University of Sydney

Dr Keith Mitchell
ELEC 5203 - Topics in Power
Engineering

2. Power System Protection

 Fault Analysis: Short Circuit Studies
• The main objective of the short circuit study is to
determine the interrupting capability required for
circuit breakers at each switching location. For this
type of application, the maximum currents the
breaker may be exposed to during the three phase
balanced or single phase faults on each side of the
breaker need to be determined.
• For protective relaying design it is necessary to
determine voltages and currents for balanced and
unbalanced faults at many locations in the system.
 FAULTS, FAULT DETECTION AND
SYSTEM PROTECTION.

• No real network can be expected to perform without mishap over

its entire lifetime. There are several types of abnormal occurrences,
or faults, which can affect the performance of the system and its
ability to supply the load. There are two general classes of fault,
open circuit faults and short-circuit faults. These can affect one, two
or all three of the phases and may also include the neutral, or
ground.
• It is assumed that short circuits involve negligible impedance. This
give a conservative estimate of short-circuit current. For 3-phase
faults, it does not matter if the short circuit includes the neutral (or
ground) or not as balanced currents flow in all three phases.
What is a “Fault”?
 THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF
POWER SYSTEM FAULTS
• Lightning is one of the major causes of faults on overhead
transmissions lines:
• The insulators on transmission towers are designed to withstand
about twice the rated voltage, the lightning strike can
momentarily increase the voltage to much higher level
• Storm damage and other mechanical damage: The severe wind,
rain or snow conditions
• Bush fire: flash over on transmission lines due to the effects of
bush fire: Which was the cause and which was the effect?
 Low Voltage Arcing Faults

Fairly low current, but if not detected can cause catastrophic effects
 Effects of Short-Circuits

• Thermal. Heat energy ∝I2t. Excessive heat will soften

and melt conductors, melt and ignite insulation, cause
overhead conductors to fall down, cause fires,
explosions
• Mechanical. Forces ∝I2. Excessive forces result in
physical damage to equipment
• Safety. Heat from arcs and fires can maim or kill
people, excess fault currents can cause local potential
rise in the earth and risk of electrocution
 Short Circuit Problem Formulation
Assumptions:
• 1) Normally, all shunt elements including loads and line charging are
neglected. Loads may be represented with constant load impedance
models.
• 2) Each generator is represented by a constant voltage behind its sub-
transient reactance.
• 3) All tap changing transformers are assumed to be at their nominal
tap settings.
• 4) Balanced transmission lines are assumed. For a balanced three
phase fault only the positive sequence network is excited. For an
unbalanced fault, all three sequence networks may be excited.
• 5) The negative and positive sequence networks are normally assumed
equal and coupling between adjacent circuits is taken into account in
the zero sequence network only.
 Safety

• For the safety of switchgear and other system components, it is

essential to limit the current flow under short circuit conditions.
The maximum current any equipment can carry before
sustaining major damage is known as the rupturing capacity. It
is often related to time, as the energy flowing in a component is
related to the current and time, and the rate of heat (energy)
dissipation is also time dependant.

• It is not practical to build electrical networks so that they cannot

fail in service. When the equipment does fail, the abnormal
current flow is known as the fault current. Instead of power
being fed to the load, it is fed to the fault as it usually has much
lower impedance.
 Effects Usually Accompanying a Short
Circuit Fault:

• 1) An increase in the current flow in the circuit, often

to a level many times greater than the load current.
• 2) A reduction in voltage, usually at its lowest at the
point of fault and increasing progressively back
towards the source.
• 3) A change in the phase angle between the voltage
and the current, normally to a greater lagging angle
than that existing before the fault.
Various Types of Short-Circuit
Faults
 THREE PHASE SHORT-CIRCUITS

• In simple short-circuit studies, it is often acceptable to ignore

the resistive portion of the network impedance, as this will
lead to a conservative (over-estimation) of the fault current.
• A single generator or point of supply is assumed. The
network is then reduced to a single equivalent impedance
across a generator operating at nominal system voltage. The
equivalent impedance includes the impedances of all
equipment between the generator and the point of fault
 CALCULATION OF SHORT-CIRCUIT LEVELS IN
SIMPLE CIRCUITS

• A simple series-parallel reduction can be used, and if necessary,

star-delta conversion and vice-versa. A complex solution is not
necessary
A number of simplifying rules used:
• 1) load is ignored, the short-circuit currents far exceed the effect of
the loads. Thus, the shorted bus is connected directly to ground, and
all other busses have no load applied. In many cases this assumption
is valid.
• 2) Only the reactive components of elements are considered.
(reactance is the dominating impedance). This may not be the case
with low-voltage networks, so take care. Once the X/R ratio exceeds
about 3: 1, this assumption is reasonable What is the error if
X/R=3?
 What are “Fault Levels”?
• Strictly speaking, the maximum short-circuit currents (three-
phase, phase to phase, phase to earth) which can occur due to
a fault. Usually expressed as kA (Amps x 103)
• Often expressed in MVA. This is a pseudo-power level
(actually no power in a true short-circuit) = SS current x Line
volts x √3.

• Eg a short-circuit level of 13.1 kA on an 11kV network has a

fault level of √3 x (11k) x (13.1k) = 250 MVA
 Simple Example: Using Per Unit

• Q: If the system impedance at a fault point is

ZS, what is the fault level?
• Ans: If the “(equivalent) system impedance” is
ZS, this means it can be represented by a simple
single element of impedance ZS. In per unit
terms, the supply volts are 1.0 p.u. Thus -
Fault Level = 1/Zs (in Per Unit)
Fault Level = Pbase * 1/Zs (in MVA)
 Power System Protection Design
Severe damage and/or public safety risk (e.g. dangerous voltages,
fires, explosions) can result to a power system if a fault remains
undetected and uncorrected.
The protection system in all sections of a network must be able to:
1. Identify as fast as possible that an abnormal condition exists and
that the network is in danger (sensitivity)
2. Identify which element of the network is faulty (selectivity)
4. Remove the faulted element as quickly as is necessary to protect
the integrity of the system, but minimize the disconnection of
healthy sections of the system (selectivity)
5. Be highly reliable (dependability)

The system once disconnected, must remain disconnected until manual

inspection reveals the cause of the fault and its severity and
necessary repairs are undertaken.
 Protection Design Basics
• Protection zones must overlap
• Must be back-up protection (except for fuses), either
local or remote (upstream)
• Back-up required for both relays and circuit breakers
(but back-up must not trip before primary protection)
• Must be fast enough to avoid system instability
• Must be fast enough to limit thermal and mechanical
damage, fire risk, safety risk, etc
• Must not trip on temporary/transient overload (eg
transformer current inrush)
 Power System Protection Relays
Power system protection relays accept signals representing the fault
current and voltages (derived from measuring transducers known as
current and voltage transformers) and then analyse these signals and
send a trip signal to a circuit breaker if an abnormal condition is
detected.

The main types of relays are (for short-circuits):

• Over current
• Distance (impedance)
• Unit (differential)

Other relay types are

• Thermal, over and undervolts, Buchholz, neg’ve sequence, etc
 Types of Power System Switchgear

• Switch
• Disconnector / Isolator
– On-load / Off-load
• Circuit Breaker
• Fuse

Only fuses and circuit breakers are designed

to interrupt short-circuit currents
 Protection Relays and Circuit Breakers
• Upon detection of a fault, protection relays provide the trip signals for the
circuit breakers. These are switching devices designed to be able to carry
and interrupt safely the often very high currents, which flow during faults.
• Modern high capacity circuit breakers are capable of interrupting currents
of up to 60 000 amps at a nominal voltage of 400kV within 40
milliseconds.
• The purpose of the circuit breakers is
– To disconnect the faulty element or circuit, leaving the rest of the power
system intact
– To prevent other healthy equipment from being damaged by the fault
currents they must carry.
– To reduce damage at the point of fault, important because the less
damage caused by the fault the greater the probability of successful
repair.
Circuit Breaker and Relay Wiring
Schematic (1 of 3 phases)
 Circuit Breaker Ratings
• Rated load current – the normal load current it can
carry indefinitely without thermal damage
• Rated voltage – the rated voltage it can withstand
indefinitely without insulation breakdown
• Breaking current – the short circuit current it can safely
interrupt without damage
• Making current – the maximum short-circuity it can
close onto (assuming an upstream device can interrupt
the current)
• Eg 630A, 11000 volts, 21 kA
Load current Rated voltage Breaking current
Circuit Breaker Fault Clearance
Circuit Breaker Fault Clearance .. 2
 Circuit Breaker Types
• OIL Oil is vaporised and gas extinguishes arc
Old technology – maintenance intensive
Explosion and fire risk
• AIR Arc shute designed to lengthen arc and extinguish
Used for <1000V
Air-blast used for HV AC and DC
• SF6 Low maintenance.
Soft switching
Gas disposal issue
• VACUUM Maintenance free.
Suitable for < 36kV
Hard switching – voltage transients
Can’t monitor vacuum condition
 FUSES
• Simple, reliable, economic protection device
• Combines actions of relays and circuit breakers in one
• A metallic element melts and physically opens a circuit if
currents are too high (an over-/excess current device)
• Single action only
• Has an “inverse time” characteristic (i.e. operates faster the
higher the current)
• Operates very fast (sub-cycle) for high short circuit levels
(and thus can act as fault current limiters – see next slides)
• Usually used on local distributors
Fuse Time Characteristic
Fuse Action
 HRC Fuses
(High Rupturing Capacity)

• Encapsulated fuse with multiple elements to contain

and cool explosion. Allows higher ratings and
voltages.
• Used at low voltage and up to about 22kV
HRC Fuse
 Instrument Transformers

• Voltage (or potential) transformers, or VTs

• Current transformers or CTs

• Reduce real power quantities to quantities

measurable by instruments and relays
• Insulate instruments and personnel from very
high voltages and currents
 Voltage Transformers

• Basically like a normal transformer

• Output of 110 V is standard
• Double-wound and capacitive voltage divider
types
 CT and VT Connection

Source
To load
 Current Transformers
• Either single bar primary or double wound
• Standard of either 5 Amp or 1 Amp secondaries
• Primary is in series with load – acts like a current fed
device
• Output impedance (“burden”) must be low – short out
secondary when not in use
• Can only supply a certain secondary voltage before
iron saturates – design and impedance of relay, meters
etc is very important
• Symbol:
High Voltage
CTs
33kV single bar
primary type
CTs

Bar primary
Secondary coil

500kV “hairpin”
single bar
primary type
CTs, with SF6 CB’s
behind
 CT Excitation Characteristics

CTs can only produce a certain output voltage before the iron
saturates (“kneepoint” voltage). The circuit impedance (“burden”)
in the CT secondary should be kept as low as possible.
 OC, Fuse &
Thermal Time
Characteristics
 Overload vs Short-Circuits

• An overload is not, strictly speaking, a fault but

excessive load current
• Protection systems designed primarily to detect
and remove short-circuits only
• Thermal overload protection can be provided as
additional on sensitive devices, eg transformers,
motors, power electronics
Overcurrent Relay
Time
Characteristics
(Electro-
mechanical)
Overcurrent Relay
Time
Characteristics
(IEC)
 Overcurrent
Characteristics for
standard inverse,
very inverse and
extremely inverse
 Overcurrent
Characteristics for
different current
pick-ups
Overcurrent Intermediate Sub OC curve
Relay Time
Grading Maximum fault current
Example

Source
Source OC curve

Intermediate
Local Sub OC curve Time margins > 0.35 Sec
Note instantaneous setting
Local

Operating time margins ensures downstream (local) devices can

operate first.
Grading Example Cont’d …
 Overcurrent Relays Providing 3-phase
and Earth Fault Protection (on outgoing
star transf wdg)

Why is not a third

phase relay R R
required?
How would you
R
obtain earth fault
current if there is
no local star point
available?
 Overcurrent Relay Limitations

• Simple, cheap. Does not require a VT

• Can grade with fuses
• Only applicable to simple radial circuits
• Becomes quite slow after a few grading levels
• Too slow for transmission due to system
stability requirements
• Cannot be applied to meshed circuits – too
many grading combinations
 Impedance Relay - Operating
Principle
“Balanced beam” type relay
Voltage coil on one side, current coil on the other
If healthy, i.e. high impedance, volts are normal and current
is low, so beam is kept off
If fault, i.e. low impedance, volts are low and current
is high, so beam trips contacts
Modern relays do the impedance calculation by microprocessor

If measured impedance Z=V/I < Limit, then fault, else healthy

 Impedance
Relay -
Operating
Characteristics
Impedance Relay – Backup Zone 1,
2, and 3 Protection
 Differential Relay – Operating
Principle
I1 I2

PLANT TO BE
PROTECTED

I1 = I2 ⇒ Healthy; no trip
| I1 - I2 | > Limit ⇒ Fault; trip

“Balanced beam” type of relay – difference current trips beam;

through current restrains it.
Modern relays do the comparison by microprocessor
Differential Relay Coil Connection
 Differential Relay – Transformer
Application
• Transformation ratio has to be taken into account.
Trip if |aI1 – I2| > Limit, where a is trf. ratio (VP/VS)
• Three-phase delta-star or star-delta. The phase shift
and √3 have to be taken into account
• Allow for inrush currents – suppress tripping (2nd
harmonic restraint).
• Allow for ratio changes due to tap-changing (may
be 10-15%)
Transformer Inrush Current
-Full DC Offset
Differential Relay Set-up for Delta-Star
Transformer
 Transformer Differential Protection
Example
• 33/11 kV, star-star transformer. Rating = 25
MVA
• Standard CT ratios available are 200:5, 400:5,
600:5, 800:5, 1000:5, 1600:5, 1800:5
• Allow for 15-20% unbalance
 Transformer Differential Protection
Example .. 2
• Full–load current = 437 A/ph (33kV side),
=1312 A/ph (11kV side)
• Allow 150% overload. Choose 600:5 CT for 33kV.
• Transformation ratio = 3. Choose 1800:5 CT for 11kV side
• Set HV normal current In = 450 A say
• Set bias to 20%.
• If delta-star transformer, allow for √3 (in LV CT ratio for
old relays – Idelta = Iline/ √3; taken care of in setting for
modern relays)
“Zones” of Protection
Typical Substation Arrangement and
Protection Zones
Protection zones
HV Side

Δ Δ-Y
Transformer
∆ ∆
Y Y Y
Busbars

Circuit LV Side
breakers
 Back-up Protection
• Protection devices are themselves also not 100%
reliable, so protection has to be duplicated.
• Two forms of backup – remote (an upstream
device) or local (i.e. a duplicate protection
scheme).
• HV Transmission lines and substations have both
duplicate local and remote backup.
 Intertripping
• All “unit” (differential) schemes require
intertripping – i.e. if the CB is tripped at one
end , the CB at the other end has to be tripped
as well.
• Done by an auxiliary relay initiated by the first
protection relay, plus pilot wires down to the
relay at the remote end
 CB Fail
• Circuit breakers are also never 100% reliable,
so back up for CBs has to be provided as well.
• Can be remote (eg with O/C schemes) or local,
using intertripping and “CB Fail” relays.
• Exercise: look at the zones of protection in slide
#57. Which CBs would you inter-trip to cover
failure of CB P2 in zone 5?
 Which Relays are Used in What
Applications?
Protection Type Application Areas
Fuse Local LV distributor
It depends on HRC Fuse Major LV feeder, local HV spur line, HV
side of distribution substation
the Overcurrent and Earth Fault relay Major HV distribution feeder, backup to
transformer differential protection and
feeder impedance protection on sub-
importance Impedance relay
transmission lines
Primary protection on transmission and
of the power Differential relay
sub-transmission lines
Primary protection on large distribution
and all sub-transmission and transmission
system level transformers; large generators
Thermal Overload relay Transmission and sub-transmission level
element transformers, large motors, large
generators
being Oil Surge relay Transmission and sub-transmission level
transformers
Under and Over Volts relay Large motors, large generators
protected. Under and Over Frequency relay Large generators
Negative Sequence relay Large generators
Loss of Excitation relay Large generators
 Microprocessor (Digital) Relays
• All modern relays are of this type
• Wave shape is sampled typically at up to 20 kHz
• Many relays have multiple functions – eg impedance
plus overcurrent, differential plus overcurrent
• Setting data is prepared off-line and down-loaded
• Additional control, event data logging, metering
functions
• Many have data comms back to central location – but
protection operation is done autonomously and locally
Comparison of Electromechanical and
Digital Relays
Feature Electromechanical Digital

Reliability High High ??

Stability High High
Sensitivity / Accuracy Low High
Speed of operation Moderate High
Discrimination capability Moderate High
Multi-function No Yes
Versatile (can be used for different applications) No Yes
Flexible (multiple curves, selectable setting groups) No Yes
Maintenance intensive High Low
Self-diagnostics No Yes
Trip circuit supervision No Yes
Condition monitoring No Yes
Data communications No Yes
Control functions No Yes
Metering No Yes
Disturbance recordings No Yes
Remote operation No Yes
CT Burden High Very low
Cost Low Varies