

F01-7-5b
temperature of 255 K (−18 °C)

Approx. 84% of the infrared energy is absorbed by gases in

at surface
the troposphere (mainly H2O and CO2) This is the
greenhouse effect.
escaping into
Absorption of infrared radiation: space
– Activates stretching and bending modes (vibrations)
– Keeps heat from being released back into space

As a result, Earth’s mean temperature is ~33°C higher than

it would be in the absence of an atmosphere. Energy Radiated from Earth
Earth’s mean global temperature has been ~15 °C in the past century.

TOPIC 15 – CLIMATE SCIENCE

Problem 15-2:
A. What is the greenhouse effect?

B. Explain how light interacting with matter creates this effect.

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Chapter 1.7 Spectroscopy & Climate science

GLOBAL WARMING
CO2 is one of the most important greenhouse gases, and its concentration is directly correlated
to variations in global temperatures.

Figure F01-7-7 shows the correlation

between atmospheric CO2 concentrations
and mean global temperatures for the past
800,000 years, obtained for ice core
samples.

Since the mid-1800s (after the Industrial

Revolution hit full stride), CO2 concentrations and global temperatures have been steadily rising.

The difference in mean global temperature compared to an average (or baseline) temperature is
called the temperature anomaly.

The temperature anomaly since 1880 is

plotted in figure F01-7-8.

There is a noticeable increase in the

temperature of 1 °C since 1980.
This is evidence of global warming.
Baseline years

TOPIC 16 - GLOBAL WARMING

Problem 16-1
Interpret the plot above (Figure F01-7-8).
A. Identify the x-variable. What is the range?

B. Identify the y-variable. (See the definition above.) What does the value for y = 0 mean?

C. What is different and what is similar between the black line and the gray lines with points? Use
the legend to explain these differences and similarities.

D. What is the general trend in the data? What can you conclude from this data?

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Chapter 1.7 Spectroscopy & Climate science

CLIMATE SCIENCE
What is causing this increase in global temperatures and the subsequent climate
change?

Most scientist believe that global warming and thus climate change is related to the increase in
the concentrations of greenhouse gases such as CO2 in the atmosphere.

Questions to be answered as we learn more this semester:

– Why are CO2 concentrations increasing, and what are the sources of atmospheric CO2?
– Are anthropogenic sources of CO2 creating the energy imbalance that has led to global
warming?
– Is there anything that can be done to reverse this temperature increase?

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