1. Every curve in a radial distribution plot should have an integrated
area equal to one.
2. The maxima in the Radial probability density curve of ‘p’ orbitals is at
r = 0.
3. The number of probability maxima in the radial distribution function
is equal to (n– l -1).
4. In case of more than one maxima, the crest with more height (corresponding to most probable distance) should be farther from smaller crest along the plot of RDF vs ‘r’.
Problem 2/ Incorrect Statement is:
1. RDF vs ‘r’ curve of ‘s orbitals start from zero at very close to the origin while the radial probability density curves are not zero at close to the origin.
2. The distance of maximum probability for a 2p electron, is slightly
greater than that for a 2s electron.
3. In contrast to 2p curve, there is a small additional maxima in the 2s
curve, which lies at or around the maxima for a 1s orbital.
4. The distance of maximum probability for a 2p electron, is slightly less
than that for a 2s electron. CHEMISTRY ATOMIC STRUCTURE SHARAD PRATAP SINGH (“CONNOISSEUR”)
Problem 3/ Incorrect Statement is:
1. The electron in 2s orbital spends some of its time near the nucleus.
2. On the average, a 2s electron spends its time a greater distance from
the nucleus than the 1s electron.
3. For radial probability density curves, all of the ‘s’ orbital curves have non-zero values at close to r = 0, but p, d, f orbital curves start from zero.
4. For s-Orbitals the probability of finding the electron on the nucleus is
maximum.
Problem 4/ Incorrect Statement is:
1. The Probability density curves show the change of sign of radial wave function at radial node(s).
2. The Radial Distribution function curves show “no” change in sign of
radial wave function at radial node(s).
3. The Radial Distribution function curves show the change of sign of
radial wave function at radial node(s).
4. The Probability density curves show “no” change in sign of radial wave function at radial node(s).
Problem 5/ Incorrect Statement regarding plot of RDF vs “r” for orbitals
having fixed “l”, as “n” increases is:
1. The position of the principal maximum moves to larger r values.
2. The number of probability maxima remains same.
CHEMISTRY ATOMIC STRUCTURE SHARAD PRATAP SINGH (“CONNOISSEUR”) 3. The small maxima occur at or around the maxima for minimum possible orbital with given value of l.
4. Further the height of crest i.e., most probable distance (value of
probability of largest/last/principal maxima) decreases as n increases.
Problem 6/ Incorrect Statement is:
1. For fixed n, the position of the principal maxima moves to shorter r
values as l decreases.
2. For fixed n, the position of the principal maxima moves to shorter r
values as l increases.
3. (r2p)max < (r2s)max
4. (r3d)max < (r3p)max < (r3s)max
Problem 7/ The most probable distance for 3s, 3p and 3d orbitals is in
the order: 1. 3s = 3p = 3d
2. 3s < 3p < 3d
3. 3s > 3p > 3d
4. 3s < 3p > 3d
Answers-
Problem 1-Correct Statement is:
Option (1)-Every curve in a radial distribution plot should have an integrated area equal to one CHEMISTRY ATOMIC STRUCTURE SHARAD PRATAP SINGH (“CONNOISSEUR”) Option (4)-In case of more than one maxima, the crest with more height (corresponding to most probable distance) should be farther from smaller crest along the plot of RDF vs ‘r’
Problem 2-Incorrect Statement is:
Option (2)-The distance of maximum probability for a 2p electron, is slightly greater than that for a 2s electron.
Problem 3-Incorrect Statement is:
Option (4)-For s-Orbitals the probability of finding the electron on the nucleus is maximum.
Problem 4-Incorrect Statement is:
Option (3)-The Radial Distribution function curves show the change of sign of radial wave function at radial node(s). Option (4)-The Probability density curves show “no” change in sign of radial wave function at radial node(s).
Problem 5-Incorrect Statement regarding plot of RDF vs “r” for orbitals
having fixed “l”, as “n” increases is- Option (2)- The number of probability maxima remains same.
Problem 6-Incorrect Statement is:
Option (2)- For fixed n, the position of the principal maximum moves to shorter r values as l increases.
Problem 7-The most probable distance for 3s, 3p and 3d orbitals is in the order: Option (3)- 3s > 3p > 3d CHEMISTRY ATOMIC STRUCTURE SHARAD PRATAP SINGH (“CONNOISSEUR”)
CONCEPTS 1. The wave functions, ψ for the hydrogen atom depend upon the three variables r, θ, and φ and the three quantum numbers n, l, and ml. The variables give the position of the electron relative to the proton in spherical coordinates.
2. Following is the equation of radial part of corresponding wave
functions:
3. The absolute square of the wave-function, |ψ(r, θ, φ)|2 evaluated at
r, θ, and φ gives the probability density of finding the electron inside a differential volume dτ, centered at the position specified by r, θ, and φ. Hence, |ψ(r, θ, φ) |2 is called radial probability density (RPD).
4. Multiplying this probability by the area available at that distance will
give us the Radial Distribution Function (RDF) for the given electron. Radial distribution curve gives an idea about the electron density in a thick spherical shell of radius ‘dr’ at a radial distance ‘r’ from the CHEMISTRY ATOMIC STRUCTURE SHARAD PRATAP SINGH (“CONNOISSEUR”) nucleus. The concentric spherical shells of radius ‘dr’ have areas equal to the surface area of a sphere which is 4πr2 Hence the RDF is given by ψ24πr2dr. The probability of finding the electron in the spherical shell of thickness dr is equal to ‘volume of the shell x probability density’. [It is more useful to discuss the probability of finding the electron in a spherical shell between the spheres of radius (r + dr) and r. The probability of finding the electron between the shell with radius r and the shell with radius (r + dr) is called the radial probability.]
5. Radial Probability = Radial Probability Density x Volume
6. The maxima in the RPD curve of ‘s’ orbitals is very close to r = 0 (but not at r = 0) and exponentially decays to essentially zero after 5 Bohr radii.
7. All of the ‘s’ orbital RPD curves have non-zero RPD values at close to r = 0, but p, d, f RPD curves start from zero (at the origin).
8. In RDF curve, Area under curve between r1 and r1+dr = Probability of
finding e- between r1 and r1 + dr.
9. Radial probability is ALWAYS SMALL near the nucleus.
10. As the electron must be somewhere in space around the nucleus. So
the total sum of all probabilities at all distances must be 1.0 or 100% and the area under each curve will be equal to that overall probability. Hence every curve in a radial distribution plot have an integrated area equal to one. CHEMISTRY ATOMIC STRUCTURE SHARAD PRATAP SINGH (“CONNOISSEUR”) 11. The value of 4πr2ψ2dr (radial probability density functions) becomes zero at a nodal point, also known as radial node.
12. The Probability density curves show the change of sign of radial wave function (at radial node), but there’s no change in sign shown at node by Radial Distribution function curves.
13. The number of radial nodes for an orbital
= (n - l – 1), Where n = principal quantum number and l= azimuthal quantum number.
14. The number of probability maxima in the radial distribution function
is equal to (n– l).
15. To find the radius where the electron in a given orbital is most likely to be, look for a maximum in RDF curve. The maxima for each plot of RDF vs ‘r’ shows the most probable distance (r) from the nucleus for the given orbital. In case of more than one maxima, the crest with more height (corresponding to most probable distance) should be farther from smaller crest along the plot of RDF vs ‘r’. The greatest probability for the curves with greater n (for same l) progresses to distances further away from the nucleus (nucleus is at zero radius). So, a 3s-orbital is slightly larger than a 2s-orbital which is slightly larger than a 1s-orbital.
16. What feature in the RDF of ‘s orbitals cause the curves to be at zero at the origin while the radial probability density curves are not zero at close to the origin? -At small values of r, the radial distribution function values are almost zero because the small surface area for small radii modulates the high value of the radial probability density function near the nucleus. As we increase r, the surface area associated with a given value of r increases, and the r2 term causes the radial distribution function to increase even though the radial probability density is beginning to decrease. At large values of r, the exponential decay of the radial probability density outweighs the increase caused by the r2 term and hence the radial distribution function decreases after reaching maxima. CHEMISTRY ATOMIC STRUCTURE SHARAD PRATAP SINGH (“CONNOISSEUR”) 17. 1s orbital- The radial probability distribution function for the 1s orbital, initially increases with increase in distance from the nucleus and reaches a maximum at a distance very close to the nucleus and then decreases. The maximum in the curve corresponds to the distance at which the probability of finding the electron is maximum. This distance is called the radius of maximum probability or most probable distance. For 1s orbital, it is equal to 52.9 pm, same as Bohr's radius for the hydrogen atom.
18. 2s and 2p-orbitals- The radial probability distribution function curve
for 2s orbital, shows two maxima, a smaller one near the nucleus and a bigger one at a larger distance. In between these two maxima it passes through a zero value indicating -zero probability (radial node) of finding the electron at that distance. The most probable distance for a 2s electron corresponds to the value of r where we have bigger maxima. The distance of maximum probability for a 2p electron is slightly less than that for a 2s electron. However, in contrast to 2p curve, there is a small additional maxima in the 2s curve, which lies at or around the maxima for a 1s orbital. This indicates that the electron in 2s orbital spends some of its time near the nucleus. In other words, the 2s electron penetrates into the inner 1s shell and therefore, is held more tightly than the 2p electron. That is the reason why 2s electron is more stable and has lower energy than a 2p electron.
19. On the average, a 2s electron spends its time a greater distance from the nucleus than the 1s electron.
20. 3s, 3p and 3d-orbitals-For 3s orbital, there are three regions of high probability separated by two nodes. The first two peaks indicate penetration of the electrons. In a 3p-orbital, number of peaks = n – l = 3 – 1 = 2, and number of nodes = n – l – 1 =3–1–1=1 CHEMISTRY ATOMIC STRUCTURE SHARAD PRATAP SINGH (“CONNOISSEUR”)
21. The position of the principal (i.e., largest) maximum depends on n and l. For fixed “l”, as “n” increases, (a) The position of the principal maximum moves to larger r values however, (b) Number of probability maxima increases and (c) The small additional maxima occurs at or around the maxima for minimum possible orbital with given value of l. (d) Further the height of crest i.e., value of probability of largest (last or principal) maxima decreases as n increases. (e) As the “n” increases, the principal probability density maxima occur at larger distances and with lesser probability, for orbitals having same value of angular momentum. (f) E.g., the maximum probability for the 1s orbital occurs at 1 bohr (0.529 Å), for the 2s orbital the principal maxima occurs at 5.3 bohr, and for the 3s orbital the principal maxima occurs at about 13 bohr. (Similar trends are observed as the principal quantum number increases for the higher angular momentum orbitals e.g., p- type, d-type, or f-type orbitals).
23. If “n” is fixed and the “l” (angular momentum type of the orbital) increases, (a) The position of the primary maximum along the radius axis in the probability distribution (moves to shorter r values) and number of probability maxima both decreases as “l” increase. i.e., (r2p)max < (r2s)max ; (r3d)max < (r3p)max < (r3s)max (b) ‘s’ orbital has a local maximum closest to the nucleus It means the ‘s’ electron sometimes spend closely to the nucleus.
25. The most probable distance for 3s, 3p and 3d orbitals decreases in the order 3s > 3p > 3d. Hence, the 3s orbital is more extended/spread out in space than the 3p orbital which is in turn is more extended than 3d orbital but the radial distribution of 3s orbital spreads into/penetrates into the curve for 2s and 1s orbital. Similarly, the radial distribution of 3p- orbital spreads into the curve for 2p orbital and so on. This is called penetration of orbitals to inner cores. The extent of penetration decreases from s to f orbitals, i.e. s > p > d > f. This variation in the extent of penetration greatly influences the effective nuclear charge and relative energies of orbitals in multi–electron atoms.
26. Why do 3d orbitals have lesser energy than 4s orbitals in
transition metals?
The 4s orbital has a small inner radial presenc (close to nucleus), hence a 4s electron "tends to spend some time" close to the nucleus, and experience the full nuclear charge to a greater extent. We say that the 4s electron penetrates the core electrons (i.e. 1s through 3p subshells) better. It is shielded less than a 3d electron, which makes Zeff larger. Going from the 3d to the 4s orbital, the increase in Zeff dominates slightly over the increase in n, & so the energy of the 4s orbital is lower.
As atomic number increases, Zeff of both the 3d and 4s orbitals increase.
(The energy of the 4s orbital decreases more slowly than that of the 3d orbital, since the 4s orbital is relatively radially diffuse (the maximum in the radial distribution function occurs at a larger value of r). Think of it as the interaction between two point charges; if the distance between them is CHEMISTRY ATOMIC STRUCTURE SHARAD PRATAP SINGH (“CONNOISSEUR”) large, then increasing the magnitude of one point charge has a smaller effect on the potential energy.) i.e. Zeff(3d) increases faster than Zeff(4s) & there will be a crossover point where
Zeff(3d) / 3=Zeff(4s) / 4,
i.e. 3d and 4s have equal energies. Before this point, 4s < 3d, and after this point, 3d < 4s. This point lies exactly between Ca and Sc
27. NOW, you have to check and analyze following graphs carefully:
